Gavions in Small Hydraulics Works

USE OF GABIONS IN SMALL HYDRAULIC WORKS
USE OF GABIONS IN SMALL

HYDRAULIC WORKS
ANNEX A
HAND MADE GABION CAGES
Table of Contents
A.6.1 - INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................. 2
A.6.2 - MATERIALS.................................................................................................................... 2
A.6.3 - MANUFACTURING........................................................................................................3
2004 Tricoli Dario www.tricardi.it
ANNEXE A - 1/9
A.6.1 - INTRODUCTION
Gabion cages can easily be assembled manually, and are therefore particularly well suited
for use in developing countries. A simple method for manufacturing gabion cages is illustrated
below. Selecting a zinc-coated wire, with mesh and selvedge of the same diameter, will facilitate
gabion cage manual fabrication tasks.
A.6.2 - MATERIALS
The wire used for building the gabion cage should be zinc-coated, to avoid a rapid
deterioration of its physical characteristics, such as ductility and strength. A zinc-coated wire of 3
mm. diameter will fit the purpose best, as 3 mm. is the maximum diameter allowing easy manual
handling, while at the same time ensuring a high resistance of the gabion mesh to external stresses.
Fig. A.6.1 - Gabion mesh loom
Fig. A.6.2 Gabion mesh loom, plan
Basic tools required for gabion cage manufacturing:

-
gabion mesh loom. It can be self-made locally without difficulty using steel beams according to
the dimension of fig. A.6.1 and A.6.2. The loom must be equipped with a special device for
holding the mesh while it is being fabricated, generally consisting of a iron/wooden bar with
two clamps at each extremity (see figure A.6.5).
bench wise for preparing the wire,
tongs for cutting the zinc-coated wire.
ANNEXE A - 2/9
A.6.3 - MANUFACTURING
The manufacture of a gabion cage is illustrated below step by step:

a - first, the wire has to be stretched and cut at the desired length, depending on the characteristics
of the mesh to be produced, as illustrated in fig. A.6.3. Then wires have to be arranged in pairs with
the utilisation of bench wise and tongs as shown in figure A.6.4,
Fig. A.6.3 Wires cutting
ANNEXE A - 3/9
Fig. A.6.4 Pairs of wires preparation

b - the wires pairs thus prepared have to be positioned on the gabion mesh loom, as shown in fig.
A.6.5 and A.6.6,
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Fig. A.6.5 Pairs of wires disposition on the loom
ANNEXE A - 5/9
Fig. A.6.6 Pairs of wires disposition on the loom

c - wires must be double twisted according to the dimensions imposed by the pivots on the
gabion mesh loom, as shown in fig. A.6.7. When a new line of mesh is completed, the iron/wooden
bar has to be removed and the loom has to be shifted back,
ANNEXE A - 6/9
Fig. A.6.7 Wires twisting

d - when the mesh has reached the required length, then exceeding wires have to bet cut and the
mesh can be removed from the loom as shown in figure A.6.8. Figure A.6.9 shows a mesh that will
be used as the central component of a gabion cage. Now lateral panels have to be fabricated
following the same procedure.
ANNEXE A - 7/9
Fig. A.6.8 Completed mesh removed from the loom
Fig. A.6.9 Completed mesh

ANNEXE A - 8/9
e - finally the gabion cage is completed by assembling the mesh prepared for the central part with
the two lateral panels, as shown in fig. A.6.10.
Fig. A.6.10 Gabion cage finally assembling

Workers endowed with a basic training will be able to carry out this method for
manufacturing gabion cages easily. At least two workers at each loom are required for assembling
the mesh. The amount of gabion cages that can be produced daily will depend on the number of
workers at each loom and on their ability. Two skilled workers can easily produce two gabion cages
per working day.
The quantity of zinc-coated wire necessary for manufacturing a gabion cage depends on the
cages dimensions. For example, about 17 Kg of 3mm. diameter wire is needed for constructing a
2x1x1 m3 gabion cage.
Figure A.6.11 shows a typical workshop setting with looms, stocks of wire, prepared mesh,
and completed folded gabion cages.
Fig. A.6.11 Gabion cages workshop

ANNEXE A - 9/9

HYDRAULIC WORKS
SECTION 1
SITE SELECTION FOR SMALL DAMS
Table of Contents
1.1 CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO USE ....................................................................... 2
1.2 CLASSIFICATION BY HYDRAULIC DESIGN (site and basin requirements)..................2
1.3 INVESTIGATION PHASE....................................................................................................2
1.1 CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO USE ....................................................................... 2
WATER SUPPLY........................................................................................................ 2
FLOOD REGULATION.............................................................................................. 3
1.2 CLASSIFICATION BY HYDRAULIC DESIGN (site and basin requirements)..................3
EARTHFILL DAMS..............................................................................................................5
GABIONS WEIRS.................................................................................................................6
EARTHFILL DIKES............................................................................................................. 6
1.3 INVESTIGATION PHASE....................................................................................................7
preliminary feasibility, .......................................................................................................... 7
preliminary site survey, ......................................................................................................... 7
feasibility,............................................................................................................................... 7
definitive project.....................................................................................................................7
Preliminary feasibility............................................................................................................ 7
Preliminary site survey...........................................................................................................8
Feasibility............................................................................................................................... 8
Definitive project....................................................................................................................8
SECTION I - 1/9
There is a considerable choice of types of hydraulic structures, and deciding which

particular one to adopt will largely depend on the uses it will be put to, and on the overall
conditions of the area where it will be installed. In choosing a structure type, the on-site availability
of building materials and the skills and experience of local workers should also be verified, with an
eye to future maintenance requirements.
The specific characteristics of each structure type should be taken into account to select a
structure that meets the demands and conditions of the particular site under consideration.
Therefore, it will be useful to provide a general classification of hydraulic works before moving on
to the analysis of the site selection procedure. In this chapter, use and hydraulic design are
introduced as two general criteria for the classification of hydraulic works. The following chapters
will mainly focus on most commonly small hydraulic works.
Once the type of hydraulic structure has been selected, further inquiries will allow us to
decide about its feasibility and design. The investigation procedure is described in the final part of
this chapter.
1.1 CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO USE
1.2 CLASSIFICATION BY HYDRAULIC DESIGN (site and basin requirements)
1.3 INVESTIGATION PHASE
1.1 CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO USE

Hydraulic works can be classified by use in three main categories, as shown in the table
below:
HYDRAULIC WORKS CLASSIFICATION
USE
SUB-CLASS
HYDRAULIC DESIGN
WATER SUPPLY
RETENTION DAMS
DIVERSION WEIR
Earthfill dams
Gabions weirs with outlet system
FLOOD REGULATION
DEBRIS/CHECK DAMS
DETENTION DAMS
WATER SPREADING DAMS
Gabions weirs
Earthfill dams with outlet system
Gabions weirs with earthfill embankment
PROTECTION OF FLOODPLAINS FROM

INUNDATION
LEVEES
Earthfill dikes
WATER SUPPLY
The first category refers to structures the main function of which is the supply of water for
human needs, livestock watering, and crop irrigation. Retention structures are generally used in
conjunction with substantial seasonal runoff variations. The required storage volume is established
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according to local water requirements and runoff fluctuations. For example, in arid and semi-arid
regions, earthfill dams are used to stock water during the rainy season, making it available for
consumption in the dry season. Diversion weirs can only be built if the runoff rate tends to be
constant throughout the year.
FLOOD REGULATION
Hydraulic works for flood regulation are structures used to control water runoff effects,
mitigating erosion phenomena. Debris and check dams are built on small streams to diminish the
bed gradient and to reduce runoff transportation. In detention dams, the runoff is stored only
temporarily, to be gradually released through an outlet system. Water spreading dams are used to
build up the streambed causing floodplain inundation in areas where runoff overflow is an
important factor in groundwater recharge and irrigation practices.
PROTECTION OF FLOODPLAINS FROM INUNDATION
Instead, when floodplains are frequently threatened by runoff overflow or sea tides, they
have to be protected with levees to secure their utilisation.
In the majority of cases, hydraulic works can be profitably built to meet more than one
purpose. For example, a detention dam can be equipped with a small storage volume for water
supply, or a diversion dam can also be used to cause floodplain inundation.
While projecting hydraulic works, a serious effort should be made to optimise locally
available water resources, especially in arid and semi-arid regions, where the latter are very scarce.
Hence, in the case of water storage structures, high evaporation rates should always be taken into
consideration, in order to prevent the loss of an important percentage of stored waters. In these
instances it might be preferable to opt for a subsurface storage system, functioning through some
artificial groundwater recharge mechanism, provided that the local environmental conditions allow
it.
Especially working in arid and semi-arid regions, one should never lose sight of the eventual
consequences that the installation of hydraulic works might generate downstream. For example,
storage or diversion dams can cause water scarcity downstream.
1.2 CLASSIFICATION BY HYDRAULIC DESIGN (site and basin requirements)
With reference to design, small hydraulic works can be divided in the following main
classes (see fig. 1.1, 1.2 an 1.3):
-
earthfill dams,
gabions weirs,
earthfill dikes.
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Fig. 1.1 - Earthfill dam
Fig. 1.2 - Gabions weir

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Fig. 1.3 - Earthfill dike

Each of these classes is briefly described below together with site and watershed main
requirements.
EARTHFILL DAMS
This class refers to earthfill embankments built on small catchment areas in order to store
water. Embankments are constructed with the rolled-fill technique. Embankment height generally
does not exceed 10-12 m and its length is less than 1 km, but minor variations may occur,
depending on the site topography.
They are generally equipped with both a spillway and an outlet system. To prevent the
structures overflow, the spillway should be designed to evacuate the maximum water-flow during
runoff events. Gabions should always be installed to protect the spillway from erosion. A pipeline
next to one of the embankment shoulders generally functions as an outlet system. It can be used in
storage dams to let water out from the reservoir, or in detention dams to release runoff water
gradually. The pipelines diameter is determined according to the amount of water it will have to
support. A gate system might be set up to control the flows rate.
The reservoir capacity is established on the basis of the purpose it will be put to and of local
runoff characteristics. It corresponds to the sum of storage and detention volumes.
Site features:
-
availability of construction materials (proper kind of earth; water availability),
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wide impounding reservoir in relation to runoff volume, with impervious substrate,
low stream transportation rates to retard reservoir sedimentation,
short distance from a frequented water point (storage dams),
soil characteristics adequate to support embankment loads and to avoid excessive water
seepage.
Watershed features:
-
basin runoff characteristics (e.g. volume, temporal variability) meeting structural requirements.
GABIONS WEIRS
Gabion weirs function as cross structures, which build up the streambed and stabilise the bed
shape. Weir height is generally limited to 2-4 m to prevent damages downstream caused by local
erosion phenomena, which could provoke the structures breakdown. During floods, depending on
runoff conditions and cross section topography, their presence might result in a lateral water
overflow, which could be avoided by building earthfill embankments on the wings. Embankments
height generally does not exceed a few meters (3-4 m).
Diversion structures are generally equipped with outlet systems, gated or non-gated, which
allow the diversion of runoff waters. Outlet systems will need to be protected against particularly
violent runoff events.
Site features:
-
availability of construction materials (stones, proper kind of earth and water for embankments
and foundations)
stream cross section allowing flow passage without giving rise to an important specific charge,
relatively straight longitudinal stream section, avoiding bank erosion downstream the structure,
wide impounding reservoir, with pervious substrate (water spreading dams),
compatibility between stream bed level and outlet level (diversion structures),
potential for series positioning along the stream (debris and check dams),
soil characteristics adequate to support structure loads.
Watershed features:
-
appropriate basin runoff characteristics (e.g. volume, temporal variability).
EARTHFILL DIKES
These are earthfill embankments built in the vicinity of stream banks to protect floodplains
from inundations. Embankment height generally does not exceed a few meters (3-4 m) and its
length can reach a few kilometres, according to site topography. They are generally endowed with a
SECTION I - 6/9
gated outlet system, to allow the passage of water between floodplains and stream, if required.
Site features:
-
availability of construction materials (proper kind of earth and water for embankments and
foundations)
site topography fitting structure purposes.
1.3 INVESTIGATION PHASE

Firstly, the type of hydraulic work must be chosen, according to the function it will have to
fulfil in the area taken into consideration. Then, further inquiries should be carried out to cover all
the aspects of structure planning, projecting and building. The investigation phase can be divided in
different steps:
preliminary feasibility,
preliminary site survey,
feasibility,
definitive project.
The following description provides a general outline of the various investigation steps: a
more detailed analysis (e.g. referring to elements of geohydrology, hydrology, geotechnics) can be
found in the next chapter.
Preliminary feasibility
The first step involves the collection of all available data that might result useful at different
phases of the project stage.
cartography, thematic mapping (geology, hydrogeology, soil usage and vegetation cover), aerial
photos, satellite images (Spot, Landsat TM, Sar, Ikonos, etc.),
hydrological data (runoff and sediment transportation), hydrogeological data (groundwater),
meteorological data (rainfall and evapotranspiration) and geological data (soils composition),
general data on population, agriculture and livestock.
We will then have to proceed to a preliminary site selection according to use and type of
structure, on the basis of the data collected during the previous research stage.
Once the site has been chosen, we will have to mark the watershed and to classify it
according to its topography, geology and drainage features. It is possible to choose among several
classification methods. Having selected the one which best suits our specific requirements we
should refer to existing data on runoff characteristics made available by previous investigations
carried out on similar watersheds.
We now have to verify if local water needs are met, on the basis of our knowledge of runoff
characteristics, and to determine if, from the data collected, it is possible to envisage any obstacle
that might occur at the building phase.
If similar hydraulic works already exist in the same area, we should examine them closely,
assessing their impact and effects on the environment.
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Preliminary site survey

If our data suggest that in the site being considered there are all the prerequisites for the
installation of a hydraulic structure, a preliminary site inspection is needed to verify if topography,
soil structure, and other relevant requirements are met.
If so, we can move on to a preliminary topographic survey of cross and longitudinal stream
sections, which will allow us to determine the structures dimensions. A preliminary soil survey is
also necessary to verify if local soil characteristics meet all the structural requirements, and if
suitable construction materials are available in the vicinities.
Feasibility
If the data collected during the preliminary site survey confirm that the site is definitely
suitable for the kind of hydraulic structure we consider building, we can deepen our analysis.
In-depth topographic and soil surveys should be carried out in all the areas that will
accommodate the structure and reservoir, in order to estimate the reservoirs capacity and to know
the soils characteristics. Prospect pits in the quarry area will provide us with data on the
characteristics of local construction materials and their available quantities. Especially with regards
to earthfill dams, it is necessary to make some soil borings in the embankments footprint to know
the depth, thickness and geotechnical features of the subsoil layers.
At this point we have to do a preliminary structure project to establish the quantity of
materials required and the means necessary to build the structure. In line with cost effectiveness and
durability concerns, it is a priority to make a project that relies on local means and materials
available on-site, and suits local topographic and geological features. For example, with regards to
earthfill dams, the spillways cost usually takes up a high percentage of the total. The presence of
favourable natural conditions, such as a saddle in the shoulder, should be established in advance and
eventually exploited to substantially reduce the spillways cost. Also water deficiency, in the
surroundings of an earthfill dam, would hinder an adequate compaction of the embankment.
In this phase it is also necessary to prepare a general work plan. For example, if a temporary
stream diversion is required during structure building, performing this costly operation can strongly
affect the overall structures costs.
We can now estimate the total costs of building the structure, which should be compared to
the benefits that could be derived from its installation. This particular kind of cost/benefit analysis
is highly delicate, as it is very difficult to quantify some effects, such as runoff retention or
groundwater recharge.
Definitive project
If all the investigations confirm that the designed hydraulic work can be conveniently built
in the chosen site, we can move on to the definitive structure project. However, before doing so, it
will be useful to complete the topographic and soil surveys started at the previous investigation
phase.
All the substructures must now be designed and verified. Firstly, all structural
characteristics, such as storage and detention volume for an earthfill dam, or weir height for a
diversion dam, must be calculated. The spillways dimensions should also be accurately calculated
at an early stage, as a very common cause for the failure of hydraulic works is the structures
overtopping caused by miscalculations of the spillways characteristics.
A topographic plan and cross section must be designed for every structure. Cross section
structures must be designed for all the appropriate load combinations and tested against hydraulic
SECTION I - 8/9
seepage. Particular specifications have to be defined prior to the installation of construction

materials, such as stone size for gabions filling and moisture content for earthfill materials.
We have to prepare a detailed work plan for each phase of the construction, trying to
optimise the utilisation of available means.
Various types of inquiry should be conducted at the same time, in order to advance our
understanding of the sites characteristics and requirements. Preliminary and progressive structure
projects have to be prepared to evaluate the works feasibility. At an early stage of our
investigations, it will be convenient to consider different solutions, as if we were carrying out
several projects at the same time. This will allow us to progressively contrast the respective costs
and benefits of different solutions, until we are able to select one of them. At this point the related
inquiries become more focused.
These investigations require various kinds of expertise. Ideally, a team of experts,
comprising at least a hydrologist, a geotechnical specialist and a hydraulic engineer, should be
formed on purpose. In developing countries it is often very difficult to gather all the data required
for projecting a small hydraulic work. Therefore, the designer will have to extrapolate the required
data from other sources.
Various types of supports will be required throughout the investigation phases, such as
general topographic survey equipment, a geo-technical kit and a computer with various software
tools. For example, a proper GIS tools will result helpful throughout the initial investigations on
watershed features, a CAD tools is necessary for the elaboration of data gathered during the
reservoir survey, and hydrological and hydraulic software tools might be useful in the estimation
of various hydraulic structures features.
The extent of the enquiries and the personnel involved should be commensurate to the
magnitude of the works to be implemented, lest preliminary studies take up a disproportionate stake
of the available funds. With reference to the procedures described above, investigations concerning
minor hydraulic works should be substantially simplified.
It is fundamental, in the final work project, to take into consideration future maintenance
concerns. In fact, it is not uncommon for minor damages left un-repaired to be at the origin of
severe structures breakdowns. This is why, starting from the design stage, great care should be
taken in minimising maintenance tasks. All aspects of ordinary maintenance should also be covered.
SECTION I - 9/9

HYDRAULIC WORKS
SECTION 2
INVESTIGATION ON BASIN
GEOMORPHOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY
Table of Contents
2.1 WATERSHED DEFINITION AND DELINEATION...........................................................3
2.2 INVESTIGATION ON BASIN MORPHOLOGY.................................................................5
BASIN SHAPE...................................................................................................................... 5
WATERSHED RELIEF.........................................................................................................7
DRAINAGE PATTERN........................................................................................................ 8
2.3 SOILS CHARACTERISTICS..............................................................................................13
2.4 RAINFALL DATA...............................................................................................................14
2.5 HYDROLOGIC INVESTIGATION.................................................................................... 17
2.6 EROSION AND SOLID TRANSPORTATION..................................................................27
2.7 EVAPORATION.................................................................................................................. 28
SECTION II - 1/28
An extensive analysis of runoff calculation procedures does not fall within the scope of this
manual, yet it will be useful to provide a general description of the hydrologic methods used to
estimate a basins runoff features. This section also illustrates the main procedures used to evaluate
watershed features and methereologic data, required in the application of hydrologic methods.
When projecting a hydraulic work it is necessary to know the runoff features of the
concerned watershed (e.g. runoff coefficient, annual flow rate and maximal runoff rate). Unless the
basin has already been gauged, these runoff characteristics will be unknown, in which case we will
have to refer to data collected on similar gauged basins in order to determine the runoff
characteristics of the watershed. Runoff features depend on several basin characteristics (e.g. basin
shape, watershed relief and drainage pattern) and on local rainfall characteristics. The soils nature
in the drainage area will also affect the watersheds reaction in the event of a rainstorm.
In hydrology, there are several ways to classify watersheds on the basis of the above
mentioned characteristics. These hydrologic methods of classification are based on wide-ranging
investigations done on several gauged watersheds. On the basis of data collected during runoff
events in gauged basins, we can establish the relation between runoff features and various
watershed characteristics (e.g. basin shape and surface, soil features...). For these classification
methods to be applied, various kinds of data on basin characteristics and rainfall features should be
available beforehand. This chapter provides a general description of the watershed features required
in the application of these classification methods. Some of the principal hydrologic methods used
for estimating runoff features (rational, IUH, U.S. S.C.S. and Orstom) will also be briefly
described.
In this section:
-
definition and delineation of a watershed;
morphological features required to classify watersheds;
soil features inquiries;
rainfall features required for hydraulic work design;
hydrologic methods;
erosion and solid transportation;
evaporation.
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2.1 WATERSHED DEFINITION AND DELINEATION

