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David Miller
David Miller
we mean
p2
K .E.
2m
p2 p p
i.e.,
the vector dot product of p with itself
Potential energy
Potential energy is defined as
energy due to position
It is usually denoted by V in quantum mechanics
even though this potential energy
in units of Joules
might be confused with the idea of voltage
in units of Joules/Coulomb
and even though we will use voltage
often in quantum mechanics
Potential energy
Since it is energy due to position
it can be written as V r
We can talk about potential
energy
if that energy only
depends on where we
are
not how we got there
Potential energy
Classical fields with this
property are called
conservative or irrotational
the change in potential
energy round any closed
path is zero
Not all fields are conservative
e.g., going round a vortex
but many are conservative
gravitational, electrostatic
M
The Hamiltonian
The total energy can be
the sum of the potential and kinetic energies
When this total energy is written as a function of
position and momentum
it can be called the (classical) Hamiltonian
For a classical particle of mass m in a
conservative potential V r
p2
H
V r
2m
Force
In classical mechanics
we often use the concept of force
Newtons second law relates force and
acceleration
F ma
where m is the mass and a is the
acceleration
Equivalently
dp
F
dt
where p is the momentum
x
Fpush x
We get a change V in
potential energy V
V Fpushx x
by exerting a force Fpushx
in the x direction up the
slope
through a distance x
Force as a vector
We can generalize the relation between
potential and force
to three dimensions
with force as a vector
by using the gradient operator
V
V
V
j
F V
i
y
z
x
Oscillations
David Miller
Mass on a spring
A simple spring will have a restoring
force F acting on the mass M
proportional to the amount y by which
it is stretched
y
For some spring constant K
F Ky
The minus sign is because this is
restoring
it is trying to pull y back towards zero
This gives a simple harmonic oscillator
Force F
Mass M
Mass on a spring
From Newtons second law
d2y
F Ma M 2 Ky
dt
2
i.e., d y K y 2 y
dt 2
M
where we define 2 K / M
we have oscillatory solutions of
angular frequency K / M
e.g.,
y sin t
angular frequency , in
radians/second = 2 f
whereSf is frequency in
Hz
Mass on a spring
From Newtons second law
d2y
F Ma M 2 Ky
dt
2
i.e., d y K y 2 y
dt 2
M
where we define 2 K / M
we have oscillatory solutions of
angular frequency K / M
e.g.,
y sin t
Mass on a spring
From Newtons second law
d2y
F Ma M 2 Ky
dt
2
i.e., d y K y 2 y
dt 2
M
where we define 2 K / M
we have oscillatory solutions of
angular frequency K / M
e.g.,
y sin t
Mass on a spring
From Newtons second law
d2y
F Ma M 2 Ky
dt
2
i.e., d y K y 2 y
dt 2
M
where we define 2 K / M
we have oscillatory solutions of
angular frequency K / M
e.g.,
y sin t
Mass on a spring
From Newtons second law
d2y
F Ma M 2 Ky
dt
2
i.e., d y K y 2 y
dt 2
M
where we define 2 K / M
we have oscillatory solutions of
angular frequency K / M
e.g.,
y sin t
Mass on a spring
From Newtons second law
d2y
F Ma M 2 Ky
dt
2
i.e., d y K y 2 y
dt 2
M
where we define 2 K / M
we have oscillatory solutions of
angular frequency K / M
e.g.,
y sin t
Mass on a spring
From Newtons second law
d2y
F Ma M 2 Ky
dt
2
i.e., d y K y 2 y
dt 2
M
where we define 2 K / M
we have oscillatory solutions of
angular frequency K / M
e.g.,
y sin t
Mass on a spring
From Newtons second law
d2y
F Ma M 2 Ky
dt
2
i.e., d y K y 2 y
dt 2
M
where we define 2 K / M
we have oscillatory solutions of
angular frequency K / M
e.g.,
y sin t
Mass on a spring
From Newtons second law
d2y
F Ma M 2 Ky
dt
2
i.e., d y K y 2 y
dt 2
M
where we define 2 K / M
we have oscillatory solutions of
angular frequency K / M
e.g.,
y sin t
Mass on a spring
From Newtons second law
d2y
F Ma M 2 Ky
dt
2
i.e., d y K y 2 y
dt 2
M
where we define 2 K / M
we have oscillatory solutions of
angular frequency K / M
e.g.,
y sin t
Mass on a spring
From Newtons second law
d2y
F Ma M 2 Ky
dt
2
i.e., d y K y 2 y
dt 2
M
where we define 2 K / M
