CHAPTER 4: TISSUES

4.1 Tissues and Histology

Tissues: collections of specialized cells and the extracellular

substances surrounding them
o 4 primary types are epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous
tissues, classified based on the structure of the cells, the
composition of the non-cellular substances surrounding the cells
(called the extracellular matrix), and the function of the cells
Histology: microscopic study of tissues
o Biopsy: process of removing tissue samples from patients
surgically with a needle for diagnostic purposes
o Autopsy: examination of the organs of a dead body to
determine the cause of death or to study the changes caused by
a disease

4.1 Embryonic Tissue

About 13 to 14 days after fertilization, the embryonic stem cells that

give rise to a new individual form a slightly elongated disk consisting of
two layers, the ectoderm and the endoderm, with the ectoderm
migrating between the two to form the mesoderm
All 4 of the primary tissue types are derived from each of the 3 germ
layers:
o Endoderm: innermost of the three germ layers of an embryo
Forms the lining of the digestive tract and its derivatives
o Mesoderm: middle of the three germ layers of an embryo
Forms tissues such as muscle, bone, and blood vessels
o Ectoderm: outermost of the three germ layers of an embryo
Forms the skin
Neuroectoderm: becomes the nervous system
Groups of cells that break away from the
neuroectoderm during development, called neural
crest cells, give rise to parts of the peripheral
nerves, skin pigment, the medulla of the adrenal
gland, and many tissues of the face

4.2 Epithelial Tissue

Covers and protects surfaces, both outside and inside the body
Characteristics common to most types of epithelial tissue are:

o Mostly composed of cells

Consists almost entirely

of cells, with very little

extracellular matrix between them
o Covers body surfaces
Covers body surfaces and forms glands that are derived
developmentally from body surfaces
Such as the exterior surface, the lining of the
digestive and respiratory tracts, the heart and blood
vessels, and the linings of many body cavities
o Distinct cell surfaces
Most epithelial cells have one free surface, not attached
to other cells
A lateral surface attached to other epithelial cells

basal surface attached to a basement

membrane,
separating
epithelial
cells
from
underlying connective tissue
o Cell and matrix connections
Specialized cell contacts bind adjacent epithelial cells
together and to the extracellular matrix of the basement
membrane
o Nonvascular
Blood vessels in the underlying connective tissue do not
penetrate the basement membrane to reach the
epithelium
o Capable of regeneration
Retain the ability to undergo mitosis and therefore are able
to replace damaged cells
Functions of Epithelial Tissues

o Protecting underlying structures

Outer layer of the skin and the epithelium of the oral cavity
protect the underlying structures from abrasion

o Acting as a barrier
Prevents many substances from moving through it, toxic
molecules and microorganisms for instance

o Permitting the passage of substances

Epithelium allows many substances to move through it,
oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged between the air
and blood by diffusion through the epithelium in the lungs

o Secreting substances
Mucous glands, sweat glands, and the enzyme-secreting
portions of the pancreas are all composed of epithelial cells
that secrete their products onto surfaces or into ducts that
carry them to other areas of the body
o Absorbing substances
Certain epithelial tissues contain carrier proteins, which
regulate the absorption of materials
Classification of Epithelial Tissues
Classified primarily according to the number of cell layers and the shape of
the superficial cells

3 major types based on the number of cell layers

o Simple epithelium: consists of a single layer of cells,
o Stratified epithelium: consists of more than one layer of cells
o Pseudostratified columnar epithelium: modification of
simple epithelium, one layer of cells
3 types based on the shape of the epithelial cells
o Squamous: flat or scale-like
o Cuboidal: cube-shaped
o Columnar: tall and thin, similar to a column
Usually given two names, like simple squamous
o First name indicates number of layers, and the second its shape
at the free surface
o Stratified squamous epithelium can be keratinized or nonkeratinized
Keratinized: having become a structure that contains
keratin, a protein found in skin, hair, nails, and horns
Transitional epithelium: unique type of stratified that lines the
urinary bladder
o May be either cuboidal or squamous-like, depending on the
presence or absence of fluid in the organ (as in the urinary
bladder)