The concept of watershed is basic to all hydraulic work design. In fact, a hydraulic structure
is always positioned in a watershed outlet. With respect to the outlet, the watershed is defined as all
the land area that sheds water to the outlet during a rainstorm. A line called water divide or
watershed boundary delimits this area, joining all its outermost points. The water divide also
demarcates the separation between two different watersheds: rain falling on one side of this line
sheds to the outlet of one watershed and, conversely, rain falling on the other side sheds to the outlet
of the other watershed, as shown in figure 2.1.
Fig. 2.1 - Watershed representation

The preliminary phase of watershed delineation consists in drawing the water divide. For
doing so, we will require a topographic map of the area. Aerial photos with a proper stereoscopic
device can also be used. The different steps to draw the water divide on a topographic map are
mentioned below (see figure 2.2)
b mark the site selected for the hydraulic work (this point will be the watershed outlet),
c draw all the drainage channels which flow to the outlet,
d mark the crest of the mountains and hills which separate the chosen watershed from the
surrounding area,
e draw two lines, perpendicular to the elevation contour lines (along the maximal slope direction),
connecting the extremes of the outlet point with the two upper points (Qr, Ql),
f from one of these points, for example Qr, draw the water divide which should join all the
marked crest-points as far as the second upper point Ql. This line will mark the minimal slope
direction.
The contour obtained with the lines drawn in point e and f represent the water divide.
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e
Fig. 2.2 - Watershed delineation
If a Digital Elevation Model of the concerned area already exists, a proper GIS tool will
allow us to draw the watershed boundary automatically.
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2.2 INVESTIGATION ON BASIN MORPHOLOGY

Once the concerned watershed has been delimited, the basins morphology should be
analysed in order to determine further important basins parameters, such as :
shape,
relief,
drainage pattern.
The main parameters used to characterise the basins morphology are briefly described
below.
BASIN SHAPE
The basins reaction to a rainstorm depends, inter alia, from its shape. In fact, it can be
noticed easily that the two different watersheds shown in figure 2.3, other things being equal (such
as surface, vegetative cover, soils characteristics and basin relief), should not have the same
reaction time. We can expect the runoff of the longest watershed to be more diluted than the other.
Fig. 2.3 - Two different shapes for watershed

Several parameters have been introduced to represent watershed shape. The most commonly
used is the circularity ratio (Fc), also called Gravelius index (Icomp), given by:
Fc = 0.28 x P x S0.5
where P and S are respectively the perimeter and the area of the watershed.
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J Basin Shape
Basin shape is not usually used directly in hydrologic design methods; however, parameters that reflect basin
shape are used occasionally and have a conceptual basis, so a few words about it are in order. Watersheds have an
infinite variety of shapes, and the shape supposedly reflects the way that runoff will "bunch up" at the outlet. A circular
watershed would result in runoff from various parts of the watershed reaching the outlet at the same time. An elliptical
watershed having the outlet at one end of the major axis and having the same area as the circular watershed would cause
the runoff to be spread out over time, thus producing a smaller flood level than that of the circular watershed. The
importance of watershed shape will be more apparent after the concept of a time-area diagram is introduced and
discussed. A number of watershed parameters have been developed to reflect basin shape. The following are a few
typical parameters:
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--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------WATERSHED RELIEF
The runoff speed, overland and in drainage channels, depends to a great extent upon channel
and land slope. Therefore, a number of parameters have been developed to signal variations in
watershed relief.
The channel slope represents the slope of the watersheds main drainage channel, and can
be expressed by the following relation:
S = E / L
where E is the difference in elevation between the upper end of the channel and the outlet, and L is
the length of the channel flowing between these two points.
With regards to the watershed slope it will be necessary to introduce the notion of
hypsometric curve, which represents the relationship between elevation and watershed surface at
different elevation levels. The hypsometric curve is generally plotted as shown in figure 2.4 with
the elevation on the ordinate axis and the related surface on the abscissae axis. This curve can also
be represented in dimensionless form by plotting the cumulative fractions rather than the real
values.
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Fig. 2.4 - Hypsometric curve

An important parameter of the Orstom classification method is the slope global index (Ig)
which comprises shape, surface and relief of the watershed.
DRAINAGE PATTERN
In a rainstorm event, the reaction time of a basin also depends on the extension of the
drainage axis. Generally, the rain falling in the basin will travel some time overland before reaching
the drainage channel. The flows speed is usually inferior overland than in a channel. In a basin
with a thick drainage pattern, the rainwater will normally have to travel a short distance overland
before flowing quickly into the drainage channel. Consequently, the basins reaction time will be
shorter than in the case of a basin characterised by a scattered drainage pattern.
Several parameters have been introduced by Horton to represent the drainage pattern. The
most important among them is drainage density, i.e. the ratio of the total length of the drainage axis
to the watershed surface.
The drainage pattern is also an important indicator of soil features. A thick drainage pattern
generally corresponds to an impervious soil, whereas a pervious soil is characterised by a scattered
drainage as shown in figure 2.5 (a,b).
In arid and semi-arid regions, in conjunction with large watersheds, we commonly find the
phenomenon of endorheism. The latter refers to portions of drainage that do not reach the
watershed outlet, as shown in figure 2.5 (c). In this case, the runoff will gather in a depression to
form a pond. Alternatively, it may infiltrate into the subsoil.
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Fig. 2.5 (a,b,c) - Three watersheds with different drainage pattern

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Hortons method for drainage pattern classification
Descriptors of the Drainage Pattern
The velocity of water flowing in a channel is usually greater than the velocity of overland flow. Therefore, the travel
time of runoff for a watershed in which the overland flow length is relatively small compared with the channel flow
length would be small relative to the travel time for a watershed with a relatively long overland flow length. Thus the
speed with which the runoff gets to the channel can affect the travel time of runoff. As will be shown in a following
section, the travel time is an important input to many hydrologic design models. Thus the drainage pattern is another
indicator of the flow characteristics of storm runoff. A number of parameters have been developed to represent the
drainage pattern.
Horton's Laws
Horton developed a set of "laws" that are indicators of the geomorphological characteristics of watersheds. The stream
order is a measure of the degree of stream branching with a watershed. Each length of stream is indicated by its order
(i.e., first order, second order, etc.). A first-order stream is an unbranched tributary, and a second-order stream is a
tributary formed by two or more first-order streams. A third-order stream is formed by two or more second-order
streams, and in general, an nth-order stream is a tributary formed by two or more streams of order (n - l) th and streams
of lower order. For a watershed, the principal order is defined as the order of the principal channel (i.e., the order of the
tributary passing through the watershed outlet). The ordering of streams with a hypothetical watershed is shown in Fig.
3-9. For this case, the watershed has a principal order of 4. The concept of stream order is used to compute other
indicators of drainage character. The bifurcation ratio (Rb) is defined as the ratio of the number of streams of any order
to the number of streams of the next-lower order. Values of Rb typically range from 2 to 4. Figure 3-10 shows the same
watershed as in Fig. 3-9, but the streams of each order have been specifically delineated. Figure 3-l0a shows that there
are 17 first-order streams, with Fig. 3-l0b to d indicating 6, 2, and 1 streams of orders 2, 3, and 4, respectively. This
yields bifurcation ratios of 2.83, 3.0, and 2.0 for stream orders 1 to 2, 2 to 3, and 3 to 4, respectively, and an average
value of 2.6.
SECTION II - 9/28

Law of Stream Numbers. Horton also proposed the law of stream numbers, which relates the number of streams of
order i (Ni) to the bifurcation ratio and the principal order (k):
Ni = Rbk-1
(3-10)
For a watershed with a bifurcation ratio of 2.6 and a fourth-order principal stream, Eq. 3-10 becomes
Ni = 2.64 4-1
(3-11)
Thus the law of stream numbers would predict 18, 7, and 3 streams of order 1, 2, and 3, respectively; these agree
closely with the 17, 6, and 2 streams for the watershed of Fig. 3.9 and 3.10.
SECTION II - 10/28
Law of Stream Lengths. The law of stream lengths relates the average length of streams of order i (Li) to the stream
length ratio (rl) and the average length of first-order streams (L1):
Li= L1 rl i-1
(3-12)
where the stream length ratio is defined as the average length of streams of any order to the average length of streams of
the next-lower order.
Law of Stream Areas. The law of stream areas is similar to the law of stream lengths. Specifically, the law relates the
mean tributary area of streams of order i (Ai) to the mean drainage area of first-order basins (A1) and the stream area
ratio (ra):
Ai= A1 ra i-1
(3-13)
where the stream area ratio is the average basin area of streams of one order to the average area of basins of the nextlower order. The similarity in Eqs. 3-12 and 3-13 reflects the high correlation that exists between watershed length and
area.
Law of Stream Slopes. The law of stream slopes relates the average slope of streams of order i (Si) to the average slope
of first-order streams (S1) and the stream slope ratio (rs):
Si= S1 rs i-1
(3-14)
where the stream slope ratio is the average slope of streams of order j to the average slope of streams of the next-higher
order, j + 1.
SECTION II - 11/28
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SECTION II - 12/28
2.3 SOILS CHARACTERISTICS

Texture, structure and moisture
Vegetation cover
Rodiers classification
U.S. Soil Conservation Service
The characteristics of a watersheds soil are crucial toward the determination of runoff
features because they influence the rainfalls infiltration rates. The principal soil features
influencing the infiltration rate are texture, structure and moisture. Texture refers to the relative
fractions of mineral particles of different size classes present in a soil. In particular, the percentage
of clay in the soil significantly influences the soils infiltration rate. The tendency of soil particles to
aggregate into lumps and clods determines the soils structure. The soils structure varies according
to its texture, organic contents, and minerals present in it.
The vegetation cover also affects the soils retention volume, and consequently alters the
runoff features. The vegetation generally absorbs the first portion of rainfall and, if the basin
presents a thick vegetative cover, the amount of water retained can represent an important
percentage of the total rainfall volume. The presence of vegetation also favours the infiltration of
rainfall through the roots. The stems of grass and shrubs hinder the overland flow and consequently
retard the runoff.
Rodier proposed a qualitative classification of soils into six classes on the basis of their
infiltration rate. Rodiers classification concerns both soils features and vegetative cover.
The U.S. Soil Conservation Service proposed a very detailed classification of soils
according to three main criteria:
- hydrologic soil group,
- land use,
- treatment class.
The classification by hydrologic soil group concerns the texture and the structure of the soil.
Lands are also classified according to their utilisation into four main classes:
- fully developed urban areas,
- developing urban areas,
- cultivated agricultural land,
- non-cultivated agricultural land.
Each class is subdivided into several subclasses. Agricultural lands are also characterised by
the cultivation methods applied, in line with local agricultural practices (e.g. straight row,
conservation tillage, contour ploughing and terraces).
The application of one of the above mentioned classification methods will be greatly
simplified if a soil survey report for the concerned area already exists. Otherwise aerial photos or
satellite images will be required in order to decompose the watershed in homogeneous zones
according to soil type, utilisation, and vegetative cover. After a preliminary interpretation of aerial
photographs or satellite images, the ensuing findings should be double-checked through a soil
survey.
SECTION II - 13/28
2.4 RAINFALL DATA

Annual average rainfall
Design flood
Depth-duration-frequency curve
Thiessen method for computation of areal rainfall
Point to areal rainfall
Two are the principal rainfall features that should be taken into account before moving on to
hydraulic works design. The first one concerns the annual average rainfall. In fact, it is
fundamental to know the rainfalls variability throughout the years, and its distribution within a
single year, in order to estimate the storage volume, in case of a retention dam, or to calculate the
hydraulic characteristics of the outlet, in case of a diversion weir.
The second feature concerns the evaluation of the characteristics of a rainstorm with a
determinate return period. The return period is the average time interval between single
occurrences of a particular event, in this case a rainstorm. The rainstorms characteristics will be
used to determine the design flood.
All the rainfall features required should be deduced from precipitation data collected in
regional meteorological stations. If these data do not exist for the concerned area, it is possible to
estimate rainfall features on the basis of data collected in the stations of neighbouring regions with
characteristics, such as altitude and exposure, similar to those found in the area under consideration.
For a complete description of the methods used to collect and to process rainfall data the
reader should refer to specific works on this subject. A brief description of the principal rainfall
features required to design hydraulic works is provided below.
Before projecting a hydraulic work it is always necessary to decide about its life
expectancy, that is, the average period a structure is expected to live before any important
damage (generally caused by extraordinary floods) occurs. Then, the design flood should be
calculated as a function of a rainstorm characterised by the selected return period (life expectancy).
The spillway should be dimensioned so as to evacuate this flood. The methods used to calculate the
design flood, as a function of watershed and rainfall features, are described in the next paragraph.
The depth-duration-frequency curve describes the relationship between depth and duration
of rainfall, with a fixed return period. It can be easily derived from the analysis of rainfall data, and
it is also largely used in runoff computations. The depth-duration-frequency curve is given by:
h=axtb
where h and t represent, respectively, the depth and the duration of rainfall, and a, b are two
coefficients calculated with a suitable statistical method (e.g. Gumbel) and are a function of the
return period. A precondition for the application of these statistical methods is the availability of
precipitation data, such as rainfall depth and duration, for several (at least 15) years.
In order to estimate watersheds runoff features it is fundamental to know the rainfalls
depth relative to a specified duration, as will be described in the next paragraph.
SECTION II - 14/28
Thiessen method for computation of areal rainfall
Point to areal rainfall

Frequency analysis of precipitation over an area has not been as well developed as has
analysis of point precipitation. In the absence of information on the true probability distribution of
areal precipitation, point precipitation estimates are usually extended to develop an average
precipitation depth over an area. The areal estimate may be either storm-centered or location-fixed.
For the location-fixed case, one accounts for the fact that precipitation stations are sometimes near
the storm center, sometimes on the outer edges, and sometimes in between the two. An averaging
process results in location-fixed depth-area curves relating areal precipitation to point
measurements. Fig. l4.1.3 provides curves for calculating areal depths as percentage of point
precipitation values (world Meteorological Organisation).
Depth area relationship for various durations, such as those shown in Fig. 14.1.3, are derived
by a depth-area-duration analysis, in which isohyetal maps are prepared for each duration from the
tabulation of maximum n-hour rainfalls recorded in a densely gaged area. The area contained within
each isohyets on these maps is determined and a graph of average precipitation depth vs. area is
plotted for each duration.
SECTION II - 15/28
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The Orstom, on the basis of rainfall data collected throughout several years, prepared some geographic charts
of West Africa with isolines for daily and annual rainfall depth with a ten year return period.
All the methods used for estimating rainfalls depth provide a local peak value. But, especially in arid and
semi-arid regions, rainstorms are not uniformly distributed on the watershed. Several existing relations allow us to
estimate the value of rainfall data adapted to a particular watershed. The Orstom, for example, proposed the following
formula:
Pm10 = A x P10
whereby:
P10 :
daily rainfall depth with a ten year return period,
Pm10 : rainfall depth adapted to the drainage area,
A :
coefficient of abatement dependent on the watershed area and the mean annual rainfall depth.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SECTION II - 16/28
2.5 HYDROLOGIC INVESTIGATION

Classification of hydrologic models
Calculation of rainfall infiltration
Time-area method
Discharge hydrograph
Synthetic formulae (Rodier, Rational,
Regional statistical methods
Impoundments routing
Some hydraulic works used for water supply, such as retention dams or diversion weirs,
necessitate a separate calculation of their features, such as retention volume or weir height, as a
function of the annual runoff characteristics. For these specific calculations the reader should refer
to specialised publications. The main purpose of this paragraph is to describe the principal methods
used to calculate the design flood in order to dimension the spillway. The design flood can be
determined as a function of watershed and rainfall features. The calculation of the spillways
characteristics, such as height and width, really is the most delicate step of the design of all
hydraulic works.
The methods used to evaluate runoff characteristics vary consistently between large and
small watersheds. In fact, in small watersheds, the runoff is mainly dependent upon the actual
rainstorm. On the contrary, in large watersheds, runoff characteristics are also related to previous
rainstorms. Some hydrologic procedures for evaluating runoff characteristics in small watersheds
are described below.
Classification of hydrologic models
SECTION II - 17/28
Calculation of rainfall infiltration
Precipitation on the pervious surfaces is subject to losses. The following alternative models are to
account for the cumulative losses:
The initial and constant-rate loss model;
The deficit and constant-rate model;
The SCS curve number (CN) loss model (composite or gridded); and
The Green and Ampt loss model.
SECTION II - 18/28
Time-area method
Once net rainfall has been determined for a watershed, it then be comes a central problem of engineering hydrology to
convert net rainfall into direct surface runoff. The resulting hydrograph is basically built up from contributions of
overland flow and channel flow arriving at different times from all points in the watershed. The relative times of travel
of overland and channel flow are related to the size of the watershed; overland flow time is more significant in a small
watershed whereas time of travel in the channel predominates in a large watershed.
An interesting way to understand how rainfall excess is converted into a hydrograph is to use the concept of the timearea histogram. This method assumes that the outflow hydrograph results from pure translation of direct runoff to the
outlet, ignoring any storage effects in the watershed. If a rainfall of uniform intensity is distributed over the watershed
area, water first flows from areas immediately adjacent to the outlet, and the percentage of total area contributing
increases progressively in time. For example, in Fig. 2.6 the surface runoff from area A1( reaches the outlet first,
followed by contributions from A2, A3, and A4, in that order.
One can deduce
Qn = R1 A1 + R2 A2 + R3 A3 + R4 A4
where
Qn = hydrograph ordinate at time n (m3/s),
Ri = excess rainfall ordinate at time i (m/s),
Aj= time-area histogram ordinate at time j (m2).
(Note that the number of hyetograph ordinates need not be equal to the number of histogram ordinates.)
Runoffs from storm period R1 on A3, R2 on A2 and R3 on A1 arrive at the outlet simultaneously to produce Q3. The total
hydrograph is developed by evaluating Q1, Q2, Q3, ..., Qn.
The time-area concept provides useful insight into the surface runoff phenomena, but its application is limited because
of the difficulty of constructing isochronal lines and because the hydrograph must be further adjusted or routed to
represent storage effects in the watershed (see Example 2.2). A more general concept in actual practice is the theory of
the unit hydrograph, still recognized as one of the most important contributions to hydrology related to surface runoff
prediction. This theory, combined with infiltration methods and flood routing in stream channels and reservoirs, is
sufficient to handle input rainfall variability and storage effects in small and large watersheds. It should be noted that
the time-area method is a special case oft he unit hydrograph approach.
SECTION II - 19/28
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Discharge hydrograph
When the rain rushes into a watershed, the runoff volume can be calculated as shown in the
following expression:
V=CxSxh
whereby:
C: runoff coefficient, expressed by the ratio of the volume of runoff and the volume
of rainfall,
SECTION II - 20/28
S: watershed surface,
h: rainfall depth.
Before extrapolating the peak rate from the runoff volume, it will be helpful to introduce the
concept of discharge hydrograph. A hydrograph is a graph representing discharge rate versus time
in the outlet of the watershed. A rainstorm hydrograph is generally represented as shown in figure
2.6.
Fig. 2.6 - Discharge hydrograph - rising limb, recession curve

