DrugTrafficking in India

P
roximity to the largest producers of heroin and hashish-the Golden Triangle

and Golden Crescent (Afghanistan-Pakistan-Iran) -has made India's
border vulnerable to drug trafficking. Indigenous production of low grade heroin
as well as various psychotropic and prescription drugs and their growing
demand in the neighbouring countries and international market have added a
new dimension to the problem of drug trafficking. Trends and patterns of drug
trafficking in the country demonstrate that there is a gradual shift from
traditional/natural drugs towards synthetic drugs that are being trafficked.
Trafficking of drugs takes place overwhelmingly through land borders followed
by sea and air routes. Given the vulnerability of the borders to drug trafficking,
India has tried to tackle the problem through the strategy of drug supply and
demand reduction, which involves enacting laws, co-operating with voluntary
organisations, securing its borders and coasts by increasing surveillance, as
well as seeking the active cooperation of its neighbours and the international
community.
Dr Pushpita Das is a Associate Fellow at the IDSA. She holds

a Ph.D degree from the Jawahar Lal Nehru University. Her
areas of interest in IDSA include Border Management, Coastal
Security and the Northeast.
Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses

No.1, Development Enclave, Rao Tula Ram Marg,
Delhi Cantt., New Delhi - 110 010
Tel.: (91-11) 2671-7983 Fax: (91-11) 2615 4191
E-mail: contactus@idsa.in Website: http://www.idsa.in
IDSA Occasional Paper No. 24
Drug Trafficking
in India:
A Case for
Border Security
Pushpita Das
Drug Trafficking in India: A Case for Border Security | 1
IDSA Occasional Paper No. 24
DRUG TRAFFICKING IN INDIA:

A CASE FOR B ORDER SECURITY
Pushpita Das
2 | Pushpita Das
Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses, New Delhi.

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First Published:
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Contents
Introduction .......................................................
Trends, Patterns and

Routes of Drug Trafficking ...............................
Counter Measures .............................................
38
Conclusion.........................................................
53
Annexures
Annexure I ........................................................
55
Annexure II ......................................................
57
Annexure III .....................................................
58
4 | Pushpita Das
Introduction
For the last three decades India has become a transit hub as well as a
destination for heroin and hashish produced in the Golden Triangle
and the Golden Crescent. In addition, various psychotropic and
pharmaceutical preparations and precursor chemicals produced
domestically as well as in various parts of the world are also trafficked
through Indian territory.1 The two-way illegal flow of these drugs
and chemicals not only violates Indias borders, but also poses a
significant threat to national security.
The nexus between drug traffickers, organised criminal networks and
terrorists has created a force powerful enough to cause instability in
the country. Money generated through drug trade has been used to
fund various insurgent and terrorist movements. For instance, it has
been estimated that money generated from the illegal sale of narcotics
accounted for 15 per cent of the finances of militant groups in Jammu
and Kashmir.2 Similarly, Sikh militant groups in Punjab and
Northeast insurgent groups like the Nationalist Socialist Council of
Nagaland (Isak-Muivah) [NSCN (IM)] are known to channellise drugs
into India to finance their operations.
Besides, criminal syndicates engaged in drug trafficking like the
Dawood Ibrahim gang have themselves resorted to terrorist acts in
the past (the 1993 terrorist attacks in Mumbai) or have become deeply
Annual Report 2002, Narcotics Control Bureau, Ministry of Home Affairs,

Government of India, New Delhi, 2002 at http://narcoticsindia.nic.in/
ANNUAL%20REPORT%202002%20PDFF.pdf (Accessed on July 6, 2011)
N. S. Jamwal, Terrorist Financing and Support Structure in Jammu and

Kashmir, Strategic Analysis , Vol. 26 (1), 2001, p. 143.
6 | Pushpita Das
engaged in the business/logistics end of terrorism. Further, drug

trafficking facilitates other organised criminal enterprises such as
human trafficking and gun running, all of which use the same
networks and routes to smuggle people, arms and contraband. To
cite an example, the explosives used in the 1993 Mumbai terrorist
attacks were smuggled into India using the same routes through which
drugs and other contraband items were trafficked by the Dawood
gang.3 Even today, terrorist groups use these routes to source weapons
and explosives across the borders.
Against this background, the paper analyses the trends and patterns
of drug trafficking in India as well as traces the routes through which
drugs are trafficked from across the borders. Given the vulnerability
of the borders, the paper also critically assesses the measures adopted
by India to better secure its borders.
Jim Masselos, The Bombay Riots of January 1993: The Politics of Urban
Conflagration, South Asia, 17(1), Special Issue, 1994, pp. 7995.
Trends, Patterns and

Routes of Drug Trafficking
India has been a traditional consumer of opium and various cannabis
derivatives (bhang, marijuana/ganja and hashish). These narcotics were
mostly consumed for medicinal purposes, for recreation or during
religious and social ceremonies. Earlier, almost all the demands for
these drugs were met locally. Only a small quantity of hashish was
smuggled in from Nepal and Pakistan. Since the country had a long
tradition of narcotics consumption, albeit at low levels, the smuggling
of hashish from across the borders, which was in any case far too less
a quantity, did not evince any alarm. However, in the early 1980s, in
the wake of the inflow of heroin, which has widespread and disastrous
consequences, drug trafficking became an issue of concern. In
subsequent years, the large scale availability of synthetic and medicinal
drugs and their abuse have added new dimensions to the concerns
about drug trafficking.
The global pattern of the flow of illegal drugs reveals that of all drugs,
heroin and cocaine are trafficked for long distances; hashish is
smuggled for relatively shorter distances; and marijuana/ganja and
psychotropic substances like Amphetamine Type Stimulants (ATS),
which are consumed locally travel the shortest distance.4 Nearly 70
per cent of these narcotics and drugs are trafficked over land using
various modes of transportation5 making the countrys borders the
first point of contact for drug trafficking. As regards India, depending
World Drug Report 2010 , United Nations Office of Drugs and Crime,
United Nations Office of Drugs and Crime, Vienna, 2010, p. 12.
Giri Raj Shah, Encyclopedia of Narcotics Drugs and Psychotropic Substances:

Vol. III-Indian Initiatives, (New Delhi, Gyan Publishing House, 1998), p. 883
8 | Pushpita Das
upon the nature of the border and its milieu as well as the production,
demand and supply of drugs, different borders display different
trafficking patterns.
The India-Pakistan Border

The proximity of the India-Pakistan border to the Golden Crescent,
the largest producer of opium and cannabis in the world, has made it
vulnerable to the trafficking of heroin and hashish. Other factors also
contributed towards the increased inflow of heroin through the
borders. First, the closing of the traditional Balkan route via Iran
during the Iran-Iraq war (1980-1988) led to the rerouting of drugs
through India. Second, the pre-existing network of bullion smugglers
along the border region and the involvement of criminal networks
in drug smuggling in the mid-1980s6 further facilitated the smuggling
of drugs. Third, the outbreak of the Sikh militancy in the mid-1980s
and the Kashmir militancy in the late 1980s also contributed to
increased trafficking of drugs as these militants smuggled in drugs to
finance their activities.7 Finally, the existence of traditional smuggling
routes and a porous border provided congenial conditions for drug
trafficking.
Trends and Patterns

The India-Pakistan border has been witnessing increased trafficking
of heroin from the Golden Crescent since 1983, which can be
James D. Medler, Afghan Heroin: Terrain, Tradition, and Turmoil,

Orbis , Spring 2005, p.286.
Angela S. Burger, Narcotics Drugs: Security Threat or Interest to South

Asia States? in Marvin G. Weinbaum and Chetan Kumar (eds), South
Asia Approaches the Millennium: Reexamining National Security, (Boulder:
Westview Press, 1995), p.171, Also see, James D. Medler, Afghan Heroin:
Terrain, Tradition, and Turmoil, n. 6.
surmised from the quantity of heroin seized by various law

enforcement agencies.8 Between 1983 and 1988, the amount of heroin
seized increased from about 100 kg to 3,029 kg {See Annexure I}.
Similarly, large quantities of hashish were also smuggled into India
from Pakistan. Seizure figures show that trafficking of hashish has,
on an average, demonstrated an upward trend since 1981. From 1985
the quantity of hashish being trafficked into India also increased, when
18,909 kg was seized in 1986 {See Annexure I}.
Graph 1: Heroin Seized

Since 1989, however, the total seizure of both heroin and hashish
started registering a sharp decline indicating a dip in the trafficking
of heroin from the Afghanistan-Pakistan region. For instance, in 1989
the amount of heroin seized was 2,714 kg, which further reduced
drastically to 622 kg in 1991 {See Annexure I}. Similarly, seizure
figures for hashish also showed a corresponding decline from 8179
kg in 1989 to 4,413 kg in 1991.
8
It is noteworthy that seizure figures are a mere indication of the amount of

drugs trafficked in the country. According to the World Drug Report of
2010, heroin seized accounts for only three per cent of the total drugs that
are being trafficked in the country. See, World Drug Report 2010, United
Nations Office of Drugs and Crime, n. 4, p. 47.
10 | Pushpita Das
That the Golden Crescent has been the primary source of heroin
and hashish being trafficked into India can be deduced from the fact
that a substantial percentage of the total heroin and hashish seized in
the country has been characterised as that of South West Asian (SWA)
origin.9 In the initial years, only half of the heroin seized was
recognised as originating from South West Asia, but in subsequent
years as heroin trafficking showed an upward trend, the percentage
of South West Asian origin heroin also increased correspondingly.10
This trend continued till the late eighties (See Annexure III).
However, as the drug trafficking trend registered a decline in the
1990s, the share of South West Asian heroin also recorded a
corresponding decline. The share of heroin sourced from the Golden
Crescent share of South West Asia origin came down from 74 per
cent in 1992, to 21 per cent in 2009. In fact, in the years 2002 and
2003, the percentage share of South West Asian heroin had dipped to
an all time low of five and four per cent respectively. The sharp
decline in the quantity of South West Asian heroin seized was
attributed to the military build up along the Indo-Pakistan border in
2002 following the December 2001 Parliament attack.11
Similarly, seizure figures for hashish, also displayed a declining trend
as far as its origin is concerned. For instance, 84.8 per cent in 1988 it
dipped to 70 per cent in 1990 and further to 52.5 per cent in 1991.
Since 1990, trafficking of hashish from the Golden Crescent has declined
substantially from 6,388 kg in 1990 to 3,549 kg in 2009. {See Annexure III}.
Based on the area of their origin, the Narcotics Control Bureau categorises
heroin seized as South West Asian (Golden Crescent), South East Asian
(Golden Triangle), Local (Indian) and Unknown.
10
For instance, while in 1984, only 58 per cent of the heroin seized was
categorised as South West Asian origin, by 1986 the share of South West
Asian heroin increased to 87 per cent.
11
See, Annual Report 2002, Narcotics Control Bureau, n. 1.
It is, however, interesting to note that the seizure figures reported