we have oscillatory solutions of
angular frequency K / M
e.g.,
y sin t
Mass on a spring
From Newtons second law
d2y
F Ma M 2 Ky
dt
2
i.e., d y K y 2 y
dt 2
M
where we define 2 K / M
we have oscillatory solutions of
angular frequency K / M
e.g.,
y sin t
Mass on a spring
From Newtons second law
d2y
F Ma M 2 Ky
dt
2
i.e., d y K y 2 y
dt 2
M
where we define 2 K / M
we have oscillatory solutions of
angular frequency K / M
e.g.,
y sin t
Mass on a spring
From Newtons second law
d2y
F Ma M 2 Ky
dt
2
i.e., d y K y 2 y
dt 2
M
where we define 2 K / M
we have oscillatory solutions of
angular frequency K / M
e.g.,
y sin t
Mass on a spring
From Newtons second law
d2y
F Ma M 2 Ky
dt
2
i.e., d y K y 2 y
dt 2
M
where we define 2 K / M
we have oscillatory solutions of
angular frequency K / M
e.g.,
y sin t
Mass on a spring
From Newtons second law
d2y
F Ma M 2 Ky
dt
2
i.e., d y K y 2 y
dt 2
M
where we define 2 K / M
we have oscillatory solutions of
angular frequency K / M
e.g.,
y sin t
Mass on a spring
From Newtons second law
d2y
F Ma M 2 Ky
dt
2
i.e., d y K y 2 y
dt 2
M
where we define 2 K / M
we have oscillatory solutions of
angular frequency K / M
e.g.,
y sin t
Mass on a spring
From Newtons second law
d2y
F Ma M 2 Ky
dt
2
i.e., d y K y 2 y
dt 2
M
where we define 2 K / M
we have oscillatory solutions of
angular frequency K / M
e.g.,
y sin t
Mass on a spring
From Newtons second law
d2y
F Ma M 2 Ky
dt
2
i.e., d y K y 2 y
dt 2
M
where we define 2 K / M
we have oscillatory solutions of
angular frequency K / M
e.g.,
y sin t
Mass on a spring
From Newtons second law
d2y
F Ma M 2 Ky
dt
2
i.e., d y K y 2 y
dt 2
M
where we define 2 K / M
we have oscillatory solutions of
angular frequency K / M
e.g.,
y sin t
Mass on a spring
From Newtons second law
d2y
F Ma M 2 Ky
dt
2
i.e., d y K y 2 y
dt 2
M
where we define 2 K / M
we have oscillatory solutions of
angular frequency K / M
e.g.,
y sin t
Mass on a spring
From Newtons second law
d2y
F Ma M 2 Ky
dt
2
i.e., d y K y 2 y
dt 2
M
where we define 2 K / M
we have oscillatory solutions of
angular frequency K / M
e.g.,
y sin t
Mass on a spring
From Newtons second law
d2y
F Ma M 2 Ky
dt
2
i.e., d y K y 2 y
dt 2
M
where we define 2 K / M
we have oscillatory solutions of
angular frequency K / M
e.g.,
y sin t
Mass on a spring
From Newtons second law
d2y
F Ma M 2 Ky
dt
2
i.e., d y K y 2 y
dt 2
M
where we define 2 K / M
we have oscillatory solutions of
angular frequency K / M
e.g.,
y sin t
y
2
dt
is called a simple harmonic oscillator
Many examples exist
mass on a spring
in many different forms
electrical resonant circuits
Helmholtz resonators in acoustics
linear oscillators generally
David Miller
yj
j-1
z
yj
j-1
z
Fj T sin j sin j 1
yj
j-1
z
j 1
becomes
y j 1 y j y j y j 1
Fj T
z
z
y j 1 2 y j y j 1
T
yj
j-1
z
y j 1 2 y j y j 1
T z
2
z
2 y
T z 2
z
yj
j-1
z
2 y
F T z 2
z
we are saying that
the force F is proportional
to the curvature of the
string of masses
There is no net vertical
force if the masses are
in a straight line
yj
j-1
z
2 y
2 y
F m 2 z 2
t
t
yj
T
j
z
y
2 y
and
F z 2
F T z 2
t
z
gives
2 y
2 y
T z 2 z 2
z
t
2
j-1
Putting together
i.e.,
2 y 2 y
2
T t 2
z
yj
j-1
z
Rewriting
with
gives
2 y 2 y
2
T t 2
z
v2 T /
2 y 1 2 y
2 2 0
2
v t
z
Monochromatic waves
Often we are interested in waves oscillating at
one specific (angular) frequency
i.e., temporal behavior of the form
T t exp(it ), exp(it ), cos(t ), sin(t )
or any combination of these
2
2
d 2Z z
dz 2
k 2 Z z 0 where k
2
2
c2
Standing waves
An equal combination of forward and
backward waves, e.g.,
z , t sin kz t sin kz t
2cos t sin kz
where k / c
gives standing waves
E.g., for a rope tied to two walls a
distance L apart
with k 2 / L and 2 c / L
Standing waves
An equal combination of forward and
backward waves, e.g.,
z , t sin kz t sin kz t
2cos t sin kz
where k / c
gives standing waves
E.g., for a rope tied to two walls a
distance L apart
with k 2 / L and 2 c / L
Standing waves
An equal combination of forward and
backward waves, e.g.,
z , t sin kz t sin kz t
2cos t sin kz
where k / c
gives standing waves
E.g., for a rope tied to two walls a