whereby:
qmax : maximum discharge rate
tc : time of concentration,
tb : base time.
The runoff volume is represented by the surface comprised between the hydrograph and the
abscissas axis. Now, with reference to the concept of hydrograph, a time parameter is needed to
quantify the discharge rate of the runoff volume. For this purpose, the most widely used parameter
is the time of concentration (tc). It is defined as the time necessary for a raindrop to flow from the
farthest point in the basin to the outlet.
From the definition of concentration time, it follows that the whole watershed will
contribute to the runoff in the outlet, only with rainstorm duration equal to the concentration time.
In this case the runoff discharge rate will assume the maximum value and even if the rainfall
continues, the discharge rate will tend to be constant. This is only a schematic but effective
description of the natural phenomenon of runoff formation. The key hypothesis underpinning the
theory described above is that rainstorms be uniformly distributed on the watershed and constant in
time.
The concept of concentration time is fundamental in hydraulic works design. In fact, for
calculating the spillways features, it is always necessary to refer to a rainstorm with duration equal
to the concentration time of the watershed.
Several existing expressions will allow us to compute the concentration time. To use these
formulae, we should dispose of a number of watershed features, such as watershed surface, a
SECTION II - 21/28
parameter to represent basin slope and, sometimes, another parameter to describe basin roughness.
Rodiers formula for calculating concentration time, used for small watersheds, is:
tc = a x ( S b ) 0.5 + c
where a, b and c are coefficients which depend from the global slope index and from the
permeability class of the watershed.
In some hydraulic works, runoff detention can play a determinant role in altering the
concentration time. For example, in the case of a detention dam, the concentration time of the
system composed by watershed and dam together can be doubled or tripled with respect to the
original value of the watershed alone. The rise in concentration time is a function of the
impoundments topography and of the characteristics of the outlet system. It will be necessary to
refer to the new value of the concentration time before calculating the design flood.
The principal methods used in the determination of the design flood refer to concentration
time, or to another time parameter such as the base time, that is, the total runoff duration. In the
rational method for example, the following relation expresses the maximum discharge rate:
qmax = C x ip x S
(rational method)
where ip is the rainfall intensity referred to the time of concentration and derived from the intensityduration-frequency curve
i p = a x tc k
this relationship can be obtained directly from the depth-duration-frequency curve, with k = b 1.
C is the runoff coefficient, its values are a function of land use, soil group and watershed slope.
For the calculation of a design flood with a ten-year return period, Rodier proposed the
following formula:
Q 10 = ( A x P10 x Kr10 x 10 x S ) / tb (Rodiers formula)
whereby:
A : coefficient of abatement,
P10 : rainfalls depth for a daily rainstorm,
Kr10 : runoff coefficient,
10 : peak coefficient,
S : watershed surface,
tb : base time.
The values of P10, Kr10 and 10 refer to a ten-year return period. All the coefficients of
Rodiers formula can be extrapolated from graphs obtained by processing runoff data collected on
similar basins.
The U.S. S.C.S. proposed the most detailed among all the hydrologic methods used for
estimating runoff characteristics. This method is based on a very detailed land classification system,
briefly mentioned above, in the third paragraph. An index, called curve number (CN), is associated
SECTION II - 22/28
with each land category. This index can be corrected in function of previous rainstorms (AMC =
antecedent moisture condition). The capacity of a particular type of land to provoke runoff when
interested by a rainstorm depends only from its curve number. In fact, there is a relationship
between rainfalls depth, curve number and runoff s depth.
The S.C.S. also proposed a procedure to evaluate the runoff hydrograph and, consequently,
the design flood. When a digital model for soil group, land use and treatment of the drainage area is
available, the S.C.S. method is the best suited of all the hydrologic methods mentioned above to
elaborate computations of runoff characteristics.
Further hydrologic methods largely used for calculating the discharge hydrograph are based
on the theory of Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph (IUH) proposed by Sherman. These methods are
characterised by different formulation of the parameters of IUH, the mostly common are: Nash,
Clark and Snyder.
SECTION II - 23/28
The three hydrologic methods described above (rational, Rodier and S.C.S.) can be used for
both small and medium watersheds. However, hydrologic features should be homogeneous in the
drainage area, otherwise local natural phenomena of retention or infiltration could significantly
affect runoff characteristics. In this case, these methods can give rise to miscalculations. Therefore,
it is fundamental to adopt other hydrologic methods characterised by greater detail in the
description of the phenomenon of runoff formation. These methods decompose watersheds in
several sub-basins. The runoff features of single sub-basins can be determined using the simple
SECTION II - 24/28
methods described above (rational, Rodier and S.C.S.). Then a routing procedure should be used to
calculate the runoff hydrograph at the outlet. The routing method includes also a schematic
description of the main drainage axis with detention and infiltration area.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Regional statistical methods
On the contrary, the regional analysis methods entirely leave out all schematic descriptions of the physic
phenomenon of runoff formation. They are based only on the statistical elaboration of runoff data collected in the
region. Introducing some watershed features, such as drainage area, shape and slope, with these methods it is possible
to extrapolate some runoff features, principally the design flood.
The CIEH proposed a statistical method for calculating the design flood with a ten-year return period given by
the following relation:
Q 10 = a x Ss x Panp x Igi x Kr10k x Ddd
whereby:
Q 10 : maximum flow rate,
S : watershed surface,
Pan : mean annual rainfalls depth,
Ig : global slope index,
Kr10 : runoff coefficient,
Dd : drainage density,
a, s, p, i, k and d : coefficients calculated with a method of multiple linear regression.
Rodier and the CIEH proposed specific expressions to convert, if necessary, the calculated value of design
flood from a ten year return period to a different return period.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Utilising one of the hydrologic methods described above, it is always possible to estimate
the design flood of the concerned watersheds outlet. But, especially in case of the design of
important hydraulic structures, it will be preferable to verify the value obtained for the design flood.
The verification can be performed in two principal ways.
The first way consists in estimating the maximum discharge rate that can flow in the outlet
as a function of the characteristics of the streambed (e.g. longitudinal slope, roughness, and waters
depth cross section area curve). The maximum discharge rate should then be compared to the
design flood values estimated with a hydrologic method.
For the construction of important hydraulic works, it will be useful to previously install a
station for measuring the discharge rate in the outlet of the watershed. The discharge rates thus
achieved, together with the relative rainfall depths, should then be compared to the results obtained
through the application of the hydrologic method used for estimating the design flood.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Impoundments routing
The movement of a flood wave down a channel or through a reservoir and the associated change in timing or
attenuation of the wave constitute an important topic in floodplain hydrology. It is essential to understand the theoretical
and practical aspects of flood routing to predict the temporal and spatial variations of a flood wave through a river reach
or reservoir. Flood routing methods can also be used to predict the outflow hydrograph from a watershed subjected to a
known amount of precipitation. The storage routing concept is most easily understood by referring to Fig. 4.1.
SECTION II - 25/28
Inflow and outflow hydrographs for a small level-surface reservoir have been plotted on the same graph. Area A
represents the volume of water that fills available storage up to time t1. Inflow exceeds outflow and the reservoir is
filling. At time t1, inflow and outflow are equal and the maximum storage is reached. For times exceeding t1, outflow
exceeds inflow and the reservoir empties. Area represents the volume of water that flows out of the reservoir and must
equal area A if the reservoir begins and ends at the same level. The peak of the outflow from a reservoir should intersect
the inflow hydrograph as shown in Fig. 4.1 because outflow is uniquely determined by reservoir storage or level.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SECTION II - 26/28
2.6 EROSION AND SOLID TRANSPORTATION

Production of sediment in the drainage area
Solid transportation in the drainage axis
The production of sediment is dependent on soil group-type, land use and agrarian practices
in the watershed; it is most often measured in ton / ha / year. The production of sediment is
generally provoked by artificial or natural erosion phenomena, such as local agricultural practices or
the erosive effects of rainwater. Several methods have been developed to estimate the annual
volume of sediment produced in a watershed.
The second aspect concerns the capacity of minor and major streams to transport to the
outlet the volume of sediment produced in the watershed. Several formulae can be used to calculate
the solid transportation characteristics within reach of a stream. Some stream features, such as cross
section, longitudinal slope and flow rate, should be known in advance for the computation of solid
transportation characteristics. These formulae are all based on Shields theory, and they allow us to
calculate both the volume and the particles size of solid transportation.
An excessive solid transportation can strongly reduce the storage volume of a retention dam.
If possible, in this case, it will be preferable to change site altogether. Otherwise, it will be
necessary to diminish the solid transportation with several debris dams upstream the site.
We can chose among several methods to measure the solid transportation rate in a
streambed, with the utilisation of proper sampling devices. However, it is difficult to obtain precise
measurements, as usually solid transportation phenomena take place in conjunction with severe
floods. Under such circumstances, ordinary solid transportation sampling devices cannot be used.
SECTION II - 27/28
2.7 EVAPORATION
Evaporation is caused by solar irradiation and it can also be influenced by wind conditions
and by local humidity rates. Water losses caused by evaporation in a watershed can be divided in
two different kinds:
- losses in surface water,
- losses in ground water.
To evaluate water losses caused by evaporation in an impoundment, it will be useful to
collect evaporation data from standardised basins (BAC). There are several methods to adapt these
data so as to achieve the average daily evaporation rates of other impoundments.
Due attention should be paid to evaporation losses from the impoundment in projecting a
retention dam. Especially in arid and semi-arid regions, evaporation losses represent a very
important percentage of the total storage volume.
Also the roots of trees and plants absorb water from the soil. Several existing formulae can
be used to evaluate potential evaporation losses as a function of regional meteorological features.
SECTION II - 28/28

HYDRAULIC WORKS
SECTION 3
GABION STRUCTURE DESIGN OF DAM SPILLWAY
Table of Contents
3.1 TYPE OF SPILLWAY........................................................................................................... 2
3.2 DISCHARGE CHANNEL OF THE SPILLWAY................................................................. 6
Protection of channel sides and bottom...................................................................................... 6
3.2.1 Hydraulic design............................................................................................................. 6
3.2.2 Protection of channel sides and bottom........................................................................ 13
3.3 WEIRS IN THE SPILLWAY...............................................................................................16
3.3.1 - Shape of the weirs downstream side............................................................................ 16
3.3.2 - Type of weir...................................................................................................................17
3.3.3 - Hydraulic design............................................................................................................ 18
3.3.4 - Stability analysis............................................................................................................ 30
SECTION III - 1/35
The spillway is a very important component of any hydraulic work. The spillway crests
main function consists in fixing the maximum water level upstream the structure, and preventing
water overflows. The spillway must be accurately dimensioned, so that it can evacuate the design
flow calculated for a hydraulic work.
The main procedures used for designing the structures that generally compose a spillway
(e.g. spillway channel, weirs) are briefly illustrated in this section, with reference to both hydraulic
theory and stability computation procedures. These procedures are taken from elaborate theories,
which, for the sake of simplicity, will be only briefly mentioned here. For an in-depth treatment of
these theories, readers should refer to specific publications.
The problem of runoffs restitution to the original river bed
energy dissipation
stilling basin
In natural streams, the total hydraulic energy is uniformly dissipated along the streambed.
However, if a small dam or weir is built, the energy dissipation on the dams upstream side results
substantially lower than it would be in natural conditions and the potential energy level is therefore
high. When this high hydraulic energy is dissipated downstream the structure, it could cause serious
scour problems in the streambed, unless the rise in energy created by the structures installation is
dissipated immediately beyond the structure. This can happen naturally, if the characteristics of the
streambed in question allow it, or artificially, with the creation of a stilling basin. Here, the water
flowing throughout the spillway must lose a portion of its total energy so as to reach a lower energy
level downstream, i.e. a level equal to the one it would have had in the absence of the dam or weir.
The energy dissipation that takes place as a result of the construction of a hydraulic structure
can give rise to important erosion phenomena in the streambed. Locally, this will threaten the
structures stability. Downstream, it will scour the rivers bed for a long reach. Therefore, avoiding
the negative consequences of energy dissipation is one of the principal problems to be dealt with
when designing a hydraulic work.
A common way to solve this problem consists in concentrating the energy in a
circumscribed area, called stilling basin. For the importance of its function, this area should be
carefully designed and realised.
3.1 TYPE OF SPILLWAY
Classification of spillways
There are several types of spillway design. A general classification of spillways used in
small hydraulic works is provided below. This classification focuses on the spillways position in
relation to the earthfill and to the valleys principal stream (see figure 3.1):
A at the earthfills centre, on the axis of the main stream,
B - lateral to the earthfill, out of the axis of the main stream,
C - external, out of the axis of the main streambed, discharging into a secondary side valley.
The first spillway typology (A central spillway) is characteristic of all kinds of gabion
SECTION III - 2/35
weirs (diversion weir, debris/check dams and water spreading dams). The spillway is a simple
gabion weir with a stilling basin on its downstream side. It is generally inserted in the earthfill
embankment.
The other two spillway typologies are characteristic of dams. In the first case (B side
spillway) the spillway is positioned sideways the earthfill embankment, in the second (C lateral
spillway), the spillway discharges the excess flow into a secondary lateral valley. The last solution
is the most appropriate for small dams, because its cost is generally inferior to that of the other
types. Another fundamental advantage of this spillway type (C) is the complete independence that it
realises between earthfill and spillway, the main structures composing the hydraulic work, which
can therefore be built at different moments in time. Otherwise, it would be necessary to build these
two structures simultaneously, having to cope with all the problems of works co-ordination. Finally,
this solution keeps water from flowing nearby the earthfill embankment, eventually causing
problems in the area of contact between earthfill and gabion structures, especially if these have not
been executed thoroughly.
SECTION III - 3/35
A central spillway
B side spillway
B lateral spillway
Fig. 3.1 Types of spillway (A, B and C)

The spillway is generally composed (B and C) by a channel, that carries excess water from
the impoundment to the exit, and by a drop system, for the waters restitution to the natural
streambed. In the first spillway typology (A), the channel is absent and the excess flow is directly
SECTION III - 4/35
evacuated in the drop system.

The channel is generally excavated in the natural soil, and its characteristics (i.e. shape,
slope and dimensions) have to be adequately predisposed to evacuate the design flow. The drop
system can be composed of one or more weirs, according to the entity of energy dissipation and to
the characteristics of the materials used in weirs building. Sometimes, a stilling basin is realised
downstream the weirs in order to concentrate the waters energy dissipation in this zone.
SECTION III - 5/35
3.2 DISCHARGE CHANNEL OF THE SPILLWAY

Hydraulic design
Protection of channel sides and bottom
Various kinds of problems could be avoided if the spillways discharge channel is accurately
designed. The channels principal characteristics are:
-
transversal section and longitudinal slope both apt to evacuate the design flow,
lining to prevent bank and bed erosion caused from water flowing,
protection of the bank (side slope and gutters).
The dimensions of the transversal channel section and the longitudinal slope have to be
calculated in accordance with the design flow in order to limit the waters speed. It is always
preferable to opt for a large channel with a slight slope, rather than a narrow channel with a steep
slope. Even if the first solution is somewhat more expensive to be realised, it normally proves
cheaper later, because it requires a minimal upkeep with low related maintenance costs.
If the channel beds soil materials cannot support the water flow, the channel will have to be
lined with more resistant materials. In this case, the channel bank should be protected with a small
gabions retaining wall. Gutters must be built to prevent channel bank erosion caused by the runoff
coming from upstream the hill in which the channel is built (see figure 3.2).
Fig. 3.2 - Cross section of spillway channel

3.2.1 Hydraulic design
The spillway should be commensurate to the design flow. As mentioned above, the spillway
is generally composed by a discharge channel and by a drop system: both these components have to
be dimensioned according to the design flow. The dimensioning of a drop system will be explained
in the following paragraph (3.3). Here the stream-flow computation for designing the discharge
channel will be briefly explained (U.S. Department of the Interior Bureau of Reclamation. 1987).
In an open channel, in which, by hypothesis, flow streamlines are parallel and the speeds of
all the points in a cross section are equal to the mean velocity v, waters energy consists of two
SECTION III - 6/35
components: kinetic and potential (Bedient P., Huber W. 1987). With reference to figure 3.3, the
absolute head of an open channels flow discharge is expressed by Bernoullis equation:
Ha = z + d + v2 / ( 2 x g )
(absolute head)
whereby:
z channel bottom level,
d water depth,
v mean velocity,
g gravity acceleration.
Fig. 3.3 - Flow in a channel

The energy at the channels bottom, named specific energy, is represented by the relation:
He = d + v2 / ( 2 x g )
(specific energy)
the velocity v in a open channel can be expressed by:

v=Q/
whereby:
Q discharge (volume rate of flow),
cross sectional area of flow,
then, the specific energy can also be expressed as
He = d + Q2 / ( 2 x g x 2 )
(specific energy)
It is crucial to understand this formula correctly. The relation can be plotted with respect to
the specific energy ( He ) and the water depth ( d ) axes (see figure 3.4), for different discharge ( Q )
values. The diagram shows that, for fixed discharge values Qf and specific energy Hf, there are two
possible depths d1 and d2, where d1 is related to a sub-critical flow and d2 to a super-critical flow.
SECTION III - 7/35
Fig. 3.4 Flows depth-energy relationship in the channel

Hf = d1 + v12 / ( 2 x g ) = d2 + v22 / ( 2 x g )
with
d1 < d2 and v12 > v22
It can be seen that in the supercritical flow range, the water velocity is always higher than in
the subcritical flow range. There is also a minimal specific energy ( Hm ), to which corresponds a
unique value of water depth ( dm ). When this condition occurs, the flow is named critical, as well as
all the other characteristics (i.e. depth, velocity and slope).
The key parameter used to express the discharge flow condition is the Froude number:
Fr = v / ( g x ym) 0.5
whereby ym is the average flow depth. If
Fr > 1, then the discharge flow is in supercritical conditions,
Fr < 1, then the discharge flow is in sub-critical conditions.
Establishing whether a flow falls in the supercritical or the sub-critical range is very
important. Firstly because, in small hydraulic works, all the structures should be designed, if
possible, so as to keep the flow in the sub-critical range. In fact, problems caused by waters erosion
are reduced at the sub-critical ranges lower flow speed.
Figure 3.5 shows what happens when a discharge flows in the spillway channel of an
impoundment. At the channels entrance, there is a transitional zone to which corresponds a loss of
specific energy due to entrance frictions. Simultaneously, the water starts flowing in the channel
and the energy passes from potential to kinetic. In the impoundment, the kinetic component of
specific energy is generally negligible and the specific energy line corresponds to the water level.
After the transitional zone, the discharge flow is in a uniform condition (uniform zone), with the
water level parallel to the channel bottom. In this zone, it is always preferable to keep the flow at a
SECTION III - 8/35
sub-critical level, to avoid scour problems in the channel. Otherwise, it will be necessary to line the
channel. Close to the final drop, at the end of the channel, the flows speed rises and the water level
decreases until it reaches the critical condition on the drop (transitional zone). The following
paragraph illustrates what happens beyond the drop.
Fig. 3.5 - Schematisation of a spillway channel

The design of a spillway channel should aim at minimising specific energy losses and at
limiting the waters speed to prevent scour problems. Minimising specific energy losses will allow
us to design a higher channel bottom, thus reducing the amount of earthworks. Reducing water
erosion will allow us to shield the channel bed with a simple and superficial lining (e.g. with a thin
layer of rubble and stones). If the natural soil is of a resistant quality, channel lining will not be
necessary. In order to minimise energy losses at the channel entrance, a progressively straitening
funnel-shaped entrance should be substituted to the natural entrance. If the new funnel-shaped
entrance is properly realised, specific energy losses will amount to a few centimetres only.
Where a uniform flow is achieved, after the transitional zone, the usual flow-depth
relationship can be used for calculating the water depth corresponding to the design flow. For this
computation, the channel bottoms slope and its roughness in relation to the materials lining the
channel should be fixed in advance. One of the relationships used most frequently for flow
computations in open channels is Mannings formula (Bedient P., Huber W. 1987, FAO. 1996 ,
Maccaferri 1990a):
v = 1 / n x R2/3 x i1/2
( with k = 1 / n)
which derives from Chezys general formulation:

v = x ( R x i ) 1/2
whereby:
n
k
R
i
Mannings coefficient,
Gaukler-Striklers coefficient,
hydraulic radius,
spillway channel longitudinal slope,
Chezys coefficient.
SECTION III - 9/35
The best way to use Mannings relationship is to make repeated attempts with different
water level values in order to compute the flows velocity and, consequently, the flows discharge,
using the relation
Q=vx
until, in the spillway channel, the water level that allows the passage of the design flow is
eventually found. The values of Mannings (n) and Gaukler-Stricklers (k) coefficients are tabulated
relatively to the channel bottom and bank materials (see figure 3.6).
SECTION III - 10/35
Fig. 3.6 Coefficient values for flow relations in open channels
SECTION III - 11/35
When the value of the water level required to evacuate the design flow in the spillway
channel has been established, a verification of water levels in the channel entrance is necessary.
With respect to figure 3.5 , the sum of absolute head and energy losses in section II must be inferior
to the absolute head in section I, otherwise the discharge rate in the channel will be lower than the
design flow.
HI = zI + hI
HII = zII + hII + vII2 / ( 2 x g )
HI > HII + H
H is negligible if the channel entrance is well realised. If this relation is not verified, then
the spillway channels characteristics should be modified (i.e. augmentation of width or slope,
modification of channel lining in order to diminish its roughness).
If the compatibility of absolute heads expressed in the above relation is satisfied, then the
channel beds resistance to scour must be verified. The maximum flow speed values that do not
provoke erosion are tabulated in figure 3.7 for several materials.
Fig. 3.7 : Maximum water speed tolerated by different materials