Functional Characteristics

Simple epithelium covers surfaces and is usually involved in diffusion

(in the lungs), filtration (in the kidneys), secretion (in glands), or
absorption (in the intestines)
Stratified epithelium serves a protective role because it is able to
hinder the selective movement of materials through the epithelium,
such as the skin, mouth, throat, esophagus, anus, and vagina
o Cells that are flat and thin filter substances and allow diffusion
o Cells that are cuboidal or columnar secrete or absorb
Pseudo-stratified columnar epithelium secretes large
amounts of mucus, lines the respiratory tract, and contains
large goblet cells, which contain abundant organelles for
synthesizing and secreting mucus
Free surfaces of epithelial tissues can be smooth or folded
o Smooth reduces friction and folded allows the cell to change
shape
o Microvilli increase absorption (intestines), and cilia move
materials across the free surface (respiratory tract and uterine
tubes)
Epithelial cells secrete glycoproteins that attach the cells to the
basement membrane and to one another
o Reinforced by desmosomes, structures with adhesive
glycoproteins
o Hemidesmosomes attach epithelial cells to the basement
membrane
o Tight junctions hold cells together and form a permeability
barrier
o An adhesion belt of glycoproteins is found just below the tight
junction, acts as a weak glue that holds cells together
o Gap junction: small, specialized contact region between cells
containing protein channels that aid intercellular communication

Glands

Secretory organs from which secretions may be released into the

blood, into a cavity, or onto a surface
Many are composed primarily of epithelium, with a supporting network
of connective tissue
o Exocrine gland: secretes to a surface or outward through a
duct
o Endocrine gland: ductless gland that secretes a hormone
internally, usually into the circulation

Hormone: substance that acts on a target tissue to

produce a specific response
Classified as unicellular or multicellular
o Goblet cells are unicellular glands
o Multicellular exocrine glands have ducts, which are simple or
compound
o The ducts can be tubular or end in small sacs (acini or alveoli)
Tubular glands can be straight or coiled
Classified according to their mode of secretion
o Merocrine glands: secrete substances as they are produced
(pancreas)
o Apocrine glands: accumulate secretions that are released
when a portion of the cell pinches off (mammary glands)
o Holocrine glands: accumulate secretions that are released
when the cell ruptures and dies (sebaceous glands)

4.3 Connective Tissue

Distinguished by its extracellular matrix, which is abundant and separates
cells
Functions of Connective Tissue

Enclosing and separating other tissues

o Sheets of connective tissue form capsules around organs, such
as the liver and kidneys
o Also forms layers that separate tissues and organs
Separate muscles, veins, arteries, and nerves from one
another
Connecting tissues to one another
o Strong cables, or bands, of connective tissue called tendons
attach muscles to bone, whereas connective tissue bands called
ligaments hold bones together
Supporting and moving parts of the body
o Bones of the skeletal system provide rigid support for the body,
and the semi-rigid cartilage supports structures such as the nose,
ears, and joint surfaces
o Joints between bones allow one part of the body to move relative
to other parts
Storing compounds
o Adipose tissue stores high-energy molecules, and bones store
minerals, such as calcium and phosphate
Cushioning and insulating

o Adipose tissue cushions and protects the tissue it surrounds and

provides an insulating layer beneath the skin that helps conserve
heat
Transporting
o Blood transports the gases, nutrients, enzymes, hormones, and
cells of the immune system throughout the body
Protecting
o Cells of the immune system and blood protect against toxins and
tissue injury, as well as against microorganisms
o Bones protect underlying structures from injury

Cells of Connective Tissue

The specialized cells of the various connective tissues produce the
extracellular matrix

Blasts: create the matrix

o Fibroblasts: cells that form fibrous connective tissue
o Chondroblasts: form cartilage
Cytes: maintain it
o Fibrocytes: maintain fibrous connective tissue
o Condrocytes: maintain cartilage
Clasts: break it down for remodeling
Connective tissue commonly contains adipose (fat) cells, mast cells,
white blood cells, macrophages, and mesenchymal cells (stem cells)
o Mast cells: commonly lie beneath membranes in loose
connective tissue and along small blood vessels of organs
Contain chemicals that are released in response to injury
and play important roles in inflammation
o White blood cells: continuously move from blood vessels into
connective tissues
Increases dramatically in response to injury or infection
o Macrophages: derived from monocytes, a type of white blood
cell
Either fixed: meaning that they do not move through the
connective tissue in which they are found
Or wandering: moving in ameboid fashion through the
connective tissue
o Platelets: function in the clotting process to reduce bleeding
from a wound
o Undifferentiated mesenchymal cells: type of adult stem cell
that persist in connective tissue
Have potential to form multiple cell types, such as
fibroblasts or smooth muscle cells, in response to injury