by the Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB) for heroin, hashish and
opium have remained constant for the past ten years. The quantity
Graph 2: Origin of Heroin

of heroin seized every year since 2000 has been around 1,000 kg and
the quantities of hashish and opium seized during the same years
have been roughly 3,000 kg and 2,000 kg respectively.12 This near
constant quantities of narcotics seized over the years gives an
impression that the drug trafficked through the India-Pakistan border
has stabilised.
However, various reports like those of the United Nations, the US
State Department, Australian Crime Commission, etc. indicate that
India has become a hub for the transshipment of heroin originating
from the Afghanistan-Pakistan region to the rest of the world.13
12
Annual Reports 2000, 2006, 2009 , Narcotics Control Bureau, Ministry of

Home Affairs, Government of India.
13
Sandy Gordon, Indias unfinished security revolution, IDSA Occasional

Paper No. 11, August 2011, p. 22.
12 | Pushpita Das
Various other studies and investigative reports have also reinforced

that drug consumption has in fact increased in many border states
like Punjab and Jammu & Kashmir in recent years.14 Given these
findings, it can be concluded that heroin continues to be increasingly
trafficked across the India-Pakistan border and that there could be
underreporting of trafficking cases by the concerned authorities.
Routes
Heroin and hashish produced in the Golden Crescent region are
trafficked into India through the border states of Gujarat, Rajasthan,
Punjab and Jammu and Kashmir.
One of the preferred routes through which drugs were smuggled
into the country during the early 1980s was the Thar Desert. The
reasons being, first, this was a traditional route through which opium
produced in Malwa was smuggled to Karachi and onward to China
during the colonial days.15 Second, as the desert is vast, barren and
poorly guarded, it provided enough hideouts for the illicit drugs,
14
Ravneet Kaur, Drug Abuse: Trends and Issues, at http://

dspace.iimk.ac.in/bitstream/2259/348/1/387 (Accessed on January 5,
2012). Also see, Every third male in Punjab drug addict: HC told, The
Indian Express, Chandigarh, May 22, 2009, at http://www.indianexpress.com/
news/every-third-male-student-in-punjab-drug-addi/464048/ (Accessed on
January 5, 2012). See, The poverty of plenty, Tehelka Magazine, Vol. 7(39),
October 2, 2010, at http://www.tehelka.com/story_main47.asp?filename=Ne
021010Cover_story.asp (Accessed on January 5, 2012). Also see, Why the
valley blooms, Tehelka Magazine, Vol. 7(20), May 22, 2010, at http://
www.tehelka.com/story_main44.asp?filename=Ne220510why_the.asp
(Accessed on January 5, 2012).
15
Claude Markovits, The Political Economy of Opium Smuggling in Early

Nineteenth Century India: Leakage or Resistance? Modern Asian Studies,
Vol. 43 (1), 2009, p.94.
which could be later retrieved and transported to different parts of

the country.16
Heroin that was smuggled into India originated from the border
towns of Sahiwal, Rahimyar Khan, Sukkur and Khokhrapar in
Pakistan and from there the consignments crossed the border to
various receiving towns such as Churu, Sikar, Kishangarh, Ramgarh,
Barmer, Jaisalmer, and Anupgarh in Rajasthan from where they were
subsequently transported to Delhi and Mumbai.17 Heroin and hashish
are smuggled in from across the border on camel backs and once the
consignment reaches the collection center, it is transported to other
major cities by vehicles.18 Heroin continues to be smuggled through
these routes in Rajasthan. In addition, the Thar Express plying between
Khokrapar and Munabao has been reported to have become a major
carrier of drugs from Pakistan since its inauguration in 2005.19
Punjab became a major route for drug trafficking with the rise of the
Sikh militancy in the state. During the 1980s, the most favoured route
for trafficking was the Lahore-Fazilka-Bhatinda-Delhi route. Another
frequently used route was the Attari-Wagah route. This route is still
being exploited for trafficking drugs. The Samjhauta Express has
alleged to have become a major carrier of illicit drugs from across the
border. As a result, Amritsar has emerged as a major center for heroin
16
Pierre-Arnaud Chouvy, Opium: Uncovering the Politics of the Poppy, (New

York: I.B. Tauris, 2011), p.84.
17
Giriraj Shah and R. C. Dikshit, Narco-Terrorism , (New Delhi: Siddhi Books,

1996), p. 46.
18
Aparna Srivastava, Role of Police in a Changing Society, (New Delhi: APH

Publishing Corporation, 1999), p. 124.
19
Authors interview with BSF officials at New Delhi.
14 | Pushpita Das
trade in Punjab.20 Border towns of Ajnala and Gurdaspur have also

become prominent heroin collection centers. Agricultural land across
the fence, good network of roads and rails right up to the borders
and several riverine stretches along the border, all facilitate trafficking
of drugs in these sectors.21 Despite militancy having died in the state,
Punjab continues to be a transit point as well as destination for the
heroin manufactured in the Afghanistan-Pakistan region.22 Heroin
smuggled in through Punjab and Rajasthan are shipped to Mumbai
and Tamil Nadu from where it is trafficked to international markets.
The rise of militancy in Jammu and Kashmir also resulted in an
increase in heroin trafficking through the state since 1995. Heroin
was mainly smuggled into the state through Ranbirsingh Pura, Samba
and Akhnoor. Lately, most of the heroin which reaches the mainland
is being routed through the Jammu sector. The heroin consignment
20
Pierre-Arnaud Chouvy, Opium: Uncovering the politics of the poppy, n. 16.
21
Molly Charles, Drug Trade dynamics in India, Max Planck Institute of

International Criminal Law and Rand, at http://laniel.free.fr/INDEXES/
PapersIndex/INDIAMOLLY/DRUGSDYNAMICSININDIA.htm
(Accessed on April 05, 2011), Also see, Punjab to counter narco-terrorism,
two IRBs to be posted behind BSF along Pak border to check smuggling,
The Tribune, Chandigarh, December 14, 2010, at http://tribuneindia.com/
2010/20101215/main6.htm (Accessed on May 25, 2011). Also Authors
interview with BSF officials at New Delhi.
22
Figures reveal that among all the states, Punjab has registered the highest
amount of heroin seized since 2007 with 319 kg in 2007, 492 kg in 2008 and
209 kg in 2009. See Annual Reports of 2007, 2008 and 2009, Narcotics Control
Bureau, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India. Also see, Punjab
focuses on Drug Trafficking, The Hindu, Chandigarh, July 1, 2010, at
http://www.thehindu.com/health/policy-and-issues/article495301.ece
(Accessed on July 6, 2011), Punjabs drug epidemic, BBC News, Amritsar,
December 8, 2010, at http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia11925617 (Accessed on July 6, 2011).
enters India through Sunderbani and Rajouri and reaches Jammu by

the Poonch-Jammu highway. From there the route taken to traffick
the consignments is Pathankot-Gurdaspur-Amritsar-Faridkot-
Map 1: India - Pakistan Boarder
16 | Pushpita Das
Jaisalmer/Barmer-Ahmedabad and finally Mumbai.23 Acetic

anhydride, a precursor for manufacturing heroin, flows through the
same routes but in the reverse direction, i.e. from India to Pakistan
and Afghanistan.24
Significantly, the drug trafficking routes along the Indo-Pakistan
border has shifted from being land based to sea based because
heightened vigil and fencing along the land border have forced drug
traffickers to look towards the sea as an alternative route. As a result,
the marsh lands and creeks of Gujarat are increasingly used to smuggle
heroin from Afghanistan-Pakistan region. Heroin is smuggled into
the Rann of Kutch from Karachi in various country-made boats.
These marshlands with their numerous interconnected creeks, sand
bars and mangroves provide ideal hideaways for drug traffickers.
Seizures of numerous consignments of heroin and hashish in Kutch,
the latest being the seizure of 21 kg of hashish in 2009, support this
fact.25
Trafficking of heroin along the India-Pakistan border is largely carried
on by a array of cartels such as the D-Company, the Nigerian, the
Afghan and the Kenyan syndicates who work in conjunction with
each other. In a typical case, heroin is smuggled into India through
Pakistan by the land or air routes by Afghan couriers. In many
instances, farmers, villagers and passengers are also induced to function
as couriers for trafficking heroin into India. Once the consignment
reaches Amirtsar, Jaipur or Delhi, it is handed over to the Nigerian
or Kenyan syndicate, who then traffic it out of the country through
the air routes to international markets like the USA, Canada and
23
24
Pierre-Arnaud Chouvy, Opium: Uncovering the Politics of the Poppy, n. 16, p.85.
25
Annual Report 2009, Narcotics Control Bureau, p. 12, n.12.
Europe.26 These syndicates also use the courier and postal services to
smuggle heroin out of the countries.27
India-Nepal Border and India-Bhutan border