These values have been extrapolated from different theories (e.g. Shields diagram, which
imposes a fixed value for the critical shear stress), with the support of experimental observations
( U.S. Department of the Interior Bureau of Reclamation. 1987 Maccaferri 1990a). If the calculated
water speed in the spillway channel is higher than the maximum tolerable speed for the bottom
material, taken from figure 3.7, then the spillway channels design should be modified. Two are the
SECTION III - 12/35
possibilities:
-
augmentation of channel width and/or diminution of channel slope in order to lower the water
speed,
channel lining with proper materials which resist to the calculated water velocity.
After having modified the spillway channels characteristics in one of the two possible ways
that have just been mentioned, a new test to ascertain that the water speed is inferior to the
maximum speed tolerable by the channel beds material is necessary. Then, the verification
expression, with new absolute heads values, will have to be reformulated because the channels
hydraulic characteristics have now changed.
When the spillway channel is very short, its realisation in reverse slope is generally
preferable, especially if the natural soil materials are not particularly resistant to water flow. With a
reverse slope, the water speed in the channel is lower than in the vicinity of the final weir and the
risks of channel erosion are reduced. Moreover, the reverse slope also prevents water stagnation in
the discharge channel. Especially in arid and semi-arid regions, water stagnation facilitates the
growth of vegetation, introducing new maintenance requirements.
3.2.2 Protection of channel sides and bottom
Shields diagram allows us to calculate the minimal size at which particles are not
transported by water flow in the channel. If the natural soil material contains a percentage of
particles of a size smaller than that calculated through Shields diagram, the water flow can give
rise to an important scour phenomenon in the channel. In this case, the channel bed will have to be
lined with a more resistant material, e.g. containing a higher percentage of gravel, rubble and stone,
and a small percentage of sand and clay. This material must be properly graded in order to obtain a
high percentage of particles (between 80 and 90 %) with a diameter larger than the one computed
with Shields diagram. Some lines of gabions transversal to the channel can be inserted to prevent
bed scour. The gabions level should be positioned a few centimetres above the channel beds
lining, as shown in fig. 3.8.
In humid zones a turfing protection can be used for lining the spillway channel.
Fig. 3.8 - Linear protection of gabions on the channel bottom
SECTION III - 13/35
If the channel crosses layers of material particularly vulnerable to water erosion, the
spillway channel sides should be protected with retaining gabion walls to prevent banks erosion.
The retaining walls at the sides of the spillway channel will also serve the purpose of stabilising the
channel bank slopes made of incoherent materials.
The retaining walls cross section must be calculated according to earthfill and water stresses.
The procedures for verifying the stability of the retaining walls are similar to the ones used to verify
weir stability, which will be explained in the following paragraph (3.3). Figure 3.9 shows two
possible ways to realise the cross section of retaining walls. Option A is to be preferred if banks are
made of rather resistant materials and the earthfill is properly compacted. In all other cases, option
B will be more convenient.
Fig. 3.9 - Retaining walls (options A and B)

Gabions retaining walls establish a preferential flow path, especially in the areas close to
the bottom and the sides of gabions. In these areas, the internal conformation of gabions, with
rubbles and channels, can cause the acceleration of the water flow. The erosive potential of water is
increased, and the finest particles of material in contact with the gabion can be removed. This
erosion phenomenon, peculiar to the areas in the vicinity of gabions, causes settlements of the wall,
eventually leading to its failure. The most effective techniques to prevent erosion problems will be
mentioned here very briefly. A detailed illustration of these techniques, and of the procedures to
follow for their realisation, can be found in section 4.
The problem of erosion in the contact zones between gabions and natural soils or artificial
earthfill embankment is common to all the hydraulic structures that include gabions (i.e. retaining
walls, weirs, counter-weirs). To limit this problem, it is possible to resort to several solutions, two
of which are particularly effective:
-
interposition of geotextile between gabions and natural soil or artificial earthfill,
building of semi-permeable or impervious cut-offs.
The first solution is the most suitable one. In fact, a geotextile layer should always be placed
at the interface between gabions and natural soil or artificial earthfill, when the gabions structure
can be interested by water passage. If the passage of water throughout the gabion structure is
critical, then it is preferable to build semi-permeable or impervious cut-offs. These cut-offs should
be built transversal to the flow direction to reduce waters erosive power. Semi-permeable cut-offs
are realised interposing a geotextile layer between two layers of gabions. Impervious cut-offs,
instead, take the form of a concrete wall, or walled gabions (gabions realised with a particular
technique).
SECTION III - 14/35
Above the banks of the spillway channel, a gutter should be installed to drain and to
evacuate runoff water coming from upstream the channel, which, left unchecked, could lead to bank
erosion (see figure 3.2).
SECTION III - 15/35
3.3 WEIRS IN THE SPILLWAY
Shape of the weirs downstream side

Type of weir
Hydraulic design
As shown in the previous paragraph, before reaching the drop, the discharge flow generally
falls in the subcritical range, right on the drop the flow is critical, and beyond the drop it becomes
supercritical (see figure 3.10). Here, water flowing in the supercritical range erodes the streambed,
downstream the weir, due to the progressive energy dissipation that follows the flow discharge.
Fig. 3.10 Water flowing on a weir

In this paragraph, weirs are firstly classified according to shape (U.S. Department of the
Interior Bureau of Reclamation. 1987, Maccaferri 1990a ). Then, weirs will be classified according
to their hydraulic function with reference to the problem of energy dissipation. Hydraulic
computations will be presented in the third part of this paragraph with regard to vertical weirs. In
fact, a vertical downstream side is the most common in small hydraulic works. Finally, the stability
computation for gabions structures will be explained in the fourth part of the paragraph.
3.3.1 - Shape of the weirs downstream side
Weirs can be classified, according to the shape of their downstream side, into three classes
(as shown in fig 3.11):
vertical
stepped
battered
SECTION III - 16/35
Fig. 3.11 - Weir shapes

The shape of the downstream side of a weir must be chosen according to several factors, such as:
-
drop height,
hydraulic charge,
characteristics of the materials employed in gabions building,
characteristics of local natural soils,
weir class according to the first classification mentioned above (in respect to the presence of a
stilling basin).
There are no general rules for the choice of a particular shape. However if the drops height
does not exceed 35 m, the vertical shape is always the most appropriate.
If the drop height is higher than 35 m, the weir must be designed with a stepped shape,
which, however, can be used only if the specific flow does not exceed 3 m3/s/m.. Otherwise the
turbulence and the shock provoked by water dropping on the step can bring about severe breakage
in the gabions. In Cemagrefs interesting synthesis of experimental observations on stepped gabions
weirs, it is argued that if the drop is higher than 35 m, and the specific flow does not exceed 1
m3/s/m, the battered shape would also be suitable (Peyras , Royet , Degoutte. 1991).
Step- and batter- shaped weirs are not well fitted to natural streams with a significant solid
transportation, especially when gravel and rubber are transported by the flow. In fact, the
continuous dropping and sliding of particles on and through gabions can provoke net tears.
In section 4, a number of techniques that can be adopted to face gabions failure will be
illustrated for each kind of weir shape.
The weirs upstream side should always be stepped in order to facilitate the bonding
between gabions and earthfill, which functions so as to make the weir impervious. Moreover,
earthfills weight on the weir steps adds stability to the structure, contributing to prevent sliding and
overturning events (see paragraph 3.3.4).
3.3.2 - Type of weir
Sometimes, natural flow conditions downstream the structure, can provoke a concentration
of energy dissipation in a circumscribed zone. Otherwise, a structure on purpose (stilling basin)
will have to be realised downstream the weir.
With reference to the problem of energy dissipation downstream the structure, weirs can be
SECTION III - 17/35
classified in four categories (U.S. Department of the Interior Bureau of Reclamation. 1987,
Maccaferri 1990a ) (see figure 3.12).
Fig. 3.12 - Type of weirs (case A, B, C and D)
simple (A),
with counterweir, unlined stilling basin (B),
with counterweir, lined stilling basin (C),
with counterweir, stilling basin located below the natural river bed (D).
The methods used to ascertain that the energy dissipation is concentrated immediately
downstream the weir will be illustrated in paragraph 3.3.3.
3.3.3 - Hydraulic design
Simple weir
Weir with counterweir and unlined stilling basin
Weir with counterweir and lined stilling basin
Weir with counterweir and lined stilling basin located below the natural river bed
Stepped weirs
Battered weirs
Verification against piping failure
The procedures explained below are primarily related to the hydraulic design of weirs with a
vertical downstream side. Vertical weirs are the simplest to design and to build, accounting for their
widespread use as small hydraulic works, especially in developing countries. Hydraulic
dimensioning procedures for stepped and battered weirs will be only briefly mentioned. It should be
noted, however, that some weirs with a stepped downstream side, can be dealt with in the same way
as vertical weirs, with respect to hydraulic computations, if the downstream side slope is so
important that water jumping from the weir crest does not flow on the steps but falls straight upon
the weir toe, downstream.
SECTION III - 18/35
At the initial stages of weir design, the only known characteristic is its height. The weirs
height depends upon the difference between design slope and original slope. In order to limit
erosion problems, if the weir is expected to be taller than 24 meters it could result useful to build
more than one weir, depending on the natural soils characteristics and on the quality of construction
materials (see figure 3.13).
Fig. 3.13 - Channel longitudinal section with weirs

The flow-depth relationship in Chezys formula
Q = b x h x x ( 2 x g x h ) 0.5
allows the calculation of the waters depth atop the weir (h), provided that design flow (Q),
discharge coefficient () and weirs width (b) are known.
Discharge coefficient values are tabulated according to water charge (h) and weir crest
length (see figures 3.14 and 3.15 ) (Cremonese. 1996).
Fig. 3.14 - Weir schematisation
SECTION III - 19/35
Fig. 3.15 - Discharge coefficient values
The discharge coefficient range is wide: its values generally vary between 0.3 and 0.4.
Choosing the right value for the discharge coefficient is not easy, as it also depends on the crests
roughness conditions, which may vary during runoff (e.g. if shrubs carried by the flow get trapped
in the gabions net). It should be noticed that the values of the discharge coefficient are not available
for submerged weirs (e.g. downstream water level higher than the weirs crest).
The engineer designing a weir, should chose a limit value for the discharge coefficient in
order to maximise the water depth with a fixed flow design. For example, for a gabions weir
completely filled with sediments upstream, and with a water depth between 1 and 2 metres, a
prudential discharge coefficient value would be 0.35.
The maximum water depth should be kept within a limited range of values, with a peak
value of 23 metres, modifying weirs width accordingly, if necessary. The problems that could
arise in a weir when the water charge exceeds 2 metres are discussed in chapter VII. This chapter
will introduce building solutions that allow the weir to support greater water charges (i.e. reinforced
concrete lining of the stilling basin).
After having fixed the weirs main dimensions (e.g. height, width, water charge) it is
necessary to verify what happens downstream the structure. As we have seen, the engineer must
ensure that the energy dissipation is concentrated immediately downstream the structure. This
condition is satisfied when a subcritical flow, with particular characteristics, takes place
SECTION III - 20/35
downstream the structure.

It is also important to make sure that, between this sub-critical flow and the flow coming out
from the weir (generally supercritical) the conditions for the installation of a hydraulic jump are
fulfilled. Several methods can be adopted for proceeding to this verification. The choice of the most
appropriate method depends on the weir type, selected according to the classification suggested in
paragraph 3.3.2. These methods and the procedure for dimensioning a stilling basin are explained
below (U.S. Department of the Interior Bureau of Reclamation. 1987, Maccaferri 1990a ).
Simple weir
For a very small weir with limited specific flow and energy dissipation, the gabions structure
can be realised omitting the stilling basin. This solution is likely to be chosen especially if the
streambed material is resistant. Otherwise dropping water could dig a hole downstream the weir. In
this case, it will be necessary to calculate hole depth and the distance between weir structure and
hole.
With reference to figure 3.16, considering that the flow, on the weir, falls in the critical
range, the distance X can be computed through the following rough relation:
X ( 2 x ( zg fg ) x ( zg f3 ) ) 0.5
Scour depth can be computed with Schoklitschs relation expressed, always with respect to
figure 3.16, by:
z3 fb = 4.75 x (z0 z3 ) 0.2 x q 0.57 / dt 0.32
where z3, fb, z0 are expressed in meters, q, expressed in m3/s/m, represents the specific flow, and dt is
the sieve diameter through which passes the 90% of streambed material. For safety reasons, the
weirs foundation level should be lower than the holes minimum level.
Fig. 3.16 - Simple weir
SECTION III - 21/35
Weir with counterweir and unlined stilling basin

A counterweir can be built in order to reduce the erosion phenomenon caused by energy
dissipation downstream the weir. This will cause the water level downstream the weir to increase,
and the scour depth will be reduced.
With regard to the weir, the counterweir has to be placed at a distance and at a level which,
in subcritical conditions, allow the formation of a flow discharge. The counterweirs height will be
calculated by means of the usual depth-flow relationship (see figure 3.17):
Q = lc x ( z2 fc ) x x ( 2 x g x ( z2 fc ) ) 0.5
whereby:
lc weir width,
discharge coefficient,
g gravity acceleration.
z2 should be preventively assigned a value which limits the scours depth, then the above relation
will be used for computing fc.
For computing the distance between weir and counterweir, the evaluation of hydraulic jump
length is necessary throughout the relation:
L12 6.9 x ( z2 - z1 )
then the total length of stilling basin will be:
Lt = L12 + X
with Xs value so as calculated above, for simple weir.
When a counterweir is being realised, the energy dissipation downstream the structure
should always be quantified and, if necessary, reduced in order to prevent the scour phenomenon in
the streambed. To quantify energy dissipation, the computation of the hydraulic flow conditions
downstream the counterweir is necessary. The flow equation in Mannings formulation can be used
to compute water depth and velocity within the stream reach:
v = (1 / n) x R2/3 x i1/2
and
Q=xv
whereby:
n
R
i
Mannings coeffcient,
hydraulic radius,
streambed slope,
cross sectional area,
discharge flow.
SECTION III - 22/35
To avail oneself of these relations, different water depth values should be tried until the
correct discharge flow value is identified.
Fig. 3.17 - Weir with counterweir and unlined stilling basin

Weir with counterweir and lined stilling basin
If the streambed material is not very good (e.g. small grain sizes), the stilling basin will have
to be lined in order to limit the weirs foundation level. For lining the basins bottom a layer of
gabions could be used, as shown in figure 3.18.
All the gabions structures dimensions and water levels can be computed using flow-waters
depth relations with the proper simplifying hypotheses. With reference to figure 3.18, the water
depth of the supercritical flow is given by:
SECTION III - 23/35
Q
( z1 fb ) ------------------------------lb x ( 2 x g x ( z0 fb )) 0.5
For energy dissipation to take place in the stilling basin, it should be seen that the hydraulic
jump takes place. The waters depth of the subcritical flow is given by:
( z 1 fb )
( z2 fb ) = - ----------- +
2
2 x Q2
( z 1 fb )2
---------------------- + -----------g x lb2 x ( z1 fb )
4
for obtaining this water depth, it will be expedient to realise a counterweir, the height of which can
be computed through the usual depth-flow relationship:
Q = lc x ( z2 fc ) x x ( 2 x g x ( z2 fc ) ) 0.5
To complete our knowledge of water levels, the water depth in non-aerated zones can be
obtained from the following relation:
( zv fb ) = ( fg fb ) x ( Q2 / ( g x lb2 x ( fg fb )3 ) 0.22
Before we can determine the stilling basins length, we will have to calculate the distance
from the weir at which the supercritical flow is installed and the length of the hydraulic jump. The
former can be calculated as follows:
( zg + fg 2 x fb ) x (zg - fg ) 0.5
Lg1 = ------------------------------------(zg + fg - 2 x zv ) 0.5
and the hydraulic jump length is given by:
L12 = 6.9 x ( z2 - z1 )
At this point, we must verify that the stilling basins flow behaviour is independent from the
flow behaviour of the downstream reach. This will be confirmed if the total energy downstream is
lower than on the counterweir.
SECTION III - 24/35
Fig. 3.18 - Weir with counterweir and lined stilling basin

When the upstream side of the weir is completely filled with sediment, existing sample
relations allow us to determine all the characteristics of the stilling basin with reference to the drop
number (D). These relations have been obtained by means of experimental observations. The drop
number is expressed by:
q2
D = ---------------g x ( f g - f b )3
Once the drop number is known, all the characteristics of a weir with stilling basin can be
obtained by applying the following relations:
SECTION III - 25/35
Lg1 / ( fg - fb ) = 4.30 x D0.27

( zv - fb ) / ( fg - fb ) = 1.00 x D0.22
( z1 - fb ) / ( fg - fb ) = 0.54 x D0.425
( z2 - fb ) / ( fg - fb ) = 1.66 x D0.27
L12 = 6.9 x ( z2 - z1 )
Sometimes, in order to reduce the quantity of gabions required for lining the stilling basin, it
will be useful to place gabions lining only in the zone close to weir toe. The remaining portion of
stilling basin will be lined with large stones (see figure 1.2). In this case, gabions lining has to
extend itself up to a distance from the weir toe greater than Lg1, to protect this portion of the stilling
basing, which is threatened by water falling from the weir crest.
Weir with counterweir and lined stilling basin located below the natural river bed
In this case, the basins functioning is influenced by the subcritical flow downstream. To
obtain all the characteristics of the stilling basin, the composite system shown below must be
solved.
Q2
Q2
( z0 - fb ) + -------------- = ( z1 - fb ) + -------------------------2 x g x 02
2 x g x ( z1 - fb ) 2 x lb2
( z 1 fb )
( z2 fb ) = - ----------- +
2
2 x Q2
( z 1 fb )2
---------------------- + -----------g x lb2 x ( z1 fb )
4
Q2
Q2
( z3 - fb ) + -------------- = ( z2 - fb ) + -------------------------2 x g x 32
2 x g x ( z2 - fb ) 2 x lb2
Some of the flow and weir characteristics needed to solve the system are already known.
The values of z1, z2 and fb are the only unknown terms. It will be useful to preventively fix a value
for fb, in order to compute the value of z1 in the first equation and the value of z2 in the second one.
If, at this point, the third equation is not satisfied, it will be necessary to restart the calculations with
another value for fb.
SECTION III - 26/35
Fig. 3.19 - Weir with counterweir and lined stilling basin located below the natural river bed
Stepped weirs
This kind of weir is generally used in relation to low specific flows and significant drop
heights. Experimental observations, conducted by Cemagref, show that stepped weirs are
particularly convenient for specific flows inferior to 3 m3/s/m. For higher values of the specific
flow, the gabions step could be damaged. In stepped weirs, the energy dissipation takes place
already on the steps. In fact, the experimental evidence shows a 10%-30% diminution of the length
of the stilling basin compared to the length obtained using traditional methods (Peyras , Royet ,
Degoutte. 1991).
With reference to a weirs specific flow and downstream side slope, four different kinds of
SECTION III - 27/35
hydraulic situations can take place:

