Environ Monit Assess (2008) 137:471479

DOI 10.1007/s10661-007-9782-3

Assessing the feasibility of wastewater recycling

and treatment efficiency of wastewater treatment units
Jie-Chung Lou & Yung-Chang Lin

Received: 15 January 2007 / Accepted: 6 April 2007 / Published online: 15 May 2007
# Springer Science + Business Media B.V. 2007

Abstract Wastewater reuse can significantly reduce

environmental pollution and save the water sources.
The study selected Cheng-Ching Lake water treatment plant in southern Taiwan to discuss the
feasibility of wastewater recycling and treatment
efficiency of wastewater treatment units. The treatment units of this plant include wastewater basin,
sedimentation basin, sludge thickener and sludge
dewatering facility. In this study, the treatment
efficiency of SS and turbidity were 48.3599.68%
and 24.1599.36%, respectively, showing the significant removal efficiency of the wastewater process.
However, the removal efficiencies of NH3N, total
organic carbon (TOC) and chemical oxygen demand
(COD) are limited by wastewater treatment processes.
Because NH3N, TOC and COD of the mixing
supernatant and raw water are regulated raw water
quality standards, supernatant reuse is feasible and
workable during wastewater processes at this plant.
Overall, analytical results indicated that supernatant
reuse is feasible.
Keywords Wastewater recycling . Backwash .
Supernatant . Concentrated liquid .
Water treatment plant
J.-C. Lou (*) : Y.-C. Lin
Institute of Environmental Engineering
National Sun Yat-Sen University,
Kaohsiung 804, Taiwan
e-mail: loujc@mail.nsysu.edu.tw

Introduction
The average annual amount of distributed water per
Taiwanese resident is only one-sixth of the global
average. Therefore, water recycling and reuse become
an urgent issue in Taiwan. Wastewater accounts for
210% of the total water production in water
treatment plants (Cornwell and MacPhee 2001;
Dotremont et al. 1999; Le Gouellec et al. 2004;
Nasser et al. 2002; Vigneswaran et al. 1996).
Wastewater contains the backwash water from the
rapid sand filter and the drained muddy water from
the flocculation/sedimentation basins and the clarifier.
Reuse of such wastewater reduces water consumption
for complying with wastewater effluent standards of
water treatment plants. Supernatant reuse can significantly reduce effluent volume and achieve the goal of
total wastewater reduction.
Wastewater reuse facilities are designed and
utilized in water treatment plants in most developed
countries. Large quantities of impurities in reuse
wastewater recycled to raw water may contaminate
raw water quality and caused difficulty for subsequent
water purification processes. Generally, wastewater is
recycled and reused via direct and process reuse.
Direct reuse
Direct reuse is the most common method of recycling and
reusing wastewater in Taiwan, mainly containing reuse of
backwash water in rapid sand filters (Arora et al. 2001)

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and supernatant reuse during wastewater treatment

process. The former is to build a wastewater basin that
collects backwash wastewater from a rapid sand filter,
and then mixes with raw water for recycling. The latter
is to build a sludge thickener to concentrate the drained
muddy water from the flocculation/sedimentation basin
and backwash water from the rapid sand filter. The
supernatant of sludge thickener is mixed with raw water
for recycling, and the sludge in the bottom of sludge
thickener is then delivered to the sludge treatment
system. The cost of direct wastewater reuse is low, but
primarily depends on water quality control systems.
Once the supernatant quality fails to achieve recycling
standards, the recycle volume can be reduced or
abandoned (Edzwald and Tobiason 2002).
Process reuse
Process reuse treats the wastewater produced by
purification processes to meet raw water quality
standards for reuse. This method relies on wastewater
quality; when cost will be higher than that for raw
water and raw water will be adequate, process reuse
will be ignored.
Kaohsiung city is the largest city in southern Taiwan,
with an area of 1,536,029 km2 and a population of 1.5
million. The government-owned Taiwan Water Supply
Corp (TWSC) provides drinking water to approximately 98.94% of the population of Kaohsiung city. ChengChing Lake water treatment plant (CCLWTP) is the
major suppliers of drinking water to Kaohsiung city.
The advanced water treatment units of CCLWTP
include pre-ozonation, pellet softening, post-ozonation
and biological activated carbon (BAC) adsorption. The
pre-ozonation not only functions as a disinfectant, but
also oxidizes organic compounds, destroys algae
metabolism and alters the surface characteristics of