Hashish and marijuana/ganja are the two cannabis derivatives that
have been traditionally trafficked from Nepal into India.28 Lately, a
growing demand for Nepalese and Bhutanese cannabis in India and a
corresponding demand for codeine based pharmaceutical preparations
as well as low-grade heroin in Nepal and Bhutan have resulted in
two way smuggling of narcotics and drugs through the India-Nepal
and India-Bhutan borders. Well developed road networks as well as
open and poorly guarded borders have facilitated large scale trafficking
of drugs through these borders.
Trends and Patterns

Trafficking of hashish from Nepal has increased manifold in the last
three decades. Seizure figures indicate that the share of Nepalese
26
Six foreigners held with heroin worth Rs 11 crore, The Tribune, New
Delhi, August 5, 2011, at http://zeenews.india.com/news/delhi/sixforeigners-held-with-heroin-worth-rs-11-crore_724540.html (Accessed on
January 16, 2012). Also see, Peddlers nabbed with heroin worth 4.25
crores, The Times of India , New Delhi, June 11, 2011, at http://
articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-06-11/delhi/29646581_1_kgheroin-drug-trafficking-international-market, (Accessed on January 16,
2012). See, 3 nabbed with 1.5kg heroin, The Times of India, New Delhi,
December 21, 2009, at http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/200912-21/delhi/28081686_1_igi-airport-15kg-heroin-nigerian (Accessed on
January 16, 2012)
27
Annual Report 2010, the International Narcotics Control Board, Vienna, 2011, p. 89.
28
Nepal, UNGASS Goals on Control of Precursor-South Asia, at http://

www.unodc.org/pdf/india/publications/ungass_Goals/20_annexureivcountryreport-nepal.pdf (Accessed on July 19, 2011).
18 | Pushpita Das
hashish has steadily increased in the eighties from 7.2 per cent in 1986
to 16.6 per cent in 1989.29 In the 1990s, as trafficking of hashish from
Pakistan decreased, the share of Nepalese hashish trafficked into India
increased substantially from 29.5 per cent in 1991 to 40 per cent in
2000.30 This trend continued in the succeeding decade as well. The
fact that a substantial per cent of the total hashish seized in the
country is categorised as that of Nepalese origin bears testimony to
this fact {See Annexure I}.31 Incidentally, a large quantity of the
hashish that is trafficked into India transits the country for
destinations such as Europe, Canada and the United States of America.32
Graph 3: Hashish Seized

Although marijuana/ganja was trafficked from Nepal on a large scale
in the seventies and eighties, its share started declining gradually from
29
Annual Reports 1989, 1990, Narcotics Control Bureau, Ministry of Finance,

Government of India, New Delhi.
30
Annual Report 2000-2001, Narcotics Control Bureau, Ministry of Finance,

Government of India, New Delhi, 2001, p. 9.
31
Annual Report 2009, Narcotics Control Bureau, n.12.
32
ibid, p.23.
late eighties. In 1988, the share of Nepalese marijuana/ganja was 45.9

per cent, which reduced to around 30 percent in 1990.33 Since then
the share of marijuana/ganja of Nepalese origin in the Indian illegal
drug market has reduced as demand for marijuana/ganja in India
was met through local production, especially in the Northeastern
states of Manipur, Mizoram and Tripura.34 Nevertheless, trafficking
of marijuana/ganja from Nepal has continued and periodic seizures
of marijuana/ganja in states adjoining the India-Nepal border point
Graph 4: Marijuana/ Ganja Seized
33
In fact in 1989, the share of Nepalese marijuana/ ganja had declined to 15.7
per cent. The dip in the share of Nepalese ganja coincided with the expiry
of the Trade and Transit treaty with Nepal in 1989, which led to the
closure of border points (except two) by India. See, Annual Report1989,
Narcotics Control Bureau, n. 29, p. 3.
34
Manipuri Ganja is known for its high quality and is in great demand
both in the domestic as well as in the international markets. During the
last ten years, law enforcement agents have seized around 100 tonnes of
Manipuri ganja in Assam. For details see Ganja smuggling routes traced
to Manipur: DRI, The Times of India, Guwahati, May 23, 2011, at http://
articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-05-23/guwahati/29573536_1_drirevenue-intelligence-drug-peddlers (Accessed on June 28, 2011).
20 | Pushpita Das
to its rampant trafficking. For instance, in 2009, 16,589 kg of ganja

smuggled from Nepal was seized in Uttar Pradesh.35 In the same year,
4,468 kg of Nepalese ganja was seized in Raxaul.36 In recent years,
marijuana/ganja of Bhutanese origin has also started appearing in
India.
While hashish and marijuana/ganja are smuggled from Nepal,
pharmaceutical preparations containing psychotropic substances
prescribed as painkillers and anti-anxiety drugs such as diazepam,
alprazolam, nitrazepam, lorazepam, proxyvon, buprenorphine, etc.
are trafficked from India to Nepal and Bhutan. Seizures of codeine
based tablets and syrups originating from India have been reported
periodically from both countries.37 Low grade heroin, also known as
brown sugar, produced in India by diverting opium from licit
cultivation as well as procuring it through illicit cultivation38 is also
trafficked to Nepal and Bhutan.
It may be noted that the Single Convention Narcotics Drugs of 1961
recognises India as a licit producer of opium and the only producer
of opium gum for medicinal and scientific purposes for domestic
need as well as for international market. In India, poppy is cultivated
under license in 22 districts in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Uttar
Pradesh and Rajasthan.39 Though cultivation is carried out under
35
Annual Report 2009, Narcotics Control Bureau, n. 12, p. 21.
36
Ganja worth Rs 89 lakh seized, The Times of India, Patna, September 11,
2009, at http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-09-11/patna/
28070101_1_indo-nepal-border-customs-officers-raxaul (Accessed on June 28, 2011).
37
Annual Report 2010, the International Narcotics Control Board, n.27, p. 90.
38
orld Drug Report 2010, United Nations Office of Drugs and Crime, n.4, pp.
44 and 46.
39
Annual Report 2010, the International Narcotics Control Board, n.27, p. 90.
strict licensing, it is speculated that 10 to 30 per cent of the licit produce

is diverted for the manufacturing of low grade heroin in the country.40
Poppy is also illicitly cultivated in different parts of the country
mostly in remote and hilly terrains for manufacturing law grade
heroin.41 Poppy is grown illicitly in the states of Jammu and Kashmir
(417.65 acres), Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Bihar, Jharkhand,
West Bengal, Manipur and Arunachal Pradesh. In 2011, more than
11,000 acres of illicit poppy crop have been destroyed, of which 7,000
acres were in West Bengal. In 2010, the Central Bureau of Narcotics
(CBN) had destroyed 390 acres of illicit poppy cultivation in the
country.42 The NCB together with law enforcement agencies have
also destroyed a number of illicit laboratories manufacturing brown
sugar.43 The fact that since 1998, the share of local/unknown source
heroin is showing an increasing trend further reinforces the argument that
India is fast emerging as a producer of low grade heroin (See annexure III).
Routes
Trafficking of cannabis and its derivatives from Nepal into India and
brown sugar and codeine-based pharmaceutical drugs from India to
40
International Narcotics Control Strategy Report, U.S Department of State,

March 3, 2011, at http://www.state.gov/p/inl/rls/nrcrpt/2011/vol1/
156361.htm#india (Accessed on January 5, 2012).
41
For details see, Annual Report 2009, Narcotics Control Bureau, n. 12, pp.
11-12, Also see, Hurricane Heroin, Tahelka Magazine, Vol. 8 (6), January
29, 2011, at http://www.tehelka.com/story_main48. asp?filename
=Ne290111CoverStory.asp (Accessed on June 27, 2011).
42
Annual Report 2010-11, Ministry of Finance, Government of India, New

Delhi, 2011, p. 174.
43
For example in 2001 six laboratories preparing brown sugar were

destroyed, seven in 2002 and three laboratories in 2004. World Drug Report
2002, 2006, United Nations Office of Drugs and Crime, Vienna.
22 | Pushpita Das
Nepal takes place mainly through the Bihar and Uttar Pradesh
borders. Since the border is open, there are no travel restrictions and
smuggling of drugs can take places through any point along the
border. However, the pattern of smuggling indicates that the road
networks are most preferred by traffickers as they enable bulk
transportation of drugs through the border. The prominent routes
through which drugs are smuggled across the border are:44
y
Birganj - Raxaul - Motihari - Patna;
Nepalganj - Rupaidiha Bahraich - Barabanki - Lucknow;
Map 2: India - Nepal Boarder
44
Drug peddlers using common vehicles for smooth sailing, The Times of
India, Lucknow, July 27, 2009 at http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com
/2009-07-27/lucknow/28191708_1_hashish-charas-ashu (Accessed on July
11, 2011)
Bhairahwa -Nautanwa - Gorakhpur, and;
Lumbini - Shohratgarh - Siddharthanagar.
The quantum of hashish and marijuana/ganja seized along the IndiaNepal border indicates that smuggling is quite rampant along the
East and West Champaran districts of Bihar and Lakhimpur Kheri
district of Uttar Pradesh.45 Consequently, Raxaul in Bihar and
Lucknow and Kanpur in Uttar Pradesh have emerged as the hashish
Map 3: India - Bhutan Boarder
45
Authors interview with senior NCB official at New Delhi. Also

observations made by Dr. Nihar Nayak (Fellow at IDSA) during his field
visit to the Indo-Nepal border in June 2011.
46
Rs 89L-worth ganja seized from oil tanker, The Times of India, September
16, 2009, Patna, at http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-09-16/
patna/28070814_1_o il-tanker-indo-nepal-border-lorry-driver (Accessed on July
11, 2011); Also see Annual Report 2000-2001, Narcotics Control Bureau, n. 30, p 9.
24 | Pushpita Das
and marijuana/ganja trafficking hubs.46 On the other side of the

border, Nairganj is termed as the epicenter of hashish market as it is
situated equidistant from all major trafficking points.47
Cannabis grown in Bhutan is smuggled into India through the border
trading points.48 Samdrup Jongkhar- Daranga has been the most
important route through which Bhutanese cannabis is smuggled into
India since 1980s. Udalguri in Darrang district of Assam is an
important center for the collection and distribution of cannabis
smuggled in from Bhutan.49
The India-Myanmar Border