-
nappe flow, with flow alternatively in subcritical and supercritical range,
nappe flow, with flow always in supercritical range,
partial nappe flow, with flow always in supercritical range,
skimming flow.
Battered weirs
This kind of weirs is generally well suited to significant drop heights and low specific flows
(inferior to 1 m3/s/m). The specific flow has to be limited only if the weirs are built with gabions,
which can easily be damaged. In fact, violent water flows can provoke stones rubbing within
gabions baskets, consequently leading to stone or net breakage. Transported materials colliding with
gabions can also provoke net tear.
Battered weirs will require a reinforced concrete lining if the specific flow is higher than 1
3
m /s/m. A detailed explanation of the methods used to dimension the stilling basin in the case of
battered weirs can be found in U.S. Bureau of Reclamation 1987.
Verification against piping failure
In presence of a weir, the water level builds up bringing about a difference in level between
the upstream and downstream side of the weir. The gradient thus established gives rise to a seepage
reticule underneath the structure. The seepages characteristics largely depend on the soils
materials. Given that gabions structures are generally built on pervious soils, the seepage
phenomenon can provoke the formation of springs downstream the structure. A substantial spring
flow can transport particles of soil material, progressively increasing water seepage and the amount
of material transported, eventually leading to the structures failure.
To test the weir against the possibility of a piping failure, the seepage reticule has to be
determined. This will allow us to identify the seepage flow path and hydraulic gradient in the area
underneath the structure (see figure 3.20). In order to determine the flow path and the hydraulic
gradient of the seepage reticule, we will have to solve a composite system of differential equations.
However, for the small structures dealt with in this work, the test against seepage can be generally
accomplished using the Bligh method (U.S. Department of the Interior Bureau of Reclamation.
1987, Maccaferri 1990a ). According to this method, the structure will be tested against seepage
when the following relation is verified:
L > c x h
whereby:
-
L seepage path below the structure (the length of vertical is tripled in the sum),
c coefficient depending on soil characteristics (see figure 3.21 for its values),
h water level difference between upstream and downstream the weir.
SECTION III - 28/35
Fig. 3.20 Seepage reticule below a weir
Fig. 3.21 Bligh coefficient (c) values
If the above mentioned relation is not verified, then the weir section will have to be
modified. A lengthening of the seepage path can be achieved in two ways (see figure 3.22):
-
build a gabions apron downstream the weir (case A)
build an impervious cut-off below the structure (case B)
Fig. 3.22 - Methods for lengthening seepage paths (case A and B)

The actual seepage reticule will correspond to the one designed in figure 3.20 only in the
hypothesis of a completely impervious structure, otherwise the seepage reticule will be influenced
SECTION III - 29/35
by the high permeability of gabions, which attract the seepage, causing it to deviate its path, as
shown in figure 3.23.
Fig. 3.23 - Seepage reticule in the hypothesis of pervious gabions

In these hypothesis, the probability that soil particles are transported by seepage is high. In
fact, the soil in contact with gabions is exposed to water seepage pressure but, on the other hand, it
is also influenced by atmospheric pressure or water pressure below the water level. However,
waters seepage pressure is generally higher than the latter two, and it can remove fragments of
material in contact with gabions. To eliminate this problem, a layer of graded material, such as
gravel, should be interposed between gabions and soil. Also a layer of geotextile, generally easier to
install, would suit the purpose. Another feasible solution consists in placing an impervious
membrane between gabions and soil. Through these devices the weir is rendered completely
impervious and Blighs theory can be used for testing the weir against excessive seepage.
Whether graded material or geotextile is chosen, the layer will inevitably be obstructed by
the particles transported by waters seepage and will consequently become impervious.
3.3.4 - Stability analysis
Loads analysis
Horizontal thrusts
Vertical loads
Test against overturning
Test against sliding
Verification against uplifting
Resistance test for the foundation soil
This paragraph illustrates the procedure used to test the stability of gabions structures
(Maccaferri 1990a). First of all, it will be useful to introduce loads analysis, with regard to both
horizontal thrusts and vertical loads on the structure. Then, four different stability tests for gabions
structures will be explained, namely:
-
against overturning,
against sliding,
SECTION III - 30/35
against uplift,
against excessive pressure on foundation soil.
Loads analysis
With respect to figure 3.24, loads on the weir structure are explained below.
Fig. 3.24 - Weir cross-section for stability analysis

Horizontal thrusts
- water:
Hwm = 0.5 x w ( 2 x h1 + h2 + h3 ) x ( h4 + h5 )
Hwv = 0.5 x w x ( h4 + h5 )2
on the upstream side

on the downstream side
- soils
Htm = 0.5 x tw x a x ( h2 + h3 )2
Htv = 0.5 x tw x a x h52
on the upstream side

on the downstream side
Vertical loads
- water
Pw1 = Sw1 x w
Pw2 = Sw2 x w
- soil
Pt = Ssoil x t1
- water uplift
Sw = w x b x ( h4 + h5 ) + 0.5 x w x b x ( h1 + h2 + h3 ) - ( h4 + h5 )
SECTION III - 31/35
- structures weight
Pg = Ssub. struc.x g1 + Sdry struc. x g
In these relations, symbols represent:
w
g
s
ng
g1
tw
n
t1
a
water unit weight (it generally varies between 1000 and 1100 kg/m3, but it can assume
higher values in case of a very important solid transportation),
gabion unit weight ( g = s x ( 1 ng ) ),
material unit weight (see figure 3. for the values),
gabions porosity (generally about 0.3),
gabions saturated unit weight ( g1 = s x ( 1 ng ) + ng x w ),
soil submerged unit weight ( tw = ( s - w ) x ( 1 n )),
soil porosity,
soil saturated unit weight ( t1 = s x ( 1 n ) + n x w ),
coefficient of active earth pressure (a = tg2 ( 45 - / 2 ) ),
soil angle of friction.
Fig. 3.25 - Soil unit weight

Test against overturning
The test must be conducted in relation to the structures overturning around the F point (see
figure 3.24 ). Below are detailed overturning and stabilising forces:
overturning forces
-
horizontal thrusts by water ( Hwm , Hwv ),
horizontal thrusts by soil ( Htm ),
water uplift ( Sw )
stabilising forces
SECTION III - 32/35
structure weight ( Pg ),
water weight ( Pw1, Pw2 ),
soil weight (Pt ),
horizontal thrusts on the downstream side by water and soil (Hwv , Htv ).
Multiplying the forces for their respective arms and summing all the overturning and
stabilising moments, we obtain the following relation, which shows the structures stability
coefficient:
sr = Ms / M r
coefficient against overturning
where Ms is the sum of the stabilising moments and M r is the sum of overturning forces. For small
structures sr > 1.3. For more important structures, instead, the stability coefficient against
overturning will take up higher values.
Other tests against overturning are normally required at different structure levels, but the
procedure illustrated above is generally the fundamental one, for the majority of structures.
Test against sliding
To carry out this test, horizontal ( H ) and vertical ( V ) forces resultants must be
calculated. The following relation has to be verified:
H < tg x H
whereby represents the friction angle between gabions and foundation soil. A common value for
the friction angle is 35 with a corresponding tg 0.7. In this case, the stability coefficient
against sliding will be expressed as:
ss = tg x H / H
As for the overturning, ss must be greater than 1.3 for small structures. For more important
structures, the stability coefficient against sliding will take up higher values. suitable.
Verification against uplifting
Lining the stilling pool is usually necessary to protect against seepage failures. Where this lining is
constructed using gabions or mattresses laying on a reverse filter or a geotextile, it is necessary to
check the stability of the lining against hydraulic uplift, and check that the uplift force due to
seepage water is not greater than the combined weight of the lining and of the interstitial water,
filters, and the water passing over the lining.
It is therefore necessary to evaluate the distribution of pressures under the stilling pool by drawing a
flow diagram or by using the simplified method already suggested. With reference to figure 5.24,
the pressure, p, at each point of the foundation is
SECTION III - 33/35
If h is the depth of the water above the apron and s the thickness of the apron, then the coefficient of
stability against uplift is
Acceptable values of safety factor S g are between 1.1 and 1.2.

Resistance of the foundation soil
For each section under examination, all the forces H wM , H wV , H tM , H tV , P w1 , P w2 , t P, P
g and S w of Figure 5.17 are computed for the worst case. The intensity and the trend of the
resultant R of the acting forces, its inclination and the centre of gravity, are then determined. It is
conservatively assumed that the gabion foundation surface remains flat and that the Foundation
soils much less rigid than the gabion structure. With regard to this second assumption, the results of
experiments indicate that the rigidity of gabions is comparable to that of soil. If the centre of gravity
of X is within the middle third MN the pressure is distributed over the whole foundation, and
the maximum pressure, B , at the downstream toe, B, in kg/cm 2 , is found from:
where:
V is the vertical component of the resultant R (kg); and XMand AB are distances (cm).
If the centre of gravity is coincident with the extreme edge of the middle third (N), the maximum
pressure, b , is:
A centre of gravity outside the middle third - MN - is to be avoided, since, in accordance with the
assumption made above, only part of the foundation is utilized. In practice this is an unlikely
situation in a gabion structure due to its great flexibility, but in such a case, the pressure b would
be:
SECTION III - 34/35
The maximum pressure b should be lower than the foundation soil bearing capacity given for
various soils in Table 5.7.
Table 5.7
SECTION III - 35/35

HYDRAULIC WORKS
SECTION 4
METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION AND CONTROL
Table of Contents
4.1 WORKS PLANNING.............................................................................................................2
4.1.1 - Resources required for hydraulic works building ...........................................................2
4.1.2 Work plan redaction........................................................................................................3
4.1.3 - Workshop organisation.................................................................................................... 4
4.2 - EARTH WORKS.................................................................................................................... 8
4.2.1 - Site preparation................................................................................................................ 8
4.2.2 - Earth filling (embankment construction).......................................................................11
4.2.3 - Finishing works............................................................................................................. 20
4.2.4 - Supervision and control................................................................................................. 22
4.3 GABIONS WORKS............................................................................................................. 24
4.3.1 - Site preparation.............................................................................................................. 24
4.3.2 - Gabions building............................................................................................................27
4.3.3 - Making weirs impervious.............................................................................................. 34
4.3.4 - Protection of stilling basin bottom.................................................................................35
4.3.5 - Lining of weir crest........................................................................................................39
4.3.6 Counterweirs lining and anchoring .............................................................................. 39
4.3.7 - Earth-gabions interface ................................................................................................. 41
SECTION IV- 1/42
There is hardly a chance that a well-designed hydraulic work resists to runoff stresses for a
long time if it is not very accurately constructed. Many factors should be checked, already in the
building phase, to obtain a good realisation of the structures (e.g. moisture content in the earthfill,
right percentage of water, cement, gravel and sable in the concrete, proper stone size in gabions).
The main phases of the realisation procedures of embankment and gabion structures are illustrated,
respectively, in the second and third paragraphs of this chapter. These paragraphs contain both
general and detailed recommendations: the former touch on issues such as site preparation or
methods for the exploitation of borrow areas; the latter, instead, will deal with issues such as
gabions building or cut-off screens realisation.
Many practical examples of structure building, accompanied by pictures or designs, are
provided by way of illustration. The majority of these recommendations have been derived from the
experience of the Rural Development Project of the Ader Doutchi Maggia (PDR/ADM). This
Project, financed by the Italian Co-operation and the Word Food Program, and conducted by FAO,
has been operative in the Keita District of the Republic of Niger, since 1984. Many small earthfill
dams (40, for a total earthfill volume of about 1.500.000 m3) and gabion weirs (200 for a total
volume of gabions of about 1.500.000 m3) were built in the PDR/ADM in this period.
Before addressing the various phases of hydraulic structures building, the first paragraph
deals with the preliminary phases. These phases mainly concern the individuation of all the
resources required for the works, the redaction of a work plan, and the preparation and organisation
of the workshop.
4.1 WORKS PLANNING
4.1.1 - Resources required for hydraulic works building
One should start worrying about the availability of all the different sorts of resources
necessary to build a hydraulic work since the feasibility phase of works design. In designing a
hydraulic work, especially in developing countries, one has to assess carefully the quality and the
quantity of resources that can be found locally. Four main categories of resources are necessary for
the construction of hydraulic works:
-
material (natural materials, water availability, construction materials),
human (skilled and non-skilled workers),
mechanical (earthwork engines and dump trucks),
financial.
Materials requirements depend on the kind of hydraulic work that has to be built. For
example, proper earth and water will be necessary for an embankment, rubble and gabions for a
weir.
Human resources refer to skilled workers needed for gabions building or for driving engines
and trucks. A team of technicians will also be generally necessary to carry out the sites topographic
survey and to conduct the workshop.
The type and the quantity of mechanical means, depend largely on the works typology and
dimensions. A bulldozer is generally indispensable for the site preparation (e.g. surface scraping,
SECTION IV- 2/42
service roads opening, borrow area preparation). An excavator is also necessary for the preparation
of structure foundations. Mechanical loaders and dump trucks are required to load and carry earth
and rubble from the borrow area to the structures site. If natural conditions are favourable (e.g. the
ground is well levelled and the distance between borrow area and work site is less than 400-500 m)
bowl scrapers could be used to carry the fill.
It should be noted that bowl scrapers demand an important initial investment and are very
specialised engines. On the contrary, loaders and dump trucks are much more versatile than bowl
scrapers, as they can easily cover any distance between borrow area and dumping place. Dump
trucks can also be used to carry different materials.
Roller engines and tank trucks are necessary for embankment compacting. A grader should
always be accessible in embankment workshops for haul road maintenance. The grader can also
spread and level the earth discharged by trucks. A tractor could also be needed to tow roller
machines, disks and harrows.
In minor hydraulic works, the variety and number of mechanical means can be considerably
reduced. It will be worthwhile to use versatile engines such as an excavator or a backhoe-loader.
Very small hydraulic works can be entirely manually built, if construction materials (e.g. rubble and
proper earth) can be found in proximity to the site and skilled labourers are available locally.
Financial resources consist of the funds necessary to buy the construction materials required,
such as gabions, cement and steel bars for concrete reinforcement. Funds are also necessary to
finance various workshop activities (e.g. staff salaries, purchase of spare parts, fuel and lubricant for
mechanical means).
First of all, it will be preferable to list, by category, the various kinds of resources required
for all construction phases, according to the hydraulic work design. We shall then verify if these
resources are really available. At some point, a lack or scarcity of resources might become manifest,
if the conditions considered in the designing phase have changed, or if the preliminary
investigations were not accomplished carefully. Insufficient resources can be dealt with either by
modifying the hydraulic work design, or by increasing the funds allocated to this purpose.
4.1.2 Work plan redaction
Before beginning to build the structures, which compose the hydraulic work, it will be
useful to prepare a detailed work plan. This plan should take into account all the construction
phases. Great care should be put in organising both each individual phase and the interaction
between different phases.
The engineer preparing a work plan should have an in-depth understanding of all the aspects
involved in every scheduled activity (e.g. construction of the earthfill embankment, gabions
building). In particular, he/she should be aware of the time and the resources necessary for the
accomplishment of every activity. For example, to estimate the amount of time required for
embankment construction, it is necessary to know the quantity of earthfill that can be built daily.
However, also this datum depends on several factors:
-
distance between borrow area and dumping point,
number and capacity of loaders and dump trucks (or bowl scrapers) employed in earth carrying,
tank trucks employed in water carrying and distance between water point and embankment site,
roller machines and other engines used for spreading, mixing, levelling and compacting the
earth layer on the embankments surface.
SECTION IV- 3/42
This method for establishing the amount of time required for embankment building can be
profitably adopted only if the workshop organisation allows the development of different activities
at the same time. Otherwise it will be necessary to take into account works interruptions for some
activities, while other activities are being accomplished.
A working schedule has to be defined for each workshop member, and maintenance turns
have to be foreseen for the mechanical means.
During the actual construction of the hydraulic work, it will be useful to verify if the work
plan is being respected. Evaluation errors in the work plan will have to be corrected. Problems
encountered during construction (e.g. foundation sand layer thicker than estimated, mechanic
problem in the engines) could also call for modifications of the original work plan.
4.1.3 - Workshop organisation
Before moving on to the actual construction phase, it will be useful to set up a plan for the
workshops organisation. In fact, the workshops efficiency largely depends on a systematic and
efficient organisation. The emplacement of the different structures, which will compose the
hydraulic work, has to be prepared. In preparing the construction site, the engineer has to take into
account the structures design. Moreover, he/she should identify areas, in proximity to the
structures location, where various subsidiary activities could take place; for example, he/she will
have to make sure in advance that enough place is left for the engines motion.
If concrete will be used for the construction, an area for concrete mixing, with stocks of
cement, gravel and sable, has to be set up close to the structure. A zone for stocking other
construction materials, such as gabions and pipelines, has to be prepared. Stocking and parking
areas must be sheltered from runoff.
In the construction of a retention or detention dam, the borrow area must by all means be
sited out of the impoundments watershed, lest runoff carries in the impoundment the sediments
provoked by earthworks, significantly reducing the impoundments volume.
In the organisation of a workshop, where different activities (e.g. embankment construction,
gabions structures building, concrete preparation) will be carried out, a thorough site preparation is
indispensable. The development of different activities at the same time should be made possible.
Otherwise the workshops efficiency will be greatly reduced.
Structure sites have to be connected to the quarries through proper service roads. An
accurate preparation of service roads will avoid mechanical problems to the trucks.
The technician conducting the workshop should record various kinds of data concerning the
works progress on a daily basis (e.g. number of trips made by dump and tank trucks to the earthfill,
number of gabions installed, volume of concrete realised, quantity of fuel consumed by engines and
trucks, hours worked by engines and trucks). All these data will result useful for evaluating the
workshops efficiency and the final cost of the hydraulic work.
The workshop responsible will also have to document the realisation history of each
structure. The main data to be recorded should be:
-
structure building starting and finishing dates,
characteristics of foundation soils (e.g. depth, thickness and material of layer),

principal problems encountered during structure building.
These records might contain key elements for understanding the causes of structural
breakdowns and/or problems risen after the works realisation.
SECTION IV- 4/42
Example: Work planning for a detention dam, built at the Integrated Rural Project of the
Ader Doutchi Maggia (PDR/ADM)- Rep. of Niger
What follows is a concrete example of the procedures described above; it illustrates
individuation of resources, working schedule preparation, and workshop organisation for the
construction of an earthen detention dam in Seyte (District of Keita, Niger). This detention dam,
realised on a watercourse belonging to a 12 km2 catchment area, has an earthfill volume of 80.000
m3. The 50 metres wide spillway is dug in the right hand shoulder of the hill upon which the
earthfill is built. Gabions, for a total volume of 1500 m3, are expected to be set up to protect the
channel banks and the spillway, and to realise a series of weirs across the channel. The detention
dam is endowed with an outlet system, consisting of a pipeline with a diameter of 140 centimetres
inserted in the earthfill, in order to increase the detention capacity in the event of floods. Pipelines
are composed of two-metres-long prefabricated elements in reinforced concrete that are assembled
on site.
Resources required
First of all, it is necessary to establish the requirements in means (engines and trucks): the
quantity and quality of all kinds of means should be established in advance. Requirements should
be evaluated in relation to the local availability of construction materials (i.e. fill, water, and rubble)
and to the production capacity of the single means. On Seytes workshop the following means were
available:
-
1 excavators,
1 vibrating rollers,
2 bulldozers,
1 grader,
2 loaders,
6 dump trucks,
2 tank trucks.
It is equally important to predetermine the requirements in personnel needed to carry out the
various scheduled activities. The staff for the workshop in question consisted in:
-
1 workshop responsible,
1 mechanician,
15 workers specialised in gabions set up,
2 workers specialised in pipelines set up,
60 generic workers supporting the specialised workers at different tasks,
an adequate number of trucks drivers and engines conductors.
Then, the availability of all the other materials required in the construction of different types
of structures must be ensured. With reference to the hydraulic structure considered here, the
SECTION IV- 5/42
following materials were deemed necessary on the basis of single structure projects:
-
8 tons. concrete,
600 gabions sized 2x1x1 m3,
300 gabions sized 2x1x0.5 m3,
2000 m2 geotextile.
Having completed the list of resources, in different materials, required for the works
realisation, the funds necessary to cover construction costs must then be quantified. These costs
should cover the acquisition of all the building materials and the general expenses related to the
workshops functioning. Amongst the latter, fuel and lubricants for the machines and personnel
salaries are particularly relevant.
Works planning
Workshop activities should be programmed taking into account the requirements of every
individual activity and co-ordinating the interaction between different activities so as to ensure a
smooth functioning of the workshop. For this purpose, activities might have to be prioritised. It is
possible to refer to Gant and Perths theories in order to optimise the working programme. In Seyte,
activities had been arranged in the following succession:
-
borrow area preparation,
service roads preparation,
precasting of pipelines elements,
excavation of foundation trench,
excavation of a trench for the pipeline,
excavation of spillway channel,
building of weirs in the spillway channel,
pipeline realisation,
earthfill building in the foundation trench,
stripping of the embankments footprint,
earthfill building,
rip-rap realisation.
While some of the activities listed above can be carried out simultaneously, others can only
be accomplished once the previous ones in the list have been completed. For an efficient timing of
the activities, a thorough practical understanding of the productive capacities of all the resources
involved is indispensable. It should be noticed, however, that the presence on the workshop of all
the above mentioned machines and trucks is not necessary simultaneously, but at any one time only
the mechanical means required by the activities in progress should be available.
SECTION IV- 6/42
Workshop organisation
A well thought-out workshop organisation is fundamental to the smooth unfolding of the
scheduled activities. At the opening of a hydraulic structures workshop the following arrangements
should have been provided for in advance:
-
service roads
parking area, properly evened out, also used for machines upkeep and servicing, and for keeping
fuel stocks,
area for stocking construction materials and tools (i.e. cement, gabions),
properly levelled area for precasting the pipelines elements.
At this point, quarry areas for each construction material (i.e. fill, rubble, sable and water)
should be identified and access to them must be prearranged. It is now possible to begin the actual
building phase, following the work plan. All various activities should be organised so as to limit as
much as possible interactions and overlapping between two or more of them. The interactive
unfolding of different activities, in fact, implies the risk that delays in one activitys development
hinder the completion of the other one.
Workers should be kept away, whenever possible, from the areas where engines and trucks
are working, in order to minimise the risk of accidents and to ensure a fast and smooth operation of
the machines. Specialised workers should rely on the constant support of generic workers to
optimise their efficiency. An appropriate number of workers should always be available on the
earthfill to eliminate organic material or oversized blocks from the material discharged by the dump
trucks. The upkeep and refurbishment of engines and trucks should be organised according to a
timetable. Ideally, these operations should be carried out at the end of every working day.
Otherwise, the worker in charge should see that the interruption in a machines work does not cause
delays in the operation of other machines.
An adequate stock of construction materials always available on the workshop significantly
helps preventing possible delays due to damages and/or lack of materials.
SECTION IV- 7/42
4.2 - EARTH WORKS