Fig. 1 The advanced purification units at the

CCLWTP

Environ Monit Assess (2008) 137:471479

the suspended solids to increase the follow-up removal

efficiency of the filtration process (Jekel 1998; Narkis
and Schnider 1980). The organic compounds are also
typically considered to be a precursor of disinfection
by-products (i.e., THMs and HAA5). Pellet softening,
also known as fluidizing bed crystallization, FBC, is
used as a substitute for traditional rapid mixing,
coagulation, sedimentation and sludge dewatering to
reduce the hardness of drinking water. The function of
post-ozonation oxidizes residual organic and disinfection (Siddiqui et al. 1997). The BAC bed was
designed following post-ozonation to adsorb smaller
organic compounds, and disinfection by-products
(Bouwer and Crowe 1988; Miltner et al. 1992;
Rittmann and Huck 1989; Servais et al. 1992).
Figure 1 shows the advanced purification units at
the CCLWTP.
CCLWTP provides tap water to more than half of
Kaohsiungs population (Lou et al. 2007). The
wastewater treatment units of CCLWTP include
wastewater basin, wastewater sedimentation basin,
sludge thickener and sludge dewatering facility.
Backwash water produced from the rapid sand filter
is recycled to the wastewater basin. The supernatant
of wastewater basin flows back to raw water for
recycling. The influx of concentrated liquid from the
bottom of wastewater basin and the drained muddy
water from the flocculation/sedimentation basin then
flows into the wastewater sedimentation basin for
treatment. The supernatant of wastewater sedimentation basin flows back into raw water for recycling.
The bottom concentrated liquid of wastewater sedimentation basin then flows into the sludge thickener
for dewatering. Figure 2 shows the wastewater
treatment units at the CCLWTP. Yet, the water quality
of supernatant mixed with raw water has not been
monitored. Therefore, this investigation of the water

Environ Monit Assess (2008) 137:471479

473

Fig. 2 The wastewater

treatment units at the
CCLWTP

quality during wastewater treatment processes

attempts to identify its efficiency and feasibility of
wastewater recycling.

Materials and methods

Sampling location and frequency
Six sites which include the wastewater basin, wastewater sedimentation basin and sludge thickener at the
CCLWTP (Table 1) were sampled. The four sampling
dates were Jan. 9, Feb. 13, May 15, and June 27, of
2006.

efficiency%

Assessment methods
Water quality data was analyzed to evaluate wastewater treatment efficiency and assess the feasibility of
supernatant reuse during each treatment process.
Analytical results for supernatant water quality were
used to evaluate whether recycled water quality
complies with effluent standards. Table 2 shows
effluent standards for water treatment plants in
Taiwan. Effluent standards for chemical oxygen
demand (COD) and suspended solids (SS) for water
treatment plants in Taiwan are 100 and 50 mg/L,
respectively. Table 3 shows the quantities and quality
at CCLWTP. Recycled water quantities at four
sampling times were 12,20022,410 CMD, occupied
about 3.55.7% of treated water. From the formula of
to calculate the concentration of recycled water and
raw water combined. The formula is as follow:

concentration of inflow wastewater
concentration of reused supernatant

 100%
concentration of inflow wastewater

Table 1 Sampling sites at the CCLWTP

Wastewater treatment
units

Types of wastewater

Wastewater basin

Backwash wastewater
A1
Supernatant reuse
A2
The drained muddy water of flocculation/sedimentation basin mixed with bottom concentrated A3
liquid of wastewater basin
Supernatant reuse
A4
Bottom concentrated liquid of wastewater sedimentation basin
A5
Supernatant reuse
A6

Wastewater
sedimentation basin
Sludge thickener

Sample
no.

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Environ Monit Assess (2008) 137:471479

Table 2 Effluent standards for water treatment plants (Taiwan,

2006)
Water parameters

Effluent limits

Unit

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

Suspended solids (SS)

100
50

mg/L
mg/L

Meanwhile, this study determines whether recycled

water quality complies with raw water quality standards.
Table 4 shows the raw water quality standards for
NH3N, COD and total organic carbon (TOC) in
Taiwan are 1, 25 and 4 mg/L, respectively. Thus, five
water quality parameters, SS, NH3N, TOC, turbidity
and COD, were selected as comparison indicators.
Table 5 shows standard methods used for five water
quality analyses.