Proximity of the India-Myanmar border to the Golden Triangle,
growing demand for drugs among the local population in the
Northeastern states, political instability and insecurity brought about
by numerous insurgencies in the region as well as a porous and poorly
guarded border provided a proliferating environment for traffickers
to smuggle heroin and psychotropic substances into the country
through the India-Myanmar border. Existence of strong trans-border
ethnic linkages, criminal networks, and inauguration of formal trade
through Moreh in 1994 have further facilitated the unhindered and,
therefore, increased illegal flow of drugs to the Northeast.50
Trends and Pattern
47
Drug peddlers using common vehicles for smooth sailing, n. 34.
48
Annual Report 2002, Narcotics Control Bureau, n. 1.
49
Giriraj Shah and R. C. Dikshit, Narco-Terrorism, n. 17, p. 47.
50
Ronald D. Renard, The Burmese Connection: Illegal Drugs and the Making of
the Golden Triangle, (Boulder; Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1996), p. 107.
Myanmar in the Golden Triangle remains the main producer of

illicit opium, accounting for nearly 95 per cent of the total opium
produced in the region.51 While the bulk of the heroin (80 to 85 %)
produced in the region is transshipped to the international market
through the Myanmar-Thailand route, a small quantity enters India
through the porous India-Myanmar border. As trafficking increased,
heroin, which was introduced in the mid-seventies in the Northeast,
became easily available in the region after 1984 and by 1990 heroin
consumption increased tremendously in the region.52
Unlike the western border, heroin smuggled into the Northeast is
not for large-scale commercial sale and is evidenced by the small
quantities of heroin that are smuggled in.53 Statistics also indicate
that the heroin of South East Asian origin constitute only one to
two per cent of the total heroin seized in the country (See Annexure
II). Moreover, the small quantities of seizures (20 gm to 200 gm)
mostly from the personal possession of people reinforce the fact that
heroin smuggled into the Northeast region is meant for local and
individual consumption only.
51
Annual Report 2010, the International Narcotics Control Board, n. 27, p.

80.
52
This fact can be ascertained by the massive jump in the number of addicts,
which increased from under one per cent in 1990 to over 50 per cent in
1991 and 80.1 per cent in 1997. For details see, Chris Beyer, et. al, Overland
heroin trafficking routes and HIV-1 spread in south and south-east Asia,
AIDS , Vol. 14 (1), 2000, p. 81. Also see, Phanjoubam Tarapot, Drug Abuse
and Illicit Trafficking in North Eastern India, (New Delhi: Vikas Publishing
House, 1997), p 82.
53
It is estimated that only two to three kg heroin enters Manipur every

month. For details see, Kishlay Bhattacharjees interview with an insurgent
leader in Manipur, The Drug Trail, NDTV, October 2006
26 | Pushpita Das
The low drug seizure figures along the border could also be because
of poor management of the India-Myanmar border. The fact that
large quantities of heroin are smuggled out of the region for sale in
cities such as Kolkata and Delhi54 and also the fact that a large quantity
of those heroin consignments had been seized by officials lend
credence to this argument. For instance, between 2002 and 2010, antinarcotics officials in Guwahati had seized around 25 kg of heroin as
they were being smuggled out of the region.55
Besides heroin, a significant rise in the use of psychotropic substances
and medicinal preparations containing codeine among addicts of the
region has been observed since late 1990. Stringent anti-drug laws
and the rising prices of heroin were reasons responsible for this shift,
especially towards methamphetamine, which is produced in large
quantities in Myanmar. Seizure figures also support this observation.
For instance, in 1999, 2,000 tablets of methamphetamine were seized
in Moreh.56 In the following year 3 kg of methamphetamine was
seized, which jumped to 91 kg in 2004 before declining to 40 kg in
2009.57
Precursor chemicals such as ephedrine, pseudo-ephedrine and acetic
anhydride from India are trafficked into Myanmar to cater to the
54
Phanjoubum Tarapot, Drug Abuse and Illicit Trafficking in North Eastern

India, n. 52, p.99.
55
Guwahati turns transit point for smugglers, The Times of India, Guwahati,
May 25, 2011, at http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-05-25/
guwahati/29581303_1_transit-point-smugglers-kg-heroine (Accessed on
June 28, 2011)
56
Annual Report 1999-2000, Narcotics Control Bureau, Ministry of Home

Affairs, Government of India, New Delhi, 2000, p. 14.
57
Annual Reports 2002, 2005, 2009, Narcotics Control Bureau, Ministry of

Home Affairs, Government of India.
demands of numerous mobile laboratories manufacturing heroin and

amphetamine type stimulants (ATS). Seizures of ephedrine and
pseudo-ephedrine indicate an increasing trend of trafficking of these
chemicals from India to Myanmar. For instance, in 1999 1,421 kg of
ephedrine was seized, which increased to 2,304 kg in 2003 and then
dipped to 1,244 kg in 2009. It is reported that a majority of these
seizures is related to consignments destined for Myanmar.58 In
addition, large consignments of pharmaceutical preparations such as
corex, phensedyl, buprenorphine, spasmoporxyvon are trafficked
overland from India to Myanmar.59
Routes
Heroin produced in the Golden Triangle, especially Myanmar is
trafficked into India through the India-Myanmar border into the
states of Mizoram, Manipur, and Nagaland from Bhamo, Lashio and
Mandalay. The most important route is the one which starts from
Mandalay, continues to Monya and Kalewa and then bifurcates to
enter India at two points. The first moves northwards, enters Moreh
in Manipur through Tamu and travels thence to Imphal and Kohima
via National Highway-39. The second branch moves southwards and
enters Champai in Mizoram through Rihkhwadar.60
There are three other routes through which heroin and ATS are
brought into Manipur illegally. These are:
y
the New Somtal-Sugnu-Churachandpur-Imphal route,
the Kheiman-Behiang-Singhhat route, and
58
ibid
59
60
Pierre-A rnaud Chouvy, Opium: Uncovering the Politics of the Poppy , n.

16, p.72.
28 | Pushpita Das
the Homalin-Kamjong route.
Together these four routes account for 90 per cent of the drugs being
trafficked into India from Myanmar.61
Similarly, Mizoram also has alternate routes through which heroin
and other drugs are smuggled in. The most important routes are:
y
the Falam-Dawn-Ngharcchip route,
the Falam-Lungbun-Saitha route, and
Map 4: India - Myanmar Boarder
61
Cross border drug trafficking on the rise-19 traffickers arrested in 77

days, Indo-Burma News , Imphal, March 24, 2009, at http://
www.indoburmanews.net/archives-1/2009/march-2009/cross-borderdrug-trafficking-on-the-rise-19-drug-taffickers-arrested-in-77-days/
(Accessed on May 31, 2011).
the Tiddim-Hnahlan route.
Some of the heroin entering Mizoram is also smuggled out to

Bangladesh.
In Nagaland, drugs are smuggled through the Homalin-JessamiKohima and the Tamanthi-Noklek routes. Further north, the
Maingkwan-Pangsau Pass route is used for smuggling heroin into
Arunachal Pradesh.62 A small amount of heroin brought through
the Myanmar border is also transported to Guwahati for further
distribution at other collection centers like Patna, Delhi and Mumbai.
The Imphal-Numaligarh-Tezpur-Guwahati road and the ImphalJiribam-Silchar-Shillong-Guwahati road are two important routes for
trafficking heroin from Manipur to Guwahati.63
Reverse trafficking of precursor chemicals from India to Myanmar
takes place through the same route. Ephedrine is diverted from
factories in south India to Kolkata and Guwahati from where they
are trafficked to Myanmar overland. But, traffickers also resort to
circuitous routes to avoid detection. For instance, ephedrine from
Chennai to Kolkata or Guwahati is transported through Delhi.64 In
62
Phanjoubam Tarapot, Drug Abuse and Illicit Trafficking in Northeastern

India, n. 52, p. 106.
63
Guwahati turns transit point for smugglers, The Times of India ,

Guwahati, May 25, 2011, at http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/
2011-05-25/guwahati/29581303_1_transit-point-smugglers-kg-heroine
(Accessed on July 8, 2011).
64
A. P. Kala, Problems of diversion of Precursor and their use in illicit

production of drugs in Indian context, in Precursor Control Laws:
Challenges and Responses, United Nations Office of Drugs and Crime, Vienna,
2003, p. 17, at http://www.unodc.org/pdf/india/publications/
precursor_control_laws/10_mrkalapresentation.pdf (Accessed on
June 30, 2011).
30 | Pushpita Das
addition, opium produced along the Indo-Myanmar border especially

in Manipur and Mizoram is reportedly transported to Myanmar for
the manufacture of heroin, which is again smuggled back into India.65
Medicinal preparations such as spasmoproxyvon, phensedyl, corex,
etc are also smuggled out of India to Myanmar using the same routes.
India-Bangladesh Border
The India-Bangladesh border has been susceptible to smuggling of
various kinds of drugs ranging from heroin, marijuana/ganja, hashish,
brown sugar, cough syrups, etc. High demand for codeine based
cough syrups in Bangladesh, a highly porous border, dense settlement
along the border, and strong trans-border ethnic ties contribute
towards drug trafficking along the India-Bangladesh border. A welldeveloped railroad and river network, large volume of both formal
and informal trade, and existence of criminal networks are other
enabling factors for trafficking drugs along the India-Bangladesh
border.
Trends and Patterns

Given its large pharmaceutical industrial base, India produces a large
number of prescription drugs. Most of these pharmaceutical
preparations containing dextropropoxyphene and codeine are
trafficked to the neighbouring countries. Phensedyl, a codeine-based
cough syrup in particular, has become the chief item for smuggling
into Bangladesh. Truckloads of phensedyl bottles from the factory
are diverted to the Northeast and West Bengal by distributors and
65
T. Siamchinthang, Heroin production and Trafficking in Indo-Burma