4.2.1 - Site preparation
Embankment pegging
The first step in the construction of a hydraulic work is structures siting. The sites of
different structures, which compose the hydraulic work (e.g. earthfill, spillway, and pipeline), have
to be marked with pegs, according to the structure plan. In the earthfill footprint siting, it will be
useful to mark axe and limits of the embankment downstream and upstream (see fig. 4.1). The
distance between two pegs should be less than 50 m.
Fig. 4.1 Embankment pegging

Service roads preparation
Service roads are meant to connect all the structures located in one site with the related
quarry. For example, the embankments location has to be connected with the borrow area, and the
spillways location has to be connected with the rubble quarry. In the preparation of haul roads,
which connect the embankments site with the borrow area, trucks safety should receive primary
attention. Hence, it can be suggested to build two separate one way roads, to reduce the risk of
trucks crashes caused by scarce visibility. While the embankment is being built, lower lateral
access roads become obstructed as the earthfill is progressively raised. Therefore, various lateral
access roads should be built in advance in order to give access to different earthfill levels and avoid
work interruptions. Haul roads should be adequately dimensioned to support a heavy traffic of large
trucks. Therefore, it is necessary to prepare these roads carefully and to maintain them in good
conditions. A grader should even out the roads whenever they get damaged. Periodical haul roads
watering could also be necessary to prevent the formation of dust clouds. Skilfully built haul roads
SECTION IV- 8/42
can be determinant toward the smooth functioning of trucks and the reduction of the incidence of
mechanical problems.
Runoff diversion structures
Sometimes, depending on the selected site and on the period when constructions will be
taking place, important runoff events might risk compromising the work already done. In this case,
the construction of a runoff diversion structure could represent an essential safety measure worth
taking in advance. The diversion structure has to be dimensioned according to local runoff
characteristics (e.g. design flow). If the hydraulic structures design contains a huge pipeline, the
pipe can be built preventively to serve as runoff diversion structure (see figure 4.2).
Fig. 4.2 Runoff passing through a pipeline inserted in the earthfill during embankment
construction (Akala I, Keita, Rep. Of Niger, 1990).
Quarrying methods
The borrow area, of a material suitable to embankment construction, has to be well
prepared. First off all, organic debris (e.g. roots, sod and shrubs) must be entirely removed through
surface scraping of the zone. Sometimes it could also be necessary to remove the earths surface
layer because is not fit for the earthfill (e.g. it contains too much clay or rubble). The organisation
of the borrow-area largely depends on the methods used to carry the fill to the embankment.
If bowl scrapers are used to carry construction materials, the ground of the borrow-area has
to be properly levelled. If the soil is particularly hard, a bulldozer can be an essential support for
scrapers in the loading phase. If trucks will be used to carry the earth, the latter must undergo a
preventive treatment in the borrow area. The earth has to be crushed, removed from its location and
SECTION IV- 9/42
gathered in heaps by bulldozers. Then it is loaded in the trucks by proper engines (e.g. loaders and
excavators) (see figure 4.3).
Fig. 4.3 Borrow area

Surface stripping
The surface layer of the embankment footprint has to be removed, because it generally
contains some organic material (sod and shrub) which does not have good resistance characteristics.
Large stones must be taken away as well. Then, before starting to build the embankment, it will be
useful to water and compact the footprint surface, in order to facilitate the bonding between natural
soil and earthfill. Surface scraping is generally done with bulldozers. They push the material to be
evacuated downstream, out of the embankment footprint. However, if the distance to cover is long
or the quantity of material is considerable, it may be more convenient to remove this material with
dump trucks.
Foundation trench
Excavators generally dig the foundation trench of the embankment. These engines can dig
up to a 45 meter deep trench. During trench excavation, the dug out material should be deposited
downstream the trench. Later, this material can be carried away from the embankment footprint by
bulldozers or trucks. Final refinements are not unimportant. All the roots, stones and rubble have to
be removed before starting the earthfill construction. As in the embankment footprint preparation,
trench watering and compaction will facilitate the bonding between natural soil and earthfill. The
foundation trench has to be almost 4 meters large to let in engines and trucks. Steeps should also be
installed to give trucks and engines access to the trench for carrying, levelling and compacting the
SECTION IV- 10/42
fill.
4.2.2 - Earth filling (embankment construction)
When the preliminary phases of workshop preparation (e.g. borrow area, service roads,
embankment footprint and foundation trench) are concluded, the building of the earthfill
embankment can start.
Layer preparation
Fill material is carried in the dumping area by dump trucks. Then bulldozers or graders
should spread the earth discharged by trucks in a layer not thicker than 2530 cm. While they are
carrying the material, bowl scrapers can also spread and level the soil. During soil spreading, it is
fundamental to avoid the fills segregation and the partition of earth particles into lumps of the same
grain size. This phenomenon can be very dangerous because the fills permeability will in some
zones be different than the general permeability of the embankment. For small embankments,
proper material is not selected with care during the preparation of the borrow-area. In fact, the type
of machines, which allow an accurate material selection, is too expensive for small hydraulic works.
This is why in the latters fill it will be possible to find oversize rocks or an excessive quantity of
gravel or rubble material, carried in the embankment by trucks. These materials will have to be
removed from the layer to which they belong before its compaction. Sometimes, it will be useful to
leave some workmen in the embankment to carry out from the fill oversize rocks and other
improper materials (e.g. roots, rubble and shrub). (See figure 4.4).
The technician overseeing the works should regularly verify the earthfills dimensions (e.g.
level, layer thickness and width), using instruments adequate to each task, such as an automatic
level and band chain.
SECTION IV- 11/42
Fig. 4.4 Fill spreading

Watering
In watering the fill, one should aim at achieving the optimum moisture content, previously
calculated through the Proctor compaction test. There are two principal procedures to correct the
moisture content of the borrow material. The first one consists in sprinkling the soil in the borrow
area, before or after bulldozers do the earthworks. It happens rarely that the moisture content is
higher than the one desired, and that the borrow area has to be drained rather than moistened.
The second procedure consists in sprinkling the fill with water directly in the dumping zone,
when it has already been spread and levelled (see figure 4.5). In this case the lift has to be disked
and mixed (with disks and barrows), before, during and after sprinkling. The moisture content
should be uniformly distributed throughout the spread lift before compaction. The first procedure to
correct the moisture content in the fill normally ensures greater moisture homogeneity, but it is not
always suitable for arid and semi-arid regions. In these zones, the materials moisture can be
substantially reduced while it is being shifted from the borrow area to the embankment
construction. The first procedure is also engine and truck un-friendly, as earthworks are harder to
carry out if the soil is wet.
SECTION IV- 12/42
Fig. 4.5 Fill surface layer watering

Compacting
When the lift is well levelled and the fill has reached the right moisture content, it is possible
to start the layer compaction with the proper roller device. There are four main kinds of roller
machines:
-
pneumatic tyred rollers
tamping rollers
sheepsfoot rollers
vibrating rollers
The selection of the proper roller device depends to a great extent upon the characteristics of
the borrow material and particularly from its grain size. Sheepsfoot rollers have to be preferred
when the clay content is particularly high. Otherwise, tamping rollers are more effective. Both of
them are generally towed by a tractor. Vibrating rollers have been introduced recently, and they can
be used on all kinds of fill (see figure 4.6). However, they tend to be more expensive than
sheepsfoot and tamping rollers. Pneumatic tyred rollers are preferable for soil consolidation. The
embankment design will normally specify how many trips the roller should do for achieving a good
compaction of the layer. The roller has to complete its trip one or more times on the whole lift
before moving on to the subsequent layer.
There are also two kinds of small manually operated machines, frog rammers and vibrating
plates, used for compacting narrow areas, or concrete or gabion structures, where roller machines
SECTION IV- 13/42
cannot work (see figure 4.7).
Fig. 4.6 Vibrating rollers
SECTION IV- 14/42
Fig. 4.7 Frog rammers

Bonding between earth layers
Due attention should be paid to achieving a perfect bonding between two superposed lifts,
especially if vibrating rollers are doing layers compacting. In fact, in this case, the layers surface
is very smooth, and it will be necessary to scarify it with disks for obtaining a good bonding with
the superposed layer (see figure 4.8). If the lower layer is too dry, preventive watering of its surface
is also necessary to improve the bonding between the two layers.
Sometimes, for a better organisation of the workshop, the earthfill can be preventively
divided in two portions. So, as trucks carry the fill to one earthfill portion, the engines will be
preparing and compacting the material previously transported to the other portion. In this case the
line separating the earthfill in two portions should be parallel to the embankment axe (see figure
4.9). If, for workshop organisation purposes, the separation between the portions has to be
perpendicular to the embankment axe, then particular attention should be paid to the layers
bonding. The lower layers bonding surface should be scarified thoroughly before starting to build
the adjacent one.
SECTION IV- 15/42
Fig. 4.8 Layer scarifying
SECTION IV- 16/42
Fig. 4.9 Layer division in two zones

Vertical and horizontal drains
Sometimes drains of graded material have to be inserted in the embankment to control the
water seepage in the earthfill. In small embankments trench drains are normally used. When these
drains do not have to be particularly large or deep, the most suitable method to construct them is as
follows:
-
build the earthfill up to the upper level of the drain,
dig the drains trench with an excavator,
fill-in the trench with the proper material.

It can be useful to mark the drains lower exit downstream the embankment.
Insertion of water pipes

Pipes inserted in the embankment must be placed directly on natural soil to minimise the
risk of settlement. In fact, if the pipe were placed on the earthfill, a differential settlement of the
earthfill could give rise to leakages. Some cut-off collars (at least two) have to be realised around
the pipe to lengthen, and thereby retard, the infiltration path and to minimise the risk of an
important seepage (USDA NRCS. 1997). It is necessary to take care of the fills compaction around
the pipe (see figure 4.10).
Each pipe ought to be installed in a trench dug purposely into natural soil. The trench should
be wide enough to contain the pipe and a layer of earthfill surrounding it. Methods for pipe
placement largely depend on pipe size and material. Plastic pipes can be installed manually. Instead,
cranes or excavators, which will generally be available in situ, are used for installing steel and
reinforced concrete pipes (see figure 4.11). A lot of care should be put in joining the pipe elements,
because leaks from the pipe provoke important seepage, which can be very dangerous for the
embankments overall safety.
SECTION IV- 17/42
Fig. 4.10 Cut-off collars preparation
Fig. 4.11 a
SECTION IV- 18/42
Fig. 4.11 b
Fig. 4.11 c
SECTION IV- 19/42
Fig. 4.11 d
Fig. 4.11 (a,b,c,d) - Placement of pipe elements in a small dam built at Akala, in the Keita zone,
Niger. Pipe elements are built manually with reinforced concrete. They are 2 meters long each, their
interior diameter is 1.4 m and the concretes thickness is 0.1 m. Pipes are built with the moulds that
are used in the construction of well casing.
4.2.3 - Finishing works
Protection of the embankments up- and down-stream slopes
In a large impoundment, the wind can produce waves, the height of which depends on the
wind fetch. Upstream, the embankment must be protected from these waves. On the other hand,
downstream it has to be protected against the erosion provoked by runoff or by the passage of cattle.
A layer of rip-rap is generally enough to protect the embankment of small dams. Stones composing
SECTION IV- 20/42
the rip-rap should weight between 770 kg. This layer is generally put in place manually and it
requires a small foundation trench on its foot (see figure 4.12). Sometimes the interposition of a
gravel layer can function as a filter between the embankment and the rip-rap.
Fig. 4.12 Rip-rap realisation

Gutters on the embankments wings
Earthfill erosion provoked by the runoff sliding down from the hills on the embankments
shoulders represents a constant menace to all the different structures composing a hydraulic work.
To protect the latter, gutters can be constructed with the function to collect and evacuate the runoff
coming from upstream. (see figure 4.13).
SECTION IV- 21/42
Fig. 4.13 Gutters

4.2.4 - Supervision and control
In situ compaction test during construction
Normally, in the course of the embankments construction, some tests have to be performed
to verify if a number of characteristics specified in the design are present in process of compaction.
These tests mainly consist in earthfills density and permeability checks. The procedure used for
conducting these tests are illustrated in chapter III. In situ tests should be performed by a skilled
technician provided with the proper equipment. A preliminary verification of the fills moisture
content can be done, for example, computing the quantity of water added to the fill and carried by
tank trucks on the embankment in a determinate period of time.
Seepage checking under and within the embankment
A small dam undergoes its first test when water fills the impoundment for the first time. If
the water reaches a relatively high level in the impoundment and remains stable at this level for
some days, a portion of the embankment becomes saturated and a steady-state seepage condition is
reached in the earthfill (see figure 4.14). If the steady-state phreatic surface is close to the
downstream side of the embankment, the latter is dampened by capillarity. If, as sometimes
happens, springs appear on the sides of the embankment, it generally means that the phreatic line
has intercepted the embankments slope. These springs can also be caused by an imperfect earthfill
realisation, with some zones with higher permeability than the average. One should always take
note of the time elapsing between impoundment filling and the emergence of wettings or springs
downstream the embankment. If this time figure is significantly shorter than the time theoretically
required for the water infiltration in the earthfill, then we can deduce that wettings and springs are
caused by a discontinuity in the earthfills permeability.
When springs appear downstream the embankment, their flow rate should be constantly
SECTION IV- 22/42
checked. If the quantity of water flowing is negligible and the water is very clear, there should not
be immediate danger of earthfill blow-out. On the contrary, if the sprinkling water is not clear, it
means that the water seeping through the earthfill contains some clay. This can be very dangerous
because the discharge of flow usually tends to rise, transporting increasingly higher amounts of
material, until it creates a drain in the earthfill, causing the embankments blow-out for seepage.
If a spring with the above mentioned characteristics appears downstream the earthfill, a
small bund, made of earth or of sacs filled with sable, should be built around the spring to increase
the water level. This should cause the water gradient between the embankment upstream and
downstream to reduce and consequently diminish the seepage. Generally, the fine material carried
in the impoundment by runoff water tends to settle in the earthfill as the water keeps seeping. For
this reason the earthfills impermeability tends to increase and wettings and springs tend to
disappear from downstream the earthfill.
Fig. 4.14 Steady-state seepage condition in the earthfill
Checking the settlement of earthfill and underlying soils

The actual levels of the substructures of which a hydraulic work is composed (e.g. embankment top,
spillway crest and pipeline) should match as closely as possible the values established in the design.
The settlement of each level should therefore be carefully attended to. Earthfill and foundation soils
are subject to a primary settlement that takes place in the short term, while the embankment is still
being constructed and immediately afterwards. A secondary settlement takes place, instead, in the
long term, due to the water retained by the clay component of the soil. This settlement requires
greater attention by our part, as its prolonged unfolding involves higher risks for the structure. In
general, it can be said that the higher the soils clay content, the more protracted its settlement. If
the clay content in the soil foundation or in the earthfill is high, checks will have to be carried out
periodically for about two years. In presence of a high clay content, it will be convenient to build
the earthfill up to a level slightly higher than the one specified in the design, in view of the
subsidence caused by the foundation soils settlement.
Differential settlement paces of earthfill and foundation soil can also cause a leak in the
embankment. The risk that a leak of this sort appears remains for up to two years after the
completion of the earthfills construction.
SECTION IV- 23/42
4.3 GABIONS WORKS

4.3.1 - Site preparation
The general remarks concerning earthworks site preparation hold true also for gabion
structures. However, in gabion structures building the means employed and the manoeuvres
involved are significantly reduced.
Siting of works
The first step in building gabion works consists in pegging the structures, according to the
design. Then it will be possible to begin the excavations for the gabions foundation layer.
Preparation of the foundation layer
An important advantage of gabions with respect to other construction materials is that they
can be directly placed on any type of soil. In spite of that, especially in hydraulic structures, it will
be preferable to avoid direct contact between gabions and natural soil. In fact, particularly if there is
a high clay percentage in the soil, water passing through and on the structure can scour the soil. In
this case, it is suggested to interpose a layer of graded material (i.e. with a small percentage of clay)
between gabions and soil. This layer has to levelled and compacted thoroughly before gabions are
placed upon it (see figure 4.15). This layer can be easily compacted with the aid of manually
operated machines, with small engines, such as frog rammers and vibrating plates. Roller engines,
in fact, would not suit the purpose, due to the limited size of the foundation layer. If small machines
are not available, then adequate manual tools must be employed (see figure 4.16).
SECTION IV- 24/42
Fig. 4.15 Preparation of foundation layer for gabions placement
Fig 4.16 Manually compacted layer

SECTION IV- 25/42
Use of geotextile
As mentioned above, where water could flow directly through gabions, the contact between
gabions and natural soil should be protected against scours. If the water flow is expected to be
heavy, the interposition of a foundation layer would be inadequate, and the insertion of a layer of
geotextile between gabions and natural soil or foundation material is always preferable. Geotextile
is a tough woven permeable plastic sheet. There are several kinds of geotextile, suitable for
different requirements. However, the best suited to be used with gabions is the quality weighting
between 500 and 700 g/m2. For its peculiar characteristics, geotextile allows the passage of water,
but protects from scours the material placed upon gabions. To avoid leaks in the geotextile, a
smooth foundation layer has to be preventively prepared, and gabions must be placed on the
geotextile with great care. (see figure 4.17).
Given that geotextile is relatively expensive, as well as generally hard to find in developing
countries, it may be substituted with different, cheaper materials, easier to find locally. In particular,
it has been some years now that in the above-mentioned PDR/ADM, plastic sacks appropriately
sewn together to form rolls of the required height are used instead of geotextile. These sacks are
made of interwoven thin plastic stripes, and are therefore sufficiently permeable to the purpose
required here.
Fig. 4.17 Placement of geotextile
SECTION IV- 26/42
4.3.2 - Gabions building