Results and discussions

Analytical results
Figure 3 shows the SS concentrations during each
treatment process for the four sampling days. Analytical results indicated that the SS concentration 0.4
407.2 mg/L. Wastewater samples A3 and A5, which
came from the bottom of concentrated liquid wasteTable 3 The water quantities and quality at the CCLWTP
Items

Sampling dates
Jan. 9

Raw water quantity

(CMD)
Recycled water
quantity (CMD)
Recycled water
percentage(%)
Turbidity of raw water
(NTU)
Average TOC
concentration of raw
water
Average AmmoniaN
concentration of raw
water
Average COD
concentration of raw
water

Feb. 13 May 15 June 27

335,560 368,310 368,600 359,940

12,200

15,500

22,410

19,480

3.5

5.7

5.1

13.7

9.4

13.1

21.7

Table 4 The raw water quality standards (Taiwan, 2006)

Water quality parameters

Maximum limit

Unit

AmmoniaN (NH3N)
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
Total Organic Carbon (TOC)

1
25
4

mg/L
mg/L
mg/L

water, had a high SS concentration and large

variation. Sample A3 and A5 in the latest three and
two samplings exceeded effluent standards for SS
concentration. Based on effluent standards for water
treatment plants in Taiwan, the SS concentration
should be <50 mg/L. These two sources cannot be
discharged directly in Taiwan. Thus, whether some
wastewater may be reused as raw water is investigated.
Figure 4 shows the NH3N concentrations during
each treatment process for the four sampling days.
Results indicate that the NH3N concentration was
0.072.8 mg/L. From the four samples, the supernatants concentrations A4 (1.2 mg/L) and A6
(1.5 mg/L) collected on Feb. 13, and A6 (1.26 mg/
L) collected May 15 also exceed the maximum limit
of 1 mg/L for raw water quality standards. Since
wastewater treatment is used as a substitute for
sedimentation and sludge dewatering in wastewater
recycling, wastewater treatment units were not effective in reducing NH3N. Hence, whether supernatants
from these two sources mixed with raw water will
meet raw water quality standard is discussed later.
Figure 5 shows the TOC concentrations during
each treatment process for the four sampling days.
Analytical results indicate that the TOC concentration
Table 5 Standard methods used for five water quality analyses
Water quality
parameters

Analyzing method

suspended solid (SS)

1.13(mg/L)

0.11(mg/L as N)

7.75(mg/L)

103105C drying method

(aNIEA W210.57A)
AmmoniaN (NH3N) Ultraviolet spectrophotometer
(NIEA W448.51B)
Total organic carbon
flaming/infrared spectrophotometer
(TOC)
(NIEA W530.51C)
Turbidity
Turbidimeter method
(NIEA W219.52C)
Chemical oxygen
Dichromate reflux method (NIEA
demand (COD)
W515.53A)

Standard Methods for Water Quality Analysis, Taiwan

Environmental Protection Agency.

Environ Monit Assess (2008) 137:471479

Fig. 3 The SS concentrations during each treatment
process for the four sampling days

Fig. 4 The NH3N concentrations during each treatment process for the four
sampling days

Fig. 5 The TOC concentrations during each treatment

process for the four sampling days

475

476
Fig. 6 The turbidity values
during each treatment process for the four sampling
days

Fig. 7 The COD concentrations during each treatment process for the four
sampling days

Fig. 8 The variation in

treatment efficiency for SS
by each treatment process
for the four sampling days

Environ Monit Assess (2008) 137:471479

Environ Monit Assess (2008) 137:471479

477

Fig. 9 The variation in

treatment efficiency for
NH3N by each treatment
process for the four sampling days

was 1.8121.94 mg/L. The supernatants concentrations

with >4 mg/L TOC are as follows: A6 (4.19 mg/L),
collected on Jan. 9; A4 (7.52 mg/L) and A6 (8.61 mg/L),
collected on Feb. 13; and, A4 (9.12 mg/L) and A6
(11.41 mg/L), collected on June 27, 2006. The high
concentration of TOC was found in backwash wastewater and the bottom concentrated liquid of sedimentation as shown in Fig. 4. The ozonation treatment
process added to wastewater treatment lower the
concentration of TOC. Thus, supernatants mixed with
raw water are below raw water quality standard is
discussed later.
Figure 6 shows the turbidity values during each
treatment process for the four sampling days. Analytical results indicate that the turbidity value was 1.0
412 NTU. Wastewater samples A3 and A5, which
came from the bottom of concentrated liquid wastewater, had a high turbidity values and large variation.
Figure 7 shows the COD concentrations during
each treatment process for the four sampling days.
Fig. 10 The variation in
treatment efficiency for
TOC by each treatment
process for the four sampling days