Border, January 20, 2005, at http://www.opensourcesinfo.org/journal/
2005/1/20/heroin-production-and-trafficking-in-indo-burma-border.html
stockists for this purpose. In addition, empty phensedyl bottles are

refilled with higher narcotic content and repackaged as phensedyl
plus and smuggled back into Bangladesh.66 Bulk of phensedyl bottles
are smuggled into Bangladesh through the Kailashar (Tripura) and
the Cachar-Karimganj (Assam) borders.67
Law enforcement authorities, in both countries, continue to seize
large consignments of phensedyl. For instance in 2009, Bangladesh
seized 58,875 bottles of phensedyl.68 In the same year, Indias Border
Security Force (BSF) seized 4,18,788 bottles along the Indo-Bangladesh
border.69 In 2010, Indian law enforcement officials seized 39,000
bottles of phensedyl destined for Bangladesh in Karimganj district of
66
Shishir Kant Jain, The spurious drug menace and remedy, Health
Administrator, Vol. XIX (1), July 2006, p.33.
67
Smuggling out of phensedyl bottles to Bangladesh, Hmar In, Silchar, July 25,
2011, at http://hmar.in/news/smuggling-out-of-phensedyl-bottles-to-bangladesh
(Accessed on January 17, 2012), Phensedyl bottles found on platform, The
Telegraph, Guwahati, February 16, 2012, at http://www.telegraphindia.com/
1120217/jsp/northeast/story_15144604.jsp#.T3AU0mES3ko (Accessed on March
26, 2012) Also see, Tripura feeds Bangladesh drug demand, The Times of India,
May, 25, 2011, at http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-05-25/guwahati/
29581533_1_phensedyl-cough-syrup-bangladesh (Accessed on January 17, 2012)
68
Annual Report 2010, the International Narcotics Control Board, n. 27, p. 90.
69
Annual Report 2009, Narcotics Control Bureau, n. 12, p.30.
70
Regarding seizure of Phensedyl cough Syrup of value Rs. 35.32 L by DRI

officers of Silchar, Kolkata Zonal Unit, Press Release, Directorate of Revenue,
Kolkata Zone, March 17, 2010, at http://news.alibaba.com/article/detail/
international-trade-special/100367728-1-regarding-seizure-phensedyl-coughsyrup.html (Accessed on June 28, 2011).
71
Smuggling thriving as fencing of Indo-bangla border delayed, The Indian

Express, Shillong, December 5, 2011 at http://www.indianexpress.com/news/
smuggling-thrives-as-fencing-of-indobangla-border-delayed/884123/0 (Accessed
on January 12, 2012)
32 | Pushpita Das
Assam.70 Similarly in 2011, the BSF seized phensedyl bottles worth

about Rs 10.50 lakh.71
Large-scale seizures of marijuana/ganja by the BSF and other law
enforcement authorities along the border indicate a growing trend
of marijuana/ganja trafficking from India to Bangladesh.72 Besides
Manipur and Mizoram, marijuana/ganja is increasingly being grown
by farmers in Tripura for better returns compared to traditional
crops.
Heroin sourced from Myanmar has been smuggled into Bangladesh
through Mizoram for long. More lately, it is observed that heroin
from the Golden Crescent is also smuggled from India into
Bangladesh. The seizure of large quantities of South West Asian origin
heroin from Lucknow and Kolkata indicates that a new heroin
trafficking route through the India-Bangladesh border has been
established.73 In addition, brown sugar and pseudo-ephedrine
manufactured in India are also trafficked to Bangladesh.74
Drugs along the India-Bangladesh border are usually smuggled by
individual carriers. Large number of children and women are
employed by the drug lords and unscrupulous traders to ferry
72
Authors interview with BSF officials at New Delhi as well as observations

made during field visit to India-Bangladesh border in 2007.
73
74
Annual Report 2010, the International Narcotics Control Bureau, n. 27, p. 90.
75
Authors interview with BSF Officials at New Delhi and India-Bangladesh

border. Also see, Children used for smuggling across India-Bangladesh
border, Deccan Chronicle, Murshidabad, April 22, 2011, at http://
www.deccanchronicle.com/channels/nation/west/children-usedsm uggling-across-india-bangladesh-border-268 (Accessed on January
17, 2012).
phensedyl bottles, brown sugar and heroin. These couriers carry these
drugs in person when they are crossing the border to avoid detection
by the border guarding forces.75
Routes
A multitude of smuggling routes along the border gives the appearance
that the entire border is porous to drug trafficking. The bulk of the
trafficking however, takes place through the road and rail networks,
Map 5: India - Bangladesh Border

which run deep inside Bangladeshi territory. The border points of
Petrapole-Benapole, Hilli-Hilli, Gede-Darsana, Dawki-Tamabil and
Agartala-Akhura are the major points through which drugs are
smuggled into Bangladesh.76
76
Authors interview with BSF official at New Delhi
34 | Pushpita Das
Drugs are also smuggled through other formal and informal trading
routes. Examples in West Bengal include Phulbari-Banglabandhu,
Changrabandha-Burimari, South Gitaldaha-Mogolhat, RaiganjRanipukur, Bagdha-Ansolia, Krishnanagar-Jadabpur, and BashirhatBhomra. In the case of Assam, the major trafficking routes are
Mankachar- Kurigram, and Karimganj- Jokiganj. Baghmara-Bijoypur
and BorsoraSunamganj are the main trafficking routes in Meghalaya.
Similarly in Tripura, trafficking of drugs takes place through
Srimantapur-Bibirbazar, Belonia-Darshana, Madhopur-Chagalnaiya,
Sabroom -Ramgarh, and Sonamura-Khosba.77 In addition, enclaves
dotting the border in Coochbehar district, especially Dohagram
Angarpota-Berubari, are major drug smuggling hubs.
The Sea Routes

Both the east and west coasts of India have been major staging points
for the smuggling of drugs. In the mid-1990s, the Tamil Nadu-Sri
Lanka sector emerged as an important exit route for heroin smuggled
in from Afghanistan and Pakistan.78 Indigenously produced brown
sugar destined for neighbouring countries also transits through the
Tamil Nadu coast, which is transshipped to European and American
markets.79 Tuticorin and Kochi have emerged as top drug trafficking
77
Drug Trafficking Routes, Department of Narcotics Control Bangladesh,

at http://www.dnc.gov.bd/route.html (Accessed on April 19, 2011)
78
Annual Report 2005-06, Directorate of Revenue Intelligence, Ministry of

Finance, Government of India, New Delhi, 2006, p. 35. Also see Molly
Charles, Drug Trade dynamics in India, n. 21.
79
Annual Report 2000-2001, Narcotics Control Bureau, n. 25, p. 8.
80
Kochi one of the top five drug-transit points in India, The Indian Express,
Kochi, January 22, 2011, at http://epressbuzz.com/edition (Accessed on
May 25, 2011).
centers in the country, others being Mumbai, Varanasi and Tirupur.80

Drugs are smuggled out from the shores using small fishing boats.
They are then transferred to small islands dotting the south Indian
coast, from where they are shipped to Sri Lanka and Maldives.
Consignments of heroin and ketamine are also smuggled to East and
Southeast Asian countries like Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, Taiwan
and China using the sea route. Many seizures made by law enforcement
Map 6: Sea Routes

officials in these countries trace back the consignments to Chennai,
Trivandrum and Calicut, indicating that drugs are trafficked in large
container vessels from these ports.81 Kolkata and Chennai ports are
used to traffic Manipuri ganja, and precursor chemicals to
international markets.
81
Annual Report 2005-06, Directorate of Revenue Intelligence, n. 78, p. 14.
36 | Pushpita Das
Along the west coast, Mumbai is a major port through which drugs
illegally enter as well as exit the country. Heroin manufactured in
the Afghanistan-Pakistan region is trafficked through the port of
Karachi to Mumbai, from where it is dispatched to western countries.
Heroin and brown sugar are also smuggled into the country from
Pakistan and Iran by country made boats a.k.a. dhows, which ply
between the Gujarat-Maharashtra coast and countries of the Arabian
Peninsula with a stopover at Iran or Pakistan.82 On the other hand,
ephedrine and pseudo ephedrine as well as buprenoprphine/tidigesic
preparations are smuggled to Pakistan from the Mumbai port via
Dubai. Some amount of cocaine from West Africa also enters India
through the Mumbai port. Hashish from Nepal and Pakistan along
with Methaqualone (mandrax) is trafficked from the Mumbai port.
The Air Routes

Major as well as secondary airports in the country are used by the
traffickers to smuggle various drugs through personal carriers,
postal services, etc. While Delhi and Mumbai remain the most
important airports from where maximum quantities of drugs are
seized every year, other airports such as Hyderabad, Bangalore,
Chennai, Amritsar and Trivandrum have also emerged as important
conduits, a fact corroborated by major drug seizures in these places.83
The most important air routes for the smuggling of heroin to the
international market is the New Delhi-Lagos-Addis Ababa and the
82
Coastal smuggling gets rich again, MidDay, Mumbai, January 18, 2011,
at http://www.mid-day.com/news/2011/jan/180111-Dawood-Ibrahimsmuggling-drugs-Kutch-Pakistani-ports.htm (Accessed on January 19, 2012)
83
84
Nigerian arrested with 40 gm cocaine, The Times of India, New Delhi, May
9, 2011, at http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-05-02/delhi/
29495239_1_crime-branch-drug-traffickers-cocaine (Accessed on January 19, 2012)
Map 7: Air Routes