There are several techniques for gabions basket assembling, filling and closing (TerraAqua
Gabion Systems. 1998, Maccaferri 1990c). In developing countries, the financial means available
for building gabions are generally extremely limited, in which case the most convenient method for
gabions construction is detailed below. Each phase of the procedure is schematically illustrated in
figure 4.18.
Fig. 4.18 Method for gabion construction

Setting up gabion baskets
Gabions are carried to the workshop folded. First of all, once they reach the workshop,
gabion nets have to be completely opened and stretched out on the soil (see figure 4.19). Then, they
have to be assembled, lacing the sides of the four corner-edges (see figure 4.20). The lacing can be
done with manual or automatic tools. In developing countries, the utilisation of manual and selfmade tools is always more appropriate than the utilisation of automatic or semi-automatic tools. In
this phase, it is also necessary to lace interior diaphragms, if they exist, to the bottom and to the
SECTION IV- 27/42
sides of the gabion basket. Meshed diaphragms are meant to divide the gabion in different
compartments, so as to avoid stones shifting and to contribute maintaining the original gabion
shape.
Fig. 4.19 Gabions net opening
SECTION IV- 28/42
Fig. 4.20 Gabions basket assembling

Placing
The assembled gabion basket is then put in place and joined, by lacing, with the next one.
The same method adopted for assembling gabion baskets has to be used to join gabions between
one another, and to the structure. In doing so, it will be very important to respect gabions and
structures dimensions and ranging (see figure 4.21).
SECTION IV- 29/42
Fig. 4.21 Gabions positioning

Filling
The number of gabions to be positioned before starting to fill them up, largely depends on
the structures overall shape and the workshops organisation. For example, if there is a chance that
runoff occurs during gabions building, as many gabions should be put out as can be readily filled
and closed. The rubble for gabions filling has to be selected in advance. Ideally, gabions filling
should be composed of durable stones, free of cracks or major flaws. Sometimes, the structure is
located close to a streambed, where rounded cobbles are plentiful. In this case, especially if the
stream is rather small, to preserve the streambeds natural armour cobbles should not be extracted
downstream the structure, but only upstream.
SECTION IV- 30/42
Rubble gradation is based on gabion thickness and grid size (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
PROSPECT Training Course. 1994). The smallest stone must generally be larger than the wire
mesh openings (usually of about 10 cm) and the largest one should still be easy to pack in the
gabion with the other stones. The stones size is generally 15-30 cm. Manual filling of gabions is to
be preferred to mechanical filling, because the rubble can be placed in the basket more precisely,
diminishing the occurrence of voids. Mechanical filling can also cause unwanted stress to the net.
The rubble has to be arranged in layers in the baskets, so as to minimise the voids in the gabions
and to respect gabions shape. Horizontal and vertical bracing wires should be put inside the baskets
to strengthen them by pulling together the baskets opposite sides (see figure 4.22). These bracing
wires are generally made of the same material used for the confection of gabions baskets. The
distance between two bracing wires must not be higher than 35 cm. It will be useful to verify that
the top level of a line of gabions is straight before closing them (see figure 4.22b).
Fig. 4.22 Bracing wires placement
SECTION IV- 31/42
Fig. 4.22 b Verification of top level of gabions before closing them

Superposing
Hydraulic structures are generally composed of superposed layers of gabions. The first layer
has to be completed before starting to build the overhanging one. When a layer of gabions is
superposed to another layer, the two layers should be strongly laced to one another before starting
to fill the overhanging one (see figure 4.23). Sometimes, in structures with a stepped shape, only a
part of the superposed layer rests on a lower layer of gabions. The remaining part rests directly on
the earthfill. In this case, the underlying earthfill has to be compacted carefully, and its adherence to
the lower layer of gabions should be ensured before superposing the next layer (see figure 4.24).
SECTION IV- 32/42
Fig. 4.23 Superposing of gabion layers
Fig. 4.24 Fill compaction next to the gabion

SECTION IV- 33/42
4.3.3 - Making weirs impervious

After completion of the gabion weir structure, it is generally necessary to make it
impervious to keep the water level atop the weir.
Geotextile and earthfill
The best way to waterproof a weir structure is to realise an earthfill layer in contact to the
structure upstream, as shown in figure 4.25. In this case, a stepped superior surface of the structure
will facilitate the bonding between weir and earthfill. Before building the earthfill, a geotextile layer
should be laid on the weirs, as shown in figure 4.26. The fill has to be put in place with care to
avoid damaging the geotextile.
Fig. 4.25 Earthfill used to waterproof the weir
SECTION IV- 34/42
Fig 4.26 Geotextile placement

Plaster
Another method to make a weir impervious consists in plastering the structures superior
surface with a particular cement mortar. This lining is a few centimetres thick and can be damaged
by structure settlements. Hence, this method should be adopted only if the above-mentioned
method, which uses earthfill to waterproof the weir, is not practicable. Plastering should be avoided
by all means if the foundation soils contain an important percentage of clay, because in this case
substantial settlements are particularly likely to occur.
4.3.4 - Protection of stilling basin bottom
Filter layer and lining with blocks
Sometimes, as already explained in paragraph 3.3.3, the portion of stilling basin bottom
close to the weir is lined with gabions, and the other portion is lined with large stones. In this case, a
rubble layer has to be spread in the stilling basin before placing the layer of stones. Rubble is meant
to keep the stones from sinking in the natural soil, especially if the soil contains a high amount of
clay. If a proper compactor is not available in the workshop, the rubble layer can be compacted with
an engine, such as a bulldozer or an excavator. When the rubble layer is completed, dump trucks
can carry the stones in the stilling basin. During stones placement attention should be paid to avoid
damaging the gabions (see figure 4.27).
SECTION IV- 35/42
Fig. 4.27 Lining of stilling basin with blocks

Reinforced concrete lining
Sometimes, it is not enough to shield the stilling basin with stones, and a apron made of
gabions should be added to protect the weirs foot in particular. A number of factors should be kept
under control (e.g. weir height, water level, characteristics of rubble filling the gabions, and grain
size of the material transported by runoff), lest gabions are damaged. A typical kind of damage is
net tear, provoked by the rubbing of runoff debris against the wire of gabion baskets. Another
frequent type of damage consists in gabions emptying, caused by the crumbling of rubble within the
baskets due to the continuous collisions provoked by waters motion (see figure 4.28). However,
most of these damages can be avoided by adding a lining in reinforced concrete (see figure 4.29).
The lining is realised with concrete slabs about 20 cm thick and of limited dimensions, to avoid
cracks provoked by thermal stresses. They have to be two-way slabs with welded wire fabric.
Reinforcing iron bars have to be placed along the two principal axes if welded wire fabric is not
available. The bars diameter should reach almost 14 mm. The slabs reinforcement has to be
anchored to underlying gabions with steel bars. These bars must be sunk with concrete in the rubble
of gabions (see figure 4.30). Plastic pipes have to be inserted vertically in the slabs to discharge the
water pressure underneath the concrete. The distance between two pipes should be of about 1 m.
SECTION IV- 36/42
Fig. 4.28 Damages in the gabions
SECTION IV- 37/42
Fig. 4.29 Lining of stilling basin with slabs of reinforced concrete
SECTION IV- 38/42
Fig. 4.30 Anchoring bars for slabs

4.3.5 - Lining of weir crest
Sometimes the weirs crest also requires a lining in reinforced concrete, to prevent damages
in the gabions provoked by transported material rubbing on the wire. This lining also contributes to
avoid that grass and shrubs, transported by water, get entangled in the net wire. It should be noted
that the entanglement with these transported materials normally tends to modify and enlarge the
shape of the weirs structure. All the recommendations already suggested for the stilling pools
lining should be considered valid also for the weirs crest.
4.3.6 Counterweirs lining and anchoring
Grass and shrubs carried by water can cause to counterweirs the same problems seen with
reference to weir crests. For this reason, the lining of counterweir can sometimes be necessary. The
same procedure used to build the stilling basin and the weir crest lining can be used to line the
counterweir. It might be useful to anchor the counterweir to the foundation soil, to prevent structure
sliding. In this case, some anchor piles, in wood or steel depending on material availability, should
be placed in the counterweir. The depth at which piles should be anchored is conditional upon the
expected stress entity and the foundation soils characteristics. An example of the construction of a
counterweir anchored with steel piles is shown in figure 4.31.
SECTION IV- 39/42
Fig. 4.31- Lining and anchoring a counterweir, Keitas Valley in Niger, 1999.
SECTION IV- 40/42
4.3.7 - Earth-gabions interface

In the first part of this paragraph we have already discussed the contact between gabions and
earthfill or natural soil. This is the most delicate aspect of gabion structures, especially if they are
exposed to water passage. Water flowing through gabions can give rise to scouring in the earth
layer, below and at the sides of the gabion. This phenomenon is generally caused by the
acceleration of water flowing in the channels created by gabion voids as gabions narrow down. The
water flow progressively removes the finest earth particles, resulting in the gabions settlement.
Once gabions stabilise after their initial settlement, this phenomenon could stop, if all the clay
contained in the soil has been transported away. However, the scour could also continue, removing
other portions of earth below and around the gabion until the complete failure of the structure
eventually occurs.
Two main precautionary measures can be adopted to stop the scour created by the water
flow:
-
avoid the direct contact between gabions and natural soil or earthfill,
reduce the amount and/or the rapidity of waters flowing through the gabion structures.
In the first part of this paragraph, we have already shown how the interposition of a layer of
properly graded material or of geotextile could avoid the problems caused by the direct contact
between gabions and natural soil or earthfill. This precautionary measure is generally sufficient for
all normal gabion structures. But, if the water flowing through the gabions is heavy, it will be useful
to provide extra protection to the weakest parts of the gabion structure. In fact, a substantial water
flow, in the long run, can damage even geotextile or properly-graded material layers placed below
or on the sides of gabions structure.
Critical points that could require extra protection in a gabion structure are:
-
anchorage of a weir in the earthfill on the gabions structures shoulders,
toe of a weir or a counterweir,
gabion walls on the wings of a water channel,
stilling basin downstream of a weir.
In these points, it will be useful to insert semi-pervious or impervious cut-off screens to stop
or reduce the water flow. Semi-pervious screens can be realised with a layer of geotextile inserted
between two gabions. In this case, to secure a good lacing between the gabions, staples should be
inserted in the geotextile layer after its placement on the gabion side (see figure 4.32). Then these
staples will be used to lace the first gabion with the second one, once the latter has been placed.
On the contrary, impervious screens can be realised inserting walled gabions in the structure.
These walled gabions are built in the same way as normal gabions but, during basket filling, voids
between stones are completely filled with concrete (see figure 4.33). Adding a small percentage of
bentonite to the concrete mix will give some flexibility to the structure for the first curing period.
Semi-pervious screens, realised with the interposition of a layer of geotextile between two
gabions, are generally more functional than impervious screens in concrete. Two are the main
advantages of the first technique:
SECTION IV- 41/42
semi-pervious screens are permeable to air and water,
concrete screens do not settle together with structure settlement as semi-pervious screens do.
Fig. 4.32 Semi-permeable cut-off screens
Fig 4.33 Impervious cut-off screens

SECTION IV- 42/42

HYDRAULIC WORKS
SECTION 5
MAINTENANCE OF HYDRAULIC WORKS
Table of Contents
5.1 DESIGN AND BUILDING METHODS TO DIMINISH THE MAINTENANCE...............2
5.2 - LOCAL PEOPLES PARTICIPATION ............................................................................ 5
5.3 MAINTENANCE OF EARTH STRUCTURES.................................................................... 7
5.4 MAINTENANCE OF GABIONS STRUCTURES..............................................................11
5.5 RETENTION DAMS MAINTENANCE............................................................................. 14
SECTION V- 1/17
It is very unlikely that a hydraulic structure, no matter how accurately built, will never
require some kind of ordinary or extraordinary maintenance. In the first paragraph of this chapter,
the methodology to follow in designing and building a hydraulic structure so as to minimise future
maintenance tasks is considered. In the following paragraph, instead, we will highlight the
importance of the participation and involvement of the local population, the direct beneficiaries of
hydraulic structures, in the management and maintenance of the structures, and we shall consider
some ways in which this involvement can be promoted. In the two following paragraphs, we will
focus on the maintenance requirements of, respectively, earth dams and gabions structures. Finally,
the last paragraph illustrates a selection of methods to protect a retention dams storage volume
from sedimentation.
5.1 DESIGN AND BUILDING METHODS TO DIMINISH THE MAINTENANCE
Precautionary measures to avoid substantial maintenance tasks
The chances are few that, in developing countries, a small scale hydraulic structure damaged
by excessive runoff will be repaired steadfastly. For this reason, it is necessary to design and build
hydraulic works so as to prevent them from being even slightly damaged in the first place. Damages
are most often caused by excessive runoff, but other common factors, such as damages provoked by
the passage of cattle across the earthfill, should also be taken into consideration.
In order to avoid providing continuous maintenance to a hydraulic structure, a number of
precautions should be adopted both in the design and in the building phase. During design, two
principal precautionary measures can be taken: over-dimensioning and attention to details. In the
building phase, instead, great care should be put in following closely the projects guidelines and
technical details. These measures are detailed in the following paragraphs.
Over-dimensioning
One of the main problems facing the engineer charged with designing a hydraulic structure
in a developing country consists in the scarcity, if not the absolute lack, of data concerning the
hydrological regime of a water course. In order to make up for the lack of information on regional
hydrology, the engineer will have to identify other areas that have been interested by the appropriate
investigations. The hydrological characteristics of the area in question will then be extrapolated
from those available for other, previously studied, areas.
However, this way of coping with lack of data introduces a degree of approximation in ones
calculations that is difficult to quantify. Therefore, in calculating the design flow of the hydraulic
structure to be built, it is possible to oversize or downsize mistakenly the actual figures. If the
approximation adopted leads to results that exceed the actual measures required by the considered
area, the only problem which could arise consists in building works which go beyond the effective
necessities, expanding unnecessarily the related costs. However, if the calculated design flow is
inferior to the one required by local conditions, this may put the structure in serious danger, leading,
e.g., to the overflow of an earth dam due to the spillways inadequacy to evacuate the flow.
In this case, even if the structures complete failure does not occur, excessive overflow risks
to repeatedly damage various elements of the structure. For instance, it could provoke the settlement
of a gabions line as a consequence of the erosion of the underlying foundation layer.
If overlooked, these apparently minor damages can progressively increase their significance
to the point of putting at serious risk the whole structure. To obviate to this problem, it is preferable
SECTION V- 2/17
to opt for over-dimensioning when, in designing a hydraulic structure, knowledge about

hydrological characteristics was reached by approximation. Over-dimensioning will inevitably lead
to an increase in total structure costs, but this is compensated by the diminished maintenance
requirements. For example, over-dimensioning a dams spillway, the hydraulic head will decrease,
thereby reducing channel usage and, consequently, maintenance requirements.
Taking care of details
In the design phase, even the smallest detail should be accurately taken into account, so as
minimise future problems. E.g., designing the spillway channel section, it is always useful to
predispose the installation of gutters in the banks shoulders in order to evacuate rain water and to
avoid bank erosion. Particular care should be put in designing the interface area between gabions
and natural soil or earthfill. It is expedient to ensure that the soil or other material surrounding the
gabions is not removed by water, causing the eventual overflow of the gabions structure. Some
methods that, if applied, allow to obviate to this kind of inconvenient were illustrated above, in
chapters 5 and 7.
In designing a weir, one should always prepare its cross-section in a way to ensure that the
water discharge is concentrated at its centre, reducing the discharge in proximity of the basins
edges, usually the weakest structure parts and the ones in greatest need of frequent maintenance
interventions.
To obtain this result, the crests section should be designed slightly sloping toward the
centre. Gabions arranged in a stepped shape can also be added to the crest in proximity to its sides.
Installing this auxiliary stepped gabions structure will also protect the earthfill built on top of the
weirs shoulders in order to waterproof them.
Fig. 5.1 Weirs cross-section
SECTION V- 3/17
In arid and semi-arid zones, water stagnation in the spillway and spillway channel should be
carefully avoided, as, otherwise, it will facilitate the growth of vegetation. Vegetation has to be
periodically removed, lest it partially obstructs the spillway section, reducing the spillways
capacity to evacuate the required water volume. One way to avoid water stagnation is to design the
spillway channel with a reverse slope.
Realisation phase
All the structural elements of a hydraulic work have to be skilfully built in order to reduce
maintenance requirements. It may help the reader, at this point, to recapitulate the key
recommendations with particular reference to the functioning of gabions. Gabions foundation layer
should be carefully prepared, adding, when necessary, a layer of geotextile to protect all the areas
exposed to water passage. In applying geotextile, it is necessary to verify that the junction between
different rolls is properly realised, making sure that adjacent layers are partially overtopping and
sewn together at the edges.
Attention should be given to the earthfill on top of the gabions. The geotextile should be
carefully laid and tied to gabions with iron staples. Beforehand, it will be necessary to verify that
pieces of wire that could tear the geotextile do not stick out the gabions weir. Finally, the fill is
carefully discharged from the trucks, paying attention not to deposit it too close to the gabions, as
over-size stones could otherwise damage gabions and/or geotextile. The fill should be laid down in
relatively thin layers, trying to avoid agglomerations of large-grain material close to the geotextile.
The material should be humidified while it is being spread. Close to gabions, the fill should be
compacted with the apposite manual tools, to avoid tearing the gabion weir.
Rubber and stones filling gabions should have a adequate sizes, in order to prevent the
emptying out of gabions. Bracing weirs and diaphragms, if present, should be fixed tautly and
firmly. Closing up the gabions, the weir should be properly straightened on each side of the gabion.
All these measures are meant to ensure that stones do not move and shake when water passes
through gabions structures. At the closing up of gabions, it should be accurately checked that parts
of weir and wires do not stick out the structure, as grass and/or shrubs could otherwise remain
attached to these, augmenting the gabions volume and endangering their stability.
SECTION V- 4/17
5.2 - LOCAL PEOPLES PARTICIPATION

Involvement of the local population in the maintenance of hydraulic works
The involvement of local people in management and maintenance is fundamental to the
efficient and long lasting functioning of small hydraulic works of the kind discussed here. As has
already been mentioned, in developing countries it hardly ever happens that the public institutions
in charge intervene rapidly to repair a damaged hydraulic structure, due to a lack of necessary
resources. In general, it can be said that when a hydraulic work is damaged its functionality is not
entirely impaired. However, if damages are constantly left un-repaired, at each subsequent flood the
entity of damages is increased in size and number, and the chances of structure failure become
higher.
Therefore, primary responsibility for structure maintenance falls upon its direct
beneficiaries. However, it is most often the case that the local population disposes of very limited
means, and it is therefore necessary to conceive and build the structure so as to minimise future
maintenance requirements. What local people can do, instead, is to charge themselves with the
careful management of the hydraulic structure so as to prevent maintenance requirements in the first
place. This also means that they will take on themselves all ordinary maintenance tasks. The degree
of involvement and direct intervention in the management of the structure by the part of
beneficiaries depends upon the local social and economic context.
A hydraulic structure damaged, e.g., by a catastrophic flood, will generally require
expensive interventions of extraordinary maintenance. The local population cannot usually afford to
pay for this kind of interventions, which will have to be financed by the public institutions in
charge.
Ideally, when hydraulic structures are built in a developing country, it would be preferable
to increase and/or strengthen the local entrepreneurial class through the contemporary promotion of
socio-economic development initiatives, in addition to promoting local peoples direct involvement
in the works. The economic and professional growth of a local entrepreneurial class is, in fact,
crucial to the areas development and could take up an important role in the maintenance of local
infrastructures.
Management
The expression hydraulic structures management entails all those measures which should
be taken to ensure a smooth functioning and utilisation of the structure/s in question, aimed at
minimising maintenance requirements. For instance, when a retention dam is realised in a zone with
a pastoral vocation, passages should be predisposed to give animals an easy access to the
impoundment. In so doing, it will be necessary to avoid cattle passage through the dams main body
and the gabions structures, which could otherwise be damaged. The transit of vehicles and heavy
trucks on the earthfill and gabions structures, which could cause breakage in the weir, should also
be avoided. With reference to an embankment, areas adjacent to the earthfill should not be
cultivated, as the agricultural exploitation of these areas may lead to rip-rap damage and erosion.
Hunters should be kept from opening or burning gabions structures to catch small wild
animals which sometime build their den inside them.
Often, in earth dams, water seeping through the earthfill is used for human needs. However,
waterholes and wells should not be dug immediately downstream the earthfill, or even within its
valley outreach, because these will diminish seepage paths and increase the risk of seepage causing
earthfill blow out. In these circumstances it is appropriate to realise a catch system of seeping
SECTION V- 5/17
waters immediately downstream the earthfill.