Extracellular Matrix
The major components of the extracellular matrix of connective tissue are
protein fibers, ground substance, and fluid

Protein fibers of the matrix have the following characteristics:

o Collagen fibers: rope-like protein of the extracellular matrix
Within fibroblasts, chains of amino acids called collagen
a-chains are synthesized, and three collagen a-chains
wind around each other to form a microscopic, ropelike
helix called a collagen molecule
Very strong and flexible but resist stretching
o Reticular fibers: very fine collagen fibers that branch to form a
network that supports other cells and tissues
Not as strong as most collagen fibers, but networks of
reticular fibers fill spaces between tissues and organs
o Elastic fibers: consist of a protein called elastin
Gives tissue an elastic quality, after being stretched, they
tend to return to their original shape
The ground substance has the following major components:
o Hyaluronic acid: gives a very slippery quality to the fluids that
contain it, good lubricant for joint cavities
o Proteoglycan aggregates: trap water, which gives tissues the
capacity to return to their original shape when compressed or
deformed
o Adhesive molecules: hold the proteoglycan aggregates
together and to structures such as plasma membranes

Connective Tissue Classifications

Classified according to the type and proportions of cells and extracellular
matrix fibers, ground substance, and fluid

Embryonic connective tissue is called mesenchyme

o Consists of irregularly shaped cells and abundant matrix, and
gives rise to adult connective tissue
Adult connective tissue consists of three types: connective tissue
proper (loose and dense), supporting connective tissue (cartilage and
bone), and fluid connective tissue (blood)
o Loose connective tissue: consists of relatively few protein
fibers that form a lacy network, with numerous spaces filled with
ground substance and fluid
Three subdivisions are areolar, adipose, and reticular

Areolar tissue: has many different cell types and a

random arrangement of protein fibers with space
between the fibers
o Fills spaces around the organs and attaches the
skin to underlying tissues
Adipose tissue: has adipocytes (fat cells) filled with
lipid and very little extracellular matrix (a few
reticular fibers)
o Functions in energy storage, insulation, and
protection
o Can be yellow or brown with brown being
specialized for generating heat
Reticular tissue: forms the framework of lymphatic
tissue such as in the spleen and lymph nodes, as well
as in bone marrow and the liver
o Dense connective tissue: has a relatively large number of
protein fibers that form thick bundles and fill nearly all of the
extracellular space
Dense regular connective tissue: composed of fibers
arranged in one direction, which provides strength in a
direction parallel to the fiber orientation
Two types exist: collagenous (tendons and most
ligaments) and elastic (ligaments of vertebrae)
Dense irregular connective tissue: has fibers organized
in many directions, which produces strength in different
directions
two types exist: collagenous (capsules of organs and
dermis of skin) and elastic (large arteries)

o Supporting connective tissue

Cartilage: firm, smooth, resilient, nonvascular connective
tissue
has a relatively rigid matrix composed of protein
fibers and proteoglycan aggregates
Major cell type is the chondrocyte, which is located
within lacunae
Three types of cartilage
o Hyaline
cartilage:
gelatinous,
glossy
cartilage tissue consisting of cartilage cells and
their matrix, contains collagen, proteoglycans,
and water

o Fibrocartilage:
compared
with
hyaline,
fibrocartilage has much thicker bundles of
collagen fibers dispersed through its matrix
Can withstand great pressure, and can be
found in the knee
o Elastic cartilage: has numerous elastic fibers
in addition to collagen and proteoglycans
dispersed throughout its matrix
Found in areas that have rigid, but elastic
properties, such as the external ears
Bone: hard connective tissue that consists of living
cells and mineralized matrix
o Strength and rigidity of the mineralized matrix
allow bones to support and protect other
tissues and organs
o Osteocytes are located within holes in the
matrix, called lacunae
o Two types of bone exist:
Spongy bone: has spaces between
trabeculae, or plates of bone and
therefore resembles a sponge
Compact bone: more solid, with almost
no space between many thin layers, or
lamellae
o Bone, unlike cartilage, has a rich blood supply

Fluid connective tissue

Blood: unusual because the matrix between the
cells is liquid, which allows it to flow rapidly through
the body
o Hemopoietic tissue: forms blood cells
Found in bone marrow, which is a of
connective tissue in the cavities of bones