Mumbai-Lagos-Addis Ababa air links, which are exploited by Nigerian
and other African dug cartels for smuggling heroin out of India and
cocaine into India. Investigations have revealed that in many instances
they induce old and terminally ill patients coming to India for medical
treatments to smuggle cocaine into India.84 Trafficking routes for
East and South East Asian markets are Chennai-Kuala Lumpur;
Hyderabad-Kuala Lumpur; Chennai-China; New Delhi-Hong Kong
and New Delhi-Macao. The New Delhi-Kathmandu air route is yet
another important conduit for trafficking heroin to the international
market.85 In these routes both professional smugglers and first timers
are extensively exploited to trafficking drugs in and out of the country.
From the above discussion it can be concluded that while traditional
drugs such as heroin, opium, hashish and cannabis entering India has
declined in the last two decades, the inflow of synthetic drugs such as
85
Annual Report 2008-09 , Directorate of Revenue Intelligence, Ministry of

Finance, Government of India, New Delhi, 2009, p. 10.
38 | Pushpita Das
Counter Measures
ATS has increased. The flow of low grade heroin, prescription drugs
as well as precursors from the country to the international market
has also increased tremendously. As regards trafficking routes, along
with traditional routes, new routes have become operational. In recent
times, sea routes, in particular, are being increasingly used for drug
trafficking. In short, as long as borders remain porous, drugs will
continue to enter or exit the country.
Measures for dealing with drug trafficking

The fact that 70 per cent of the drugs are transported over land makes
the land borders corridors, through which drugs are trafficked into
the country. Their vulnerability can be assessed by the fact that 70
per cent of the heroin and 40 per cent of opium that are being
trafficked are seized from states along the borders. Easy availability
of drugs in the border areas makes their abuse rampant among the
local populace as is evident from drug consumption trends and patterns
in Manipur, Mizoram, Punjab and Rajasthan. Besides border districts,
consumption of narcotics and synthetic drugs is widely prevalent in
the rest of the country as well creating huge demands.
According to the World Drug Report of 2010, there were 871,000
heroin user and 674,000 opium users in India in 2008. In a survey
conducted by the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, in
2001, there were 2 million opium users and 8.7 million cannabis users.
However, trends and patterns of narcotics and drugs consumption
over the years have shown significant shifts. For instances, while the
86
World Drug Report 2010, United Nations Office of Drug and Crime, n. 4,
p. 40. See, Extent, Pattern and Trend of Drug Use in India , Ministry of Social
Justice and Empowerment, Government of India, 2004, pp.ix, 5.
component of opium use among the drug addicts has been decreasing
from 23.1 per cent in 1997 to 9.2 per cent in 2000, the share of cannabis
has been increasing incrementally from 5.7 per cent to 9.4 per cent.
The share of heroin has also witnessed increase from 12.7 in 1997 to
18.5 per cent in 1999. Most interestingly, the component of other
psychotropic drugs has increased from 16.2 per cent to 23.2 per cent
between 1997 and 2000.86
Exploitation of the trafficking routes with the help of well entrenched
criminal networks by terrorists to infiltrate with arms and explosives
adds a critical dimension to the security of the borders. Composite
seizures of drugs and arms by security forces at the borders, especially
along the borders with Pakistan demonstrate a close nexus between
drug traffickers and anti-national elements. For instances, in 2009,
the BSF seized 23 kg of heroin along with 12 pistols and several rounds
of ammunition in Punjab. In the same year, consignments of 58 kg
of heroin, 10 kg of hashish as well as pistols and RDX were seized by
the BSF along Rajasthan border.87 In April 2010, the Punjab Police
apprehended two smugglers with six kg of heroin along with an AK
47 rifle and 100 live cartridges.88 In April 2011, a Manipuri insurgent
belonging to the Kanglaipak Communist Party (KCP) was arrested
for trafficking 200 kg of ephedrine. Investigation revealed that the
money generated from the sale of the chemical was to be used for
financing the activities of the insurgent group.89
87
88
Ak-47 rifle, heroin smuggled from Pakistan in Punjab, The Hindu ,

Amritsar, April 17, 2010, at http://www.thehindu.com/news/
article402090.ece (Accessed on January 20, 2012).
89
NE militant arrested in IGI, The Times of India, New Delhi, April 4,

2011, at http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-04-04/delhi/
29379434_1_kanglei-yawol-kanna-lup-kangleipak-communist-partyephedrine (Accessed on July 18, 2011).
40 | Pushpita Das
Given these challenges, protecting the borders against violations by

either traffickers or terrorists becomes critical. At the same time,
reducing the demand for drugs in domestic markets is also essential.
Towards this end, India has adopted a comprehensive approach of
reducing supply as well as demand for narcotics and drugs. The
approach comprises four elements; first, enacting legislation; second,
ensuring physical security of the borders and coasts; third, eliciting
cooperation from neighbours and; fourth, co-operating with
voluntary organisations in the national endeavour to prevent abuse
of narcotics and synthetic drugs.
Legislation
For reducing the supply and demand for drugs into the country, the
government deemed it necessary to enact domestic laws that would
be stringent enough to deter the organised gangs of drug smugglers;
that would allow concerned agencies to investigate and prosecute drug
related offences; that would strengthen the existing cartel control
over drug abuse and; that would enable India to fulfil its obligations
towards international treaties and conventions that it has signed against
narcotics drugs and their trafficking.90
90
The Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, 1985, (New Delhi:
Universal, 2012), pp.1-2.
91
A minimum punishment of ten years rigorous imprisonment and a fine of

Rs. one lakh extendable to 20 years of rigorous punishment and a fine of
Rs. two lakhs is handed to persons caught possessing small to commercial
quantities of drugs. In case of repeated offence, the Act provides for a
minimum of 15 years and a fine of Rs.1.5 lakhs and if extended it would go
up to 30 years with a fine of Rs. three lakhs. Death penalty is mandated for
the second offence. The Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act,
1985, n. 90, pp.11-22.
Accordingly, the Narcotics Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act

(NDPS) was enacted in 1985. Under this act, cultivation,
manufacturing, transportation, export and import of all narcotics
drugs and psychotropic substances is prohibited except for medicinal
and scientific purposes and as authorised by the government. The
Act provides for rigorous punishment for any person violating this
act and if a person is caught peddling drugs for the second time,
death penalty could be awarded to the offender.91 The act also provides
for the detention of any person for more than two years in areas
categorised by it as highly vulnerable.92 The NDPS Act also provides
for forfeiture of property acquired through illicit trafficking of
drugs.93
Under the NDPS Act, a number of persons have been persecuted
and sentenced to rigorous imprisonment and their properties
confiscated. In fact, in a number of cases special courts have served
92
A 100 km wide belt along the India-Pakistan border, the India-Myanmar

border, India-Bhutan border and India-Bangladesh border is categorised
as vulnerable area under the NDPS Act. For details see, Giri Raj Shah,
Encyclopedia of Narcotics Drugs and Psychotropic Substances: Vol. III-Indian
Initiatives , n.5, p. 887.
93
An amendment to the NDPS Act of 1985 was introduced in 1989 which

empowered the government to freeze properties acquired through illicit
drug trafficking. The Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, 1985,
n. 90, pp.42-49.
94
Bombay High Court: Second conviction need not mean death, DNA,
Mumbai, January 06, 2011, at http://www.dnaindia.com/mumbai/
report_bombay-high-court-second-ndps-conviction-need-not-meandeath_1555883 (Accessed on February 1, 2012)
95
Drug peddler gets capital punishment, The Times of India, Chandigarh,

January 29, 2012, at http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-0129/chandigarh/30675470_1_drug-peddler-psychotropic-substances-deathsentence (Accessed on February 1, 2012)
42 | Pushpita Das
death penalties to persons found guilty of possessing drugs for the

second time. For example, in 2003, a Nigerian was served death penalty
after he was convicted of drug trafficking. Similarly in December
2007, a special court had awarded death penalty to Ghulam Malik
after he was convicted the second time for drug trafficking.
Incidentally, in both the cases the high court overturned their death
sentences to imprisonments.94 More recently on January 2012, another
person was sentenced to death by a lower court in Chandigarh.95
Now it is to be seen if this order also will be overturned by higher
courts and if such overturning of judgments emboldens drug
traffickers.
In addition, the government of India has also enacted the Prevention
of Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act
in 1988, which allows detention of persons suspected to be involved
in illicit trafficking of drugs.96 Besides, a few sections of the Customs
Act of 1962 are implemented for curbing the illicit export of precursor
chemicals. Under the Act, acetic anhydride has been declared as
specified item to check its illegal export and detection in the border
states of Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram. Also,
a 100 km belt along the Myanmar border in these states has also been
declared as specified area under the Customs Act of 1962 to curb
any illegal export of acetic anhydride.97
The enactment of various legislations has indeed provided the
government with the means to achieve the twin goals of reduction in
96
The Prevention of Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances

Act, 1988, (New Delhi: Universal, 2012), p. 102.
97
Giri Raj Shah, Encyclopedia of Narcotics Drugs and Psychotropic Substances:

Vol. III-Indian Initiatives, n.5, p. 888.
drug supply and demand. While many drug traffickers have been
prosecuted and sentenced under the under the NDPS Act, drug
trafficking has contradictorily, registered an increasing trend. It shows
that mere enactment of laws is not enough. For combating drug
trafficking, it is necessary to successfully investigate and prosecute all
drug related offences. Furthermore, proper licensing and strict
vigilance is required to ascertain that there is neither illegal cultivation
of poppy nor any diversion of opium to manufacture heroin.
Co-opting voluntary organisations