Maintenance
A properly dimensioned and carefully built hydraulic structure should not require important
maintenance interventions, but only minor periodical checks. This kind of maintenance is usually at
the reach of local populations, as it does not imply significant financial resources, but only a certain
amount of motivation and organisational skills. For instance, it is essential that the good state of a
hydraulic work is ascertained, especially after important flood events, to make sure that major
damages have not occurred.
These ordinary maintenance tasks should be entrusted to a properly trained group of local
people, charged with periodical controls of the structure, and capable of identifying damages and
eventually repair them. Once damages have been identified and their importance toward the
structures functioning has been evaluated, the people in charge will establish whether the necessary
repairs can be carried out locally, or if recourse to external support is necessary. The commonest
damages which can interest earth and gabions structures, and the respective restoration methods, are
illustrated in the following paragraphs.
It would be preferable to select the local group in charge of the management, control, and
maintenance of the hydraulic structure since the initial stages of preparation and construction of the
structure. Once group members have been selected, they will have to receive appropriate training in
the activities that they will be carrying out subsequently. A fundamental part of training takes place
throughout structure building, when the group in question will understand how structural elements
are realised and will therefore acquire a practical knowledge of all the techniques that they will have
to reproduce in their future maintenance interventions. For this reason, it is important for them to be
directly involved in the structures construction.
In order to accumulate funds that may be required at some point, if extraordinary
maintenance measures become necessary, various forms of periodical contribution or taxation of the
structures direct beneficiaries should be assessed.
Obviously, the assessment should take into account the local socio-economic context.
However, various solutions can be considered, e.g. demanding that a small sum be paid by herders,
for each animal watered at the impoundment, or by the farmers irrigating their fields with water
from the impoundment, depending upon the acreage of the respective cultivated land area. In this
way, a small fund could be established through which even important maintenance tasks could be
autonomously subsidised by the local population. It would be possible, for instance, to acquire
gabions or cement to accomplish periodical structure restorations.
SECTION V- 6/17
5.3 MAINTENANCE OF EARTH STRUCTURES

Earthfill embankment protection
In this paragraph the main interventions of ordinary maintenance required by earth hydraulic
structures are described (USDA NRCS. 1997). Also common extraordinary maintenance tasks will
be briefly illustrated.
Avoiding vegetation growth
The growth of shrubs and trees on the earthfills crest and sides should be by all means
avoided. In fact, roots tend to reach for humid earth zones, i.e. they extend themselves toward the
impoundment. However, if the tree or shrub dies, its roots could putrefy and be eaten by a particular
kind of insects. This would open a void channel through the earthfill, in which water could
penetrate, thereby modifying the normal seepage regimen of the earthfill. This void channel, could
siphon off water, progressively increasing its diameter and eventually leading to the overlaying
earthfills blow out. It is therefore very important to periodically eliminate all the vegetation that
grows on or next to the earthfill, preventing the development of roots in the earth of which the
structure is made up.
Rip-rap maintenance
Protecting the earthfill with rip-rap is a key measure against erosion. The rip-raps good
state, threatened by the passage of cattle and/or erosion provoked by the thrust of waves in the
impoundment, should be constantly checked. In fact, un-protected earthfill areas are particularly
susceptible to erosion as, in these weaker parts, the fill is quickly removed by waves and rain water.
Small reparations
We have already mentioned the possibility that the direct beneficiaries of hydraulic works
take charge, whenever possible, of minor extraordinary maintenance tasks, periodically required by
the structure. Here, minor interventions refer to those repairs which can be easily accomplished
without making use of mechanical means. The entity of this kind of intervention is generally rather
modest, in the order of a few cubic meters of material to move. The tools required by small
maintenance interventions are very basic. A vehicle to carry building materials is usually necessary,
and, in the absence of machines or trucks, a small cart will do. A number of manual tools are also
needed, such as spades, axes, buckets and small tampers for preparing construction materials,
charging them on the apposite vehicle and installing them. Jute or plastic sacks, often easily
available locally, might also be required for urgent repairs.
Erosion
Whenever portions of the earthfill are removed by erosion caused by waves or rain water, or
by the passage of cattle, it is necessary to intervene promptly in order to re-establish the earthfill
original shape. This is a rather simple kind of intervention, consisting in bringing back the removed
material in superposed layers. Each layer will have to be adequately prepared, humidified, and
compacted, before the following layer can be laid upon it. Layers should not be very thick, so as to
achieve a good compacting effect with the manual tools employed. In order to achieve a good
SECTION V- 7/17
bonding between the pre-existing earthfill and the new layers added to repair eroded parts, the
former should be properly prepared in advance (all unevenness should be removed and then the
surface must be moistened and compacted).
Mending of fissures
Sometimes fissures may form in a dams earthfill. It is possible to distinguish between two
types of crack, depending on their direction in relation to the embankments orientation, i.e. they
can be transversal or longitudinal with respect to the earthfill. These two kinds of fissures signal
anomalous phenomena of settlement of earthfill or foundation layer. In particular, transversal
fissures (fig. 5.2), often present on the earthfill shoulders, indicate a differential settlement of the
earthfill and the foundation layer between earthfill centre and sides. This phenomenon generally
takes place when one or both edge/s of the earthfill stand on a shoulder in a material not as soft as
that on which the earthfills central portion stands. To produce this kind of crack, the shoulder
should also be characterised by a significant slope. Longitudinal fissures, instead, are commonly
generated by slope instability (fig. 5.3). This phenomenon can concern only the earthfill slope, or
also its foundation layer.
Fig. 5.2 Transversal earthfill crack
SECTION V- 8/17
Fig. 5.3 Longitudinal earthfill crack

Both of the above mentioned phenomena are the outcome of a settlement process which can
take place in the initial period of the structures life, generally within 2 years since completion of its
construction. In the first case, the ground settles due to a secondary settlement of the clay
component in the foundation layer. A high clay content in the earthfill will contribute to this
situation. In the second example, slope instability is usually brought about by the presence of
groundwater, appearing in the earthfill as a consequence of the earthfills partial saturation caused
by impoundment filling. In both cases, a discontinuity of materials in the earthfill is realised.
In the case of the transversal crack, the fracture might result particularly dangerous, as it
could establish a preferential path for seepage waters, with the consequent risks of excessive
seepage in the earthfill. For this reason it is important to take notice of this phenomenon, when it
occurs, especially if it is followed by significant seepage. However, for small scale structures of the
kind discussed here, the earthfill generally maintains such a high degree of plasticity, and its height
is so limited, that the crack tends to close up again, and the material at the cracks sides mixes
spontaneously, thanks to the weight of the superposed material. Therefore, the crack is likely to stay
compact towards the base and the inner part of the earthfill, while it shows itself at the exterior and
on the earthfill crest. If such is the case, the crack in the earthfill crest will have to be closed with an
earthfill patch. The outer layer forming the crack should be removed down to the cracks origin in
the earthfill. Then, the interior layer of the excavation is compacted, following the procedure which
has already been described.
On the other hand, a crack longitudinal to the earthfill, likely to have been caused by slope
instability, is subject to further slippages toward the eartfills inner core, in concomitance to new
instability events (fig. 5.3). The earthfill section itself could consequently result modified, and the
crest might experience a dangerous drop. This problem can be avoided by altering the earthfill slope
adding stability to its section. An earthfill berm can be installed at the embankments toe (fig. 5.4a), or the earthfill slope itself can be decreased (fig. 5.4-b).
SECTION V- 9/17
Fig. 5.4 Methods for stabilising the earthfill upstream side (a and b)
Seepage
Sometimes, a few days after the first filling of the impoundment, extreme humidity and
water sources may appear at the earthfill downstream side. In paragraph 7.2.4 the causes which give
rise to this phenomenon are illustrated together with the procedure to follow in order to reduce
sources flow when it becomes excessive, i.e. augmenting the water level downstream by building a
small bund around the source. If the source flow is modest, the bund can be realised by carrying
some earth on the earthfill downstream side manually. However, to assure that this bund resists to
source water overtopping, it is preferable to build it with sacks filled with sandy material, rather
than merely accumulating loose earth.
SECTION V- 10/17
5.4 MAINTENANCE OF GABIONS STRUCTURES

Reparation of minor damages in gabions
One of the commonest damages that occur in gabions structures consists in the opening of
the gabion net. The latter can be torn away by the continuous thrust of materials carried by runoff
(e.g. sable, gravel and rubble) against iron wires. More rarely, gabions baskets open because they
have not been properly closed. When the net opens, the stones filling it up fall out, and the structure
loses all its weight and, consequently, its function. It should be noticed that gabions may empty
even without net tears. In fact, water out-flowing from a weir falls on the gabions situated
underneath the stilling basin. If the water outflow is particularly violent, due to both specific flow
and falls height, the stress against gabions will lead to the shaking and mutual thrust of stones
inside gabions. If the material of which the stones are made is fragile (e.g. laterite), stones will start
to crush into pieces small enough to fall outside the gabions net.
In all of these instances it is necessary to intervene to repair the gabions. The intervention
needed is simple: it consists in opening up the gabions completely and emptying it of the material
left inside it. Now, it has to be filled again with new material following the procedure described
above (paragraph 7.3.2) and then closed, using the appropriate tools, normally used for gabions
closing. Great care should be put in reinstalling the bracing wires and diaphragms, if there were any
in the original gabion.
Minor structure repairs (excessive settlement, seepage)
If the appropriate precautions to prevent water from flowing at the interface between
gabions and natural soil or earthfill have not been taken (see paragraph 7.3.7), then a portion of
material in proximity to the gabion might be carried away with the flow. The removal of the
foundation layer will provoke the failure of the gabions structure (fig. 5.5). These problems can take
place also if the appropriate protection methods were not accurately realised. In all these situations,
a part of the structure falls, settling into a new shape, generally at a lower level. In order to remedy
to this damage, two methods can be followed. The first method consists in restoring the gabions
weir original shape recycling the damaged part, and placing other gabions on top of it. This method
is preferable, especially if the gabions are settled in a stable way. It is also important to eliminate
the causes (e.g. excessive water flow in the contact area between gabions and earth) which gave rise
to the settlement, and the consequent change in shape, in the first place, by adding semi-permeable
or impermeable cut-offs.
SECTION V- 11/17
Fig. 5.5 Damaged gabions structure with settlement

Instead, when the new shape taken by the structure after its initial settlement is unlikely to
be a definite one assuring structure stability, it will be preferable to substitute the damaged structure
part with a new one.
Sometimes, the passage of water in the contact area between gabions and earth removes the
fill, causing water seepage through the structure, without leading to gabions settlement and structure
partial failure (fig. 5.6). In this case the structure must be made impermeable again by restoring the
existing impermeable or semi-permeable cut-offs, or installing some new ones.
In all of these instances, in addition to the tools required for gabions installation, geotextile,
cement and also new gabions will be required for the reparation of gabions structures. These
interventions, therefore, will require considerable financial resources.
SECTION V- 12/17
Fig. 5.6 Damaged gabions structure without settlement
SECTION V- 13/17
5.5 RETENTION DAMS MAINTENANCE

Protection of the impoundment from solid sedimentation
An impoundment, built in the aim of stocking a certain amount of water discharge, is always
subject to sedimentation of the solid material transported by runoff water. Usually, coarse sediments
will be all deposited in the upstream zone of the impoundment, and fine sediments will be deposited
in the other zones of impoundment. Quantity of fine sediments deposited mainly depends from the
impoundment waters retention time and from sediments grain size. The amount of sediments that
can be transported by water discharge depends upon the entity of sediments production in the basin
(e.g. caused by water or wind erosion, or human activities such as agriculture), and on the
transportation capacity of the watercourse, as already briefly explained in the paragraph 2.6.
In order to limit the sedimentation of solid material in an impoundment, and thereby retard
its silting, it will be generally necessary to intervene at two levels: at the watershed level, and at the
level of the watercourse that feeds the impoundment.
Interventions in the streams watershed
The kind of interventions involving the watershed are mainly focused on fighting soil
erosion (USDA NRCS. 1997). These interventions are closely related to the kind of the soil in
question: e.g., in the case of sandy dunes, windbreaks are suitable, and in the case of barren clay
soils, bunds are preferable.
All human activities carried out within the watershed, which may cause a substantial
production of sediments, should also be avoided, or limited as much as possible. Some agricultural
techniques, such as ploughing, can give rise to significant amounts of sediments if they are not
carried out appropriately.
It is essential to try to avoid locating a watershed downstream areas which, for their very
morphology, are particularly likely to produce significant amounts of sediments. A typical
morphology to be avoided is, for instance, that of eroded clay hills, with a scanty vegetation cover.
Interventions in the streambed
The easiest kind of intervention aimed at limiting a watercourse solid transportation capacity
consists in reducing its slope. In chapter 5, we have seen the method used for installing a series of
weirs in an artificial or natural channel, so as to diminish its slope and consequently impede the
transportation of solid material exceeding a certain grain size. It is usually the final reach of the
main watercourses feeding the impoundment that should be appropriately treated: the reachs slope
should be measured and the so-called equilibrium profile of the watercourse should be calculated
using Shields diagram, having established the minimal diameter of material that will not be
transported. It will now be possible to design and build a series of gabions weirs along he
watercourse in question, so as to modify its original slope and change it into the equilibrium profile.
It will then be necessary to select the weirs position so as to maximise the volume of
sediments that can be supported upstream the weirs, retarding the sedimentation process. An
important intervention, which can be considered of ordinary maintenance, consists in periodically
raising the weirs level, especially for the weirs closest to the impoundment, realising a periodical
re-adjustment of the volume of sediments that they can support.
SECTION V- 14/17
Gabions weirs easily lend themselves to a progressive elevation process, which can be
accomplished by superposing on the crest successive layers of gabions, slightly staggered toward
upstream (fig. 5.7). These lines of gabions will have to be properly tied to the underlying gabions,
and waterproofed on their upstream surface.
Fig. 5.7 Rising of weirs level

This kind of task can be easily accomplished by the local population, especially if the latter
has been preventively trained and it disposes of the funds necessary for acquiring construction
materials (e.g. gabions and geotextile), as illustrated in par. 5.2.
Utilisation of the outlet system to remove sediments from the impoundment
If the procedures illustrated above are not feasible, or if they are not fully effective, water
discharge itself could be used to evacuate sediments from the impoundment. However, to achieve
this purpose, the impoundment should be endowed with an outlet system of a size appropriate to the
task. This outlet system should dispose of a closing device, at the same time reliable and easy to
manage. The outlet system could be a pipeline inserted in the earthfill (fig. 5.8), with a diameter
adequate to support an important water flow, thereby facilitating the evacuation of sediments.
SECTION V- 15/17
Fig. 5.8 Pipeline in the earthfill for the evacuation of sediments from the impoundment.
If the flow rate required for the evacuation of sediments has to be higher, it is possible to
open a supplementary passage in the spillway section, at a level lower than the spillway crests
level. An appropriate device for closing this newly opened lower portion of the spillway will be
identified and installed. In order to facilitate the evacuation of sediments, it will then be possible to
remove the closing device from the spillway sections lower opening. Though this portion of the
spillway, the water will flow at a specific rate, thanks to the increase in water charge, and its
capacity of sediments transportation will result increased (fig. 5.9).
SECTION V- 16/17
Fig. 5.9 Spillway cross section modified to allow periodical sediments evacuation from the
impoundment
Clearly, these devices have a limited effect toward the evacuation of sediments from an
impoundment, and cannot generally evacuate all the debris that the water flow carries inside of it.
Nevertheless, if they are properly dimensioned, these devices will evacuate sediments from the area
surrounding their inlet, thereby guaranteeing a minimum stockage volume against sedimentation in
the impoundment. It is very important to design and build closing devices that are extremely
reliable and easily manageable at the same time, thus simplifying as much as possible all the
management tasks to be carried out by the local population. To achieve a responsible involvement
of local people in the functioning of hydraulic works at all levels, even in specific details such as
the choice of a closing device, the local social and cultural system will have to be taken into due
consideration.
SECTION V- 17/17

Gavions in Small Hydraulics Works

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Gavions in Small Hydraulics Works

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USE OF GABIONS IN SMALL HYDRAULIC WORKS

USE OF GABIONS IN SMALL

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USE OF GABIONS IN SMALL HYDRAULIC WORKS

Fig. A.6.1 - Gabion mesh loom

Fig. A.6.2 Gabion mesh loom, plan

Basic tools required for gabion cage manufacturing:

bench wise for preparing the wire,

tongs for cutting the zinc-coated wire.

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USE OF GABIONS IN SMALL HYDRAULIC WORKS

The manufacture of a gabion cage is illustrated below step by step:

Fig. A.6.3 Wires cutting

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USE OF GABIONS IN SMALL HYDRAULIC WORKS

Fig. A.6.4 Pairs of wires preparation

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USE OF GABIONS IN SMALL HYDRAULIC WORKS

Fig. A.6.5 Pairs of wires disposition on the loom

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USE OF GABIONS IN SMALL HYDRAULIC WORKS

Fig. A.6.6 Pairs of wires disposition on the loom

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USE OF GABIONS IN SMALL HYDRAULIC WORKS

Fig. A.6.7 Wires twisting

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USE OF GABIONS IN SMALL HYDRAULIC WORKS

Fig. A.6.8 Completed mesh removed from the loom

Fig. A.6.9 Completed mesh

USE OF GABIONS IN SMALL HYDRAULIC WORKS

Fig. A.6.10 Gabion cage finally assembling

Fig. A.6.11 Gabion cages workshop

USE OF GABIONS IN SMALL HYDRAULIC WORKS

USE OF GABIONS IN SMALL

USE OF GABIONS IN SMALL HYDRAULIC WORKS

There is a considerable choice of types of hydraulic structures, and deciding which

1.1 CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO USE

PROTECTION OF FLOODPLAINS FROM

USE OF GABIONS IN SMALL HYDRAULIC WORKS

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USE OF GABIONS IN SMALL HYDRAULIC WORKS

Fig. 1.1 - Earthfill dam

Fig. 1.2 - Gabions weir

USE OF GABIONS IN SMALL HYDRAULIC WORKS

Fig. 1.3 - Earthfill dike

availability of construction materials (proper kind of earth; water availability),

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USE OF GABIONS IN SMALL HYDRAULIC WORKS

wide impounding reservoir in relation to runoff volume, with impervious substrate,

low stream transportation rates to retard reservoir sedimentation,

short distance from a frequented water point (storage dams),

wide impounding reservoir, with pervious substrate (water spreading dams),

soil characteristics adequate to support structure loads.

appropriate basin runoff characteristics (e.g. volume, temporal variability).

USE OF GABIONS IN SMALL HYDRAULIC WORKS

site topography fitting structure purposes.

1.3 INVESTIGATION PHASE

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USE OF GABIONS IN SMALL HYDRAULIC WORKS

Preliminary site survey

USE OF GABIONS IN SMALL HYDRAULIC WORKS

seepage. Particular specifications have to be defined prior to the installation of construction

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USE OF GABIONS IN SMALL HYDRAULIC WORKS