4.5 Muscle Tissue

The main characteristic of muscle tissue is that it contracts, or shortens, with
a force and therefore is responsible for movement

Three types of muscle tissue, skeletal, cardiac, and smooth, are

grouped according to both structure and function

o Skeletal muscle (striated voluntary): attaches to bone and is

responsible for body movement
Cells are long and cylindrically shaped with many
peripherally located nuclei
o Cardiac muscle (striated involuntary): are cylindrical,
branching cells with a single, central nucleus, found in the heart
and is responsible for pumping blood through the circulatory
system
o Smooth muscle (non-striated involuntary): forms the walls
of hollow organs, the iris of the eye, and other structures, its cells
are spindle-shaped with a single, central nucleus

4.6 Nervous Tissue

Is found in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves and is characterized by the
ability to conduct electrical signals called action potentials and is
composed of neurons (conductive cells) and neuroglia (support cells)

Neuron: morphological and functional unit of the nervous system,

consisting of the nerve cell body, the dendrites, and the axon, also
called nerve cell
o Cell body: contains the nucleus and is the site of general cell
functions
o Dendrite: branching processes of a neuron, receives stimuli and
conducts potentials toward the cell body
o Axon: main central process of a neuron that normally conducts
action potentials away from the neuron cell body
Neuroglia: support cells of the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral
nerves
o Nourish, protect, and insulate neurons

4.7 Tissue Membranes

Membrane is a thin sheet or layer of tissue that covers a structure or lines a
cavity

Three major categories of internal membranes are:

o Mucous membrane: thin sheet consisting of epithelium and
connective tissue (lamina propria) that lines cavities that open to
the outside of the body, many contain mucous glands that
secrete mucous
o Serous membrane: thin sheet consisting of epithelium and
connective tissues that lines the cavities that do not open to the
outside of the body or contain glands but do secrete serous
fluid
Protects the internal organs from friction, and help hold
them in place
o Synovial membrane: made up of only connective tissue, line
joint cavities, and secrete a lubricating fluid
Produce synovial fluid, which is rich in hyaluronic acid,
making the joint very slippery

4.8 Tissue Damage and Inflammation

Inflammation is the response that occurs when tissues are damaged

Although many agents cause injury, such as microorganisms, cold,

heat, radiant energy, chemicals, electricity, and mechanical trauma,
the inflammatory response to all of them is similar
o The inflammatory response mobilizes the bodys defenses,
isolates and destroys microorganisms and other injurious agents,
and removes foreign materials and damaged cells so that tissue
repair can proceed
o Has five major manifestations: redness, heat, swelling, pain, and
disturbed function

4.9 Tissue Repair

The substitution of viable cells for damaged or dead cells by regeneration or
replacement

Regeneration: new cells are the same type as those that were
destroyed, and normal function is usually restored
Replacement: a new type of tissue develops that eventually produces
a scar and causes the loss of some tissue function
Cells are classified into three groups:
o Labile cells: continue to divide throughout life and can
therefore undergo regeneration

o Stable cells: do not ordinarily divide after growth is complete

but can regenerate if necessary
o Permanent cells: have a very limited ability to replicate and, if
killed, are usually replaced by a different type of cell
If the edges of the wound are close together, the wound heals by a
process called primary union and if they are not, or if tissue loss has
been extensive, the process is called secondary union
o Primary union: wound fills with blood, and a clot forms
(contains threadlike protein fibrin, which binds the edges of the
wound together)
Surface of the clot dries to form a scab, which seals the
wound and helps prevent infection
Some of the white blood cells that move into the tissue are
phagocytic cells called neutrophils
They ingest bacteria, thus helping fight infection, and
they ingest tissue debris and clear the area for repair
o They are killed in this process and can
accumulate as a mixture of dead cells and fluid
called pus
The clot is replaced by granulation tissue, which is then
converted to a scar
o Secondary union: proceeds in a similar fashion
Clot may not close the gap completely, takes longer to
regenerate and cover the wound
Much more granulation tissue forms, which leads to
wound contracture, resulting in disfiguring and
debilitating scars

4.10 Effects of Aging on Tissue

Age-related changes in tissues result from reduced rates of cell division

and changes in the extracellular fibers
Collagen fibers become less flexible and have reduced strength
Elastic fibers become fragmented and less elastic