Since de-addiction and rehabilitation of drug dependants require
innovative and sustained involvement, the government is assisted by
a number of voluntary organisations. These voluntary organisatons
complement the governments efforts in the prevention and control
of drug abuse by spreading awareness about the destructive effects of
drugs in the communities, as well as by assisting in de-addiction
treatments and reintegration of drug dependants into the societal
mainstream. Since these NGOs have the required expertise and ground
knowledge about drug abuse, they advise and work closely with
governments.
Under state-community partnership scheme, 361 voluntary
organisations are running 376 De-addiction-cum-Rehabilitation
Centers and 68 Counselling and Awareness Centers all over the
country with active support from the government.98 The Federation
for Indian NGOs (non-governmental organisations) in Drug Abuse
98
Alcohol and Drug Demand Reduction and Prevention Policies, Ministry

of Social Justice and Empowerment , Government of India, at http://
socialjustice.nic.in/aldd.php (Accessed on January 27, 2012)
44 | Pushpita Das
Prevention (FINGODAP) facilitates intense interactions among

various NGOs to share their expertise and ensure better service for
reduction of drug dependency. These voluntary organisations,
through various programmes like detoxification and de-addiction,
rehabilitation and reintegration, outreach, awareness and education,
sensitisation and intervention, extended care and livelihood generation,
have been quite effective in reducing the demand and abuse of drugs
in the country.
Physical security of the borders and coasts

Considering that India has been a transit hub as well as a destination
for drug trafficking, emphasis has been laid upon ensuring the security
of the borders by preventing the easy ingress and egress of the drug
traffickers along with their consignments through the borders.
In this respect, the most visible measure that was undertaken was the
building of border fences. Border fences were erected first along the
borders with Pakistan, beginning in the mid-1980s, when large
numbers of terrorists as well as huge quantities of drug from Pakistan
began to enter India. In later years, fences were built along the IndiaBangladesh border primarily to prevent illegal migration, but these
fences also acted as a barrier to the free movement of drug traffickers.99
That the construction of fences has reduced the inflow of drugs from
across the borders substantially is corroborated by the reduced seizure
figures as well as the increased use of sea routes by the traffickers to
smuggle in drugs into the country.
99
Till March 2011, 1,973 km of fences along the Pakistan border and 2,735
km of fences along the Bangladesh borders had been constructed. See,
Annual Report 2010-2011, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India,
New Delhi, 2011, pp, 39, 41.
Strengthening surveillance along the borders by deploying adequate

numbers of border guarding personnel is another measure undertaken
to ensure security of the borders. Regular patrolling and electronic
surveillance is carried out for detecting suspicious movements along
the borders as well as to gather intelligence to effectively deal with
drug trafficking.
In addition to border guards, personnel from several central
organisations such as the Customs, the Directorate of Revenue
Intelligence, the Narcotics Control Bureau, and the Central Bureau
of Narcotics as well as state organisations such as state police, state
excise and state forest are also employed for the detection and
apprehension of drug consignments along the borders.
Border states which have been witnessing increasing trends of drug
trafficking have initiated several steps to deal with it. For example,
Manipur has established a special police wing, the Narcotics and Affairs
of Border, in 1985, whose primary focus is to prevent drug trafficking
in the state.100 Similarly, Punjab which has been experiencing a spurt
in heroin smuggling since 2006 plans to deploy two Indian Reserve
Battalion (IRBs) comprising of 2,000 personnel along the most
vulnerable stretch of the border at Gurdaspur and Ferozpur districts.
These battalions will act as a second line of defence behind the BSF to
prevent drug and arms trafficking in the state.101
100
Narcotics and Affairs of Border, Manipur Police, at http://

manipurpolice.org/nab.htm (Accessed on July 20, 2011)
101
Punjab to counter narco-terrorism, The Tribune, Chandigarh, December

14, 2010, at http://www.tribuneindia.com/2010/20101215/main6.htm
102
Annual Report 2010-2011, Ministry of Home Affairs, n. 99, pp. 43-45.
46 | Pushpita Das
Since the bulk of drugs are smuggled in through formal trading

routes, India has embarked upon a plan to upgrade 13 of the land
custom stations into integrated check posts102 with state of the art
equipment to detect drug consignments being smuggled into and out
of the country along with regular goods.
For securing Indias coasts, several coastal police stations have been
established and provided with interceptor boats and other vehicles
to intensify vigilance along the coasts and seas. In addition, joint
patrolling along the Maharashtra and Gujarat coasts, which are
particularly prone to drug smuggling, is being carried out by a team
comprising the state police, coast guard and customs since 1993.103
The capacity to detect drug consignments at the airports and sea ports
has been strengthened by installing sophisticated screening and
detection machines.
Despite these measures, it has not been possible to prevent the entry
and exit of drugs across the borders because of various reasons.
First, prevention of drug trafficking is no more a priority issue for
the government. It appears that somehow the government has been
lulled by the belief that the consumption of drugs as well as their
trafficking has declined in the country substantially as compared to
that during 1980s. This belief has also been reinforced by the near
constant large quantities of drugs being seized by various agencies in
103
Annual Report 2010-2011, Ministry of Home Affairs, n. 99, pp. 45-62.
104
Interview with senior BSF and NCB officials at New Delhi.
105
Drug tunnel on Indo-Pak border, The Times of India, Jodhpur, December

22,
2008,
at
http://epaper.timesofindia.com/Repository/
ml.asp?Ref=VE9JUFUvMjAwOC8xMi8yMiNBcjAwOTAx &Mode
=HTML&Locale=english-skin-custom (Accessed on June 13, 2011).
the last few years. As a result, there does not seem to be urgency by
the border guarding forces in apprehending drug consignments and
peddlers from across the borders.104
Second, fences along the border do not provide foolproof protection
against drug trafficking as they have been breached periodically by
traffickers. For instance, in Barmer, traffickers had allegedly dug a
tunnel underneath the fence along the international border to smuggle
heroin from Pakistan.105 In Punjab, small packets of heroin are thrown
over the fence from across the border at night, which are later collected
by local traffickers and transported to major drug hubs in the state.
In many cases, traffickers cut the fences or use ladders to scale them.106
Large consignments of heroin are also buried close to the fence by
the Pakistani smugglers, to be retrieved later by their Indian counters
when they go to their field situated behind the fence.107
Third, corruption in various concerned agencies has been one of the
most difficult hurdle in the prevention of drug trafficking. Drug
trafficking generates enormous profits and the lure of money has
always been too difficult to resist. It has been alleged that officials
not only take bribe from traffickers to look the other way when a
106
107
Interview with senior BSF personnel at New Delhi. Also see, 15 kg heroin
found near Indo-Pak border,Zee News, Amritsar, October 4, 2011, at http:/
/zeenews.india.com/news/punjab/15-kg-heroin-found-near-india-pakborder_734947.html (Accessed on January 16, 2012)
108
Saji stole at least 40 kg heroin, The Times of India, Mumbai, January 28,
2009, at http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-01-28/mumbai/
28014052_1_vicky-oberoi-ips-officer-saji-mohan-classique-club (Accessed
on February 1, 2012). Also see ATS arrests two cops for drug trafficking,
DNA, Ahmedabad, February 28, 2009, at http://www.dnaindia.com/india/
report_ats-arrests-two-cops-for-drug-trafficking_1234928 (Accessed on
February 1, 2012)
48 | Pushpita Das
drug consignment is trafficked but some of them are themselves

actively involved in drug trafficking.108
Fourth, turf wars between various agencies, lack of manpower and
infrastructure, poor drug detection training and procedural delays
also hamper the effectiveness of the countrys drug prevention efforts.
These difficulties prove that more than often, a unilateral approach
is not adequate to address a problem that has global dimensions and
therefore, there is a need to seek the active support of the neighbours
through a cooperative framework.
Cooperation with Neighbours

Realising the importance of a cooperative framework for the
prevention of illicit trafficking of drugs and chemicals, India has
entered into bilateral and multilateral agreements with several
countries including neighbours.109 Bilateral agreements were signed
with Afghanistan (1990), Bangladesh (2006), Bhutan (2009), Myanmar
(1993), and Pakistan (2011). These agreements have been instrumental
in establishing a mechanism for mutual exchange of information, of
operational and technical experience, cooperation for joint
investigations and other assistance to identify, suppress and prevent
criminal activities of the international syndicates engaged in the illicit
109
India has signed bilateral agreements and Memorandum of Understanding

to combat drug trafficking with 29 countries. For details see, Narcontrol,
Vol. 1 (1), Narcotics Control Bureau, Ministry of Home Affairs, March
2011, p.15
110
India is a signatory to all UN Conventions namely, the Single Convention

on Narcotics Drugs, 1962, the 1971 UN Convention on Psychotropic
Substances and the 1988 UN Convention Against Illicit Trafficking of
Narcotics Drugs, Psychotropic Substances. See, Narcontrol, n. 109.
traffick of narcotics drugs, psychotropic substances and precursor

chemicals.110
Additionally, there are several other bilateral institutional mechanisms,
which facilitate interactions between India and its neighbours to
discuss the problem of drug trafficking. These interactions are held
at national, sectoral and local levels on annual, bi-annual and quarterly
basis involving the Home Ministers and Home Secretaries, the heads
of apex Drug Law Enforcement agencies and Director Generals of
the Border Guarding Forces of India and its neighbours. For instance,
in February 2011, the Drug Law enforcement officials of India and
Bhutan discussed avenues to strengthen cooperation for combating
drug trafficking. Similarly, during the 18th sectoral level talks between
India and Myanmar in 2011, specific problems associated with drug
trafficking were discussed. The Director Generals level talks between
BSF and BGB (Border Guard Bangladesh) in 2010 also discussed steps
for combating drug trafficking across the borders.
As for multilateral agreements with neighbours, India is a signatory
to the SAARC Convention on Narcotics Drugs and Psychotropic
substances, 1993. The convention provides for regular meetings of
Home Ministers and Home Secretaries of the member countries as
well as for interactions among the members of SAARC Conference
111
Till date, only two meetings, one in 2007 and another in 2008 were held
under the auspice of the Convention. See, Annual Report 2009, n. 12, pp.53-54.
112
Joint Statement of the Twelfth BIMSTEC Ministerial Meeting, Nay Pyi Taw,
December 11, 2009, available at http://www.bimstec.org/
12th_MM_details.html (Accessed on July 21, 2011).
113
Pentalateral Cooperation on Drugs comprises India, China, Myanmar,