distance L apart
with k 2 / L and 2 c / L
Standing waves
An equal combination of forward and
backward waves, e.g.,
z , t sin kz t sin kz t
2cos t sin kz
where k / c
gives standing waves
E.g., for a rope tied to two walls a
distance L apart
with k 2 / L and 2 c / L
Standing waves
An equal combination of forward and
backward waves, e.g.,
z , t sin kz t sin kz t
2cos t sin kz
where k / c
gives standing waves
E.g., for a rope tied to two walls a
distance L apart
with k 2 / L and 2 c / L
Standing waves
An equal combination of forward and
backward waves, e.g.,
z , t sin kz t sin kz t
2cos t sin kz
where k / c
gives standing waves
E.g., for a rope tied to two walls a
distance L apart
with k 2 / L and 2 c / L
Standing waves
An equal combination of forward and
backward waves, e.g.,
z , t sin kz t sin kz t
2cos t sin kz
where k / c
gives standing waves
E.g., for a rope tied to two walls a
distance L apart
with k 2 / L and 2 c / L
Standing waves
An equal combination of forward and
backward waves, e.g.,
z , t sin kz t sin kz t
2cos t sin kz
where k / c
gives standing waves
E.g., for a rope tied to two walls a
distance L apart
with k 2 / L and 2 c / L
Standing waves
An equal combination of forward and
backward waves, e.g.,
z , t sin kz t sin kz t
2cos t sin kz
where k / c
gives standing waves
E.g., for a rope tied to two walls a
distance L apart
with k 2 / L and 2 c / L
Standing waves
An equal combination of forward and
backward waves, e.g.,
z , t sin kz t sin kz t
2cos t sin kz
where k / c
gives standing waves
E.g., for a rope tied to two walls a
distance L apart
with k 2 / L and 2 c / L
Standing waves
An equal combination of forward and
backward waves, e.g.,
z , t sin kz t sin kz t
2cos t sin kz
where k / c
gives standing waves
E.g., for a rope tied to two walls a
distance L apart
with k 2 / L and 2 c / L
Standing waves
An equal combination of forward and
backward waves, e.g.,
z , t sin kz t sin kz t
2cos t sin kz
where k / c
gives standing waves
E.g., for a rope tied to two walls a
distance L apart
with k 2 / L and 2 c / L
Standing waves
An equal combination of forward and
backward waves, e.g.,
z , t sin kz t sin kz t
2cos t sin kz
where k / c
gives standing waves
E.g., for a rope tied to two walls a
distance L apart
with k 2 / L and 2 c / L
Standing waves
An equal combination of forward and
backward waves, e.g.,
z , t sin kz t sin kz t
2cos t sin kz
where k / c
gives standing waves
E.g., for a rope tied to two walls a
distance L apart
with k 2 / L and 2 c / L
Standing waves
An equal combination of forward and
backward waves, e.g.,
z , t sin kz t sin kz t
2cos t sin kz
where k / c
gives standing waves
E.g., for a rope tied to two walls a
distance L apart
with k 2 / L and 2 c / L
Standing waves
An equal combination of forward and
backward waves, e.g.,
z , t sin kz t sin kz t
2cos t sin kz
where k / c
gives standing waves
E.g., for a rope tied to two walls a
distance L apart
with k 2 / L and 2 c / L
Standing waves
An equal combination of forward and
backward waves, e.g.,
z , t sin kz t sin kz t
2cos t sin kz
where k / c
gives standing waves
E.g., for a rope tied to two walls a
distance L apart
with k 2 / L and 2 c / L
Standing waves
An equal combination of forward and
backward waves, e.g.,
z , t sin kz t sin kz t
2cos t sin kz
where k / c
gives standing waves
E.g., for a rope tied to two walls a
distance L apart
with k 2 / L and 2 c / L
Standing waves
An equal combination of forward and
backward waves, e.g.,
z , t sin kz t sin kz t
2cos t sin kz
where k / c
gives standing waves
E.g., for a rope tied to two walls a
distance L apart
with k 2 / L and 2 c / L
Standing waves
An equal combination of forward and
backward waves, e.g.,
z , t sin kz t sin kz t
2cos t sin kz
where k / c
gives standing waves
E.g., for a rope tied to two walls a
distance L apart
with k 2 / L and 2 c / L
Standing waves
An equal combination of forward and
backward waves, e.g.,
z , t sin kz t sin kz t
2cos t sin kz
where k / c
gives standing waves
E.g., for a rope tied to two walls a
distance L apart
with k 2 / L and 2 c / L