Analytical results indicate that the COD concentration

was 3.0118.9 mg/L. Sample No. A1, A3 and A5
exceed effluent standards of 1 mg/L. These findings
indicate these wastewater constituents cannot be
discharged directly. Therefore, it is necessary to
determine whether wastewater can be reused as raw
water. Supernatant concentrations of samples A2, A4
and A6 exceeded the allowable 25 mg/L. Hence,
supernatants mixed with raw water are below raw
water quality standard will be discussed later.
Assessing treatment efficiency
Figure 8 shows the variation in treatment efficiency
for SS by each treatment process for the four
sampling days. The treatment efficiency for SS is
48.3599.68%, a satisfactory rate for SS removal.
Figure 9 shows the variation in treatment efficiency for NH3N by each treatment process for the four
sampling days. The treatment efficiency for NH3N

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Environ Monit Assess (2008) 137:471479

Fig. 11 The variation in

treatment efficiency for turbidity by each treatment
process for the four sampling days

is 41.4146.43%. The removal efficiency of the

wastewater treatment units decreased as the concentration of NH3N increased. Therefore, the ozonation
treatment step in wastewater treatment oxidizes and
removes NH3N, improving the follow-up treatment
efficiency.
Figure 10 shows the variation in treatment efficiency for TOC by each treatment process for the four
sampling days. The treatment efficiency for TOC is
91.2465.74%. For all four samplings, the treatment
efficiency for TOC removal is limited. The ozonation
treatment unit added to wastewater treatment reduces
the concentration of TOC.
Figure 11 shows the variation in treatment efficiency for turbidity by each treatment process for the
four sampling days. The treatment efficiency for
turbidity is 24.1599.36%. The treatment efficiency
for turbidity removal is obvious except wastewater
basin. Figure 12 shows the variation in treatment
efficiency for COD by each treatment process for the
four sampling days. The treatment efficiency of COD
removal during the four samplings is inconsistent.
Fig. 12 The variation in
treatment efficiency for
COD by each treatment
process for the four sampling days

Feasibility of wastewater reuse

According to maximum limits for raw water quality
standards to discuss feasibility of wastewater reused.
Analytical results for CCLWTP were compared with
those at the Fongshan traditional water chlorination
treatment plant, which is another major supplier of
drinking water to Kaohsiung city.
The concentrations of NH3N in supernatant mixed
with raw water were 0.120.14 mg/L, which is lower
than the 1.081.10 mg/L at the Fongshan traditional
water chlorination treatment plant. The mixed concentrations of NH3N were less than the 1 mg/L of the
water quality standard for drinking water.
The concentrations of TOC in supernatant mixed
with raw water were 1.221.47 mg/L, which is lower
than the 2.712.88 mg/L at the Fongshan traditional
water chlorination treatment plant. The mixed concentrations of TOC were less than the 4 mg/L of the
water quality standard for drinking water.
The concentrations of COD in supernatant mixed
with raw water were 8.6310.98 mg/L, which is lower

Environ Monit Assess (2008) 137:471479

than the 12.0613.63 mg/L at the Fongshan traditional water chlorination treatment plant. The mixed
concentrations of COD were far less than the
25 mg/L of the water quality standard for drinking
water. Therefore, the reuse of wastewater is feasible.
Conclusions and suggestions
1. The treatment efficiency of SS and turbidity are
48.3599.68% and 24.1599.36%, respectively.
Therefore, the wastewater treatment units confirm
that the SS and turbidity removal are significant
throughout the wastewater processes.
2. The removal efficiency of NH3N, TOC and
COD are limited by wastewater treatment processes. Because of wastewater treatment units is
used as a substitute for sedimentation and sludge
dewatering of wastewater recycling. Thus, wastewater treatment units were not effective in
reducing NH3N, TOC and COD. Therefore, the
ozonation treatment step in wastewater treatment
oxidizes and removes NH3N, TOC and COD
improving the follow-up treatment efficiency.
3. During wastewater treatment processes, NH3N,
TOC and COD of mixing supernatant and raw
water is regulated raw water quality standards.
Therefore, supernatant reuse is feasible and
workable during wastewater processes at the
CCLWTP.
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