Thailand and Lao PDR. For details see, Pentalateral Cooperation on Drugs,
available at http://en.oncb.go.th/document/e1-coop-5L-idx.asp (Accessed
on July 21, 2011).
50 | Pushpita Das
on Cooperation in Police matters.111 India has also signed the

BIMSTEC Convention on Cooperation in Combating International
Terrorism, Transnational Organised Crime and Illicit Drug
Trafficking in 2009112, which provides for a legal framework to all
the member countries to combat drug trafficking and organised crime.
India is also a party to the Pentalateral Cooperation on Drug Control,
which focuses on the prevention of illicit trade of precursor and other
chemicals used for the manufacture of heroin.113
Furthermore, India has signed Memoranda of Understanding on
Narcotics Drugs related matters with Bhutan, Indonesia, Iran, Oman,
USA and Pakistan. India has also established Joint Working Groups
on Counter Terrorism with 27 countries wherein drugs related
offences are discussed. India also interacts with the Drug Liaison
Officers of several countries stationed in South Asia for sharing
intelligence, conducting joint operations/investigations and for
controlled deliveries. India has also been participating in various
conferences, interactions, and meetings such as Commission on
Narcotics Drugs, Asia-Pacific International Drug enforcement
Conference, Regional International Drug Enforcement Conference,
Anti-Drug Liaison Officials Meeting for International Cooperation,
CPDAP national Drug Focal Points Meetings, etc organised to discuss
various drug trafficking related matters.114
While such bilateral and multilateral platforms provide opportunities
for countries fighting drug trafficking to augment their capacities by
sharing information, conducting joint operations and assisting one
another in investigation and prosecution of any drug related crime,
the fact remains that these platforms have not been able to achieve
114
Annual Report 2009, Narcotics Control Bureau, n. 12, pp. 52-57.
their desired objectives because of mutual distrust, hostilities, blame

game and petty politics among member states. Political instability
and lack of competence among the law enforcement and intelligence
apparatus of the member countries to effectively counter drug
trafficking also contribute to the failure.
Though both Pakistan and India have been victims of drug trafficking
for long, strained bilateral relations have prevented them from holding
regular interactions and evolving a mechanism for mutual cooperation
to deal with the problem. Similarly, because of an unsympathetic
regime in Dhaka in the past, regular meetings with Bangladesh have
not been transcribed into effective cooperation until recently. Political
instability in Nepal has been a major stumbling block as far as
cooperation on drug trafficking with that country is concerned.
Discussion on drug related issues such as demand suppression and
prevention of illicit trafficking of drugs with Bhutan was
institutionalised only in 2009115 and the first meeting was held in 2010.
Besides, the SAARC Drug Offence Monitoring Desk (SDOMD),
which was constituted in 1992 for creating a database for all major
drug offences with an aim to improve drug interception capabilities,
has not proven effective given that information and intelligence shared
by neighbouring countries is alleged to be of inferior quality.116 This
underlines not only the indifferent attitude but also a lack of
competence among the security and law enforcement personnel in
some of the neighbouring countries.
115
India-Bhutan Relation , Ministry of External Affairs, at http://mea.gov.in/

mystart.php?id=50042442 (Accessed on July 22, 2011).
116
This insight was provided by a senior official of the Narcotics Control

Bureau to the Author at New Delhi.
52 | Pushpita Das
Notwithstanding these drawbacks, a trend towards greater interaction

between India and its neighbours is discernible. The realisation that
mutual cooperation against drug trafficking is the best way ahead is
further reinforced by successful cases where cross cooperation has
helped in reduction of drug trafficking to a great extent. The most
significant example is that of Thailand. Situated amidst the Golden
Triangle, Thailand has been plagued with the menace of drug
trafficking for long. However, at present Thailand is celebrated as
one country, which has been quite successful in controlling the flow
of drugs in the country. For this to materialise, Thailand had not
only enforced strict domestic laws but it also sought the cooperation
of its neighbours.117 Active cooperation of the neighbours such as
Vietnam and Laos in prevention of drug trafficking had been to a
great extent helpful in making Thailand a success story.
Given the success of Thailand, India should also re-emphasise the
relevance of creating a cooperative framework for cross-border
cooperation and impress upon its neighbours the advantages of active
participation in such an effort to convincingly address the problem
of drug trafficking and secure its borders.
117
Thailands Country Progress Report of Drug Control, ASEAN-Inter

Parliamentary Assembly , Jakarta, at http://www.aipasecretariat.org/wpcontent/uploads/2011/09/Thai-Progress-report.pdf (Accessed on
February 1, 2012), Also see, Vietnam, Laos, Thailand enhance
cooperation on drug control, Xinhua, Hanoi, August 11, 2011, at http://
english.peopledaily.com.cn/90777/7572183.html (Accessed on February
1, 2012)
Conclusion
India has been enduring the scourge of drug trafficking for three
decades. The countrys proximity to two of the worlds largest illicit
opium growing areas as well as various external and internal factors
have contributed to it becoming a transit, source and a destination
for drugs. The trends and patterns of drug trafficking in the country
demonstrates that there is a gradual shift from traditional/natural
drugs towards synthetic drugs that are being trafficked and consumed
in the country. In the 1980s, a large quantity of heroin and hashish
was smuggled in from the source areas into the country through
various borders. While these drugs are still trafficked, albeit in lesser
quantities, the share of synthetic drugs such as ATS and codeine based
pharmaceutical preparations has gone up tremendously. Persistence
of drug trafficking over the years implies that the sanctity of the
borders is being breached and their security compromised. Various
studies and newspaper reports indicate that drug consumption and
trafficking are in fact showing an increasing trend.
To deal with the problem of drug trafficking and to protect the
countrys borders against such infringements, India has employed a
mix of measures. On the one hand, it has enacted stringent anti drug
laws, co-opted various voluntary organisations and sought to
strengthen the physical security of its borders by various means, on
the other hand it has been seeking the cooperation of its neighbours
and other countries through several bilateral and multilateral
agreements. These efforts have only been partially successful in dealing
with the problem. For achieving greater success in preventing drug
trafficking, a few suggestions are put forth:
y
Prevention of drug trafficking has to be accorded greater priority.

At present it forms part of the larger mandate of the border
54 | Pushpita Das
guarding forces to prevent smuggling and any other illegal

activity. Special measures need to be formulated to check
trafficking of drugs through the borders.
y
Coordination among various agencies needs to be improved.
Information/intelligence gathering regarding drug trafficking, its

analysis and dissemination capabilities need to be strengthened.
The issue of corruption among the border guarding forces as

well as in other concerned agencies has to be dealt with in a
pragmatic manner. While officials found guilty of drug trafficking
should be punished severely, suitable reward systems should also
be introduced to provide incentives to the personnel to work
diligently towards preventing drug trafficking.
A database on production, trade and consumption of various

drugs at the national level needs to be prepared to ascertain the
extent of the problem.
Various domestic laws enacted for the control of drug trafficking

should be implemented stringently and severe punishments should
be accorded to drug stockists.
The government should provide viable alternatives to farmers in

order to wean them away from illegally cultivating poppy and
cannabis.
Agencies such as the SDOMD should be reinvigorated. Capacity

building of personnel involved in prevention of drug trafficking
in India and its neighbouring areas, should be enhanced.
Above all greater cooperation with neighbours on matters of

drug trafficking need to be forged.
Annexure I
Various Drugs Seized (in Kgs)
Year
Quantity
Heroin Hashish Opium Ganja Cocaine Amphe- Methatamine qualone
1981 NA
989
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
1982 NA
1640
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
1983 139
6072
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
1984 203
4386
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
1985 761
10312
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
1986 2621
18909
8789
60619
NA
NA
1484
1987 2747
14796
2929
53920
NA
NA
1500
1988 3029
17523
3304
45994
NA
NA
1649
1989 2714
8179
4855
54463
887
1990 2193
6388
2114
39090
2141
1991 622
4413
2145
52633
0.008
4415
1992 1153
6621
1918
64341
0.42
7475
1993 1088
8238
3011
98867
15004
1994 1011
6993
2256
187896 1058
45319
1995 1681
3629
1349
121873 40
20485
1996 1257
6520
2876
62992
2212
56 | Pushpita Das
Year
Quantity
Heroin Hashish Opium Ganja Cocaine Amphe- Methatamine qualone
1997 1332
3281
3316
80886
24
1740
1998 655
10106
2031
68221
2257
1999 861
3391
1635
40113
474
2000 1240
5041
2684
100056
0.352
1095
2001 889
5664
2533
86929
2024
2002 993
4487
1867
93477
7458
2003 991
3012
1720
79653
345
2004 1162
4596
2237
144055
1614
2005 981
3965
2009
153660
472
2006 1182
3852
2826
157710
206
4521
2007 1186
5181
2226
107881
2008 1063
4084
2033
103211
12
18
2009 1045
3549
1732
208764
12
Source: Annual Reports-various years, Narcotics Control Bureau
Annexure II
Precursor Chemicals Seized (in Kgs)
Year
Quantity
Ephedrine
Acetic Anhydride
1993
19758
1994
47740
1995
9282
1996
4627
1997
8311
1998
6197
1999
2963
2000
426
1337
2001
930
8589
2002
126
3288
2003
3234
857
2004
72
2665
2005
300
2006
1276
133
2007
395
236
2008
1284
2754
2009
1244
1038
58 | Pushpita Das
Annexure III
Heroin Seized (origin)
Year Total Seizures
Percentage of total Heroin seized

South West South East Local/Unknown
Asian
Asian
Source
1984
203
58
NA
NA
1985
761
73
NA
NA
1986
2621
87.60
NA
NA
1987
2747
84
NA
NA
1988
3029
86
NA
NA
1989
2714
60.20
NA
NA
1990
2193
77
NA
NA
1991
622
77.40
1.90
19.90
1992
1153
74
1.30
21.30
1995
1681
50
48
1996
1257
64
34
1997
1332
48
50
1998
655
37
2.14
60.86
1999
861
35
63
2000
1240
21
77
2001
889
22.30
1.30
77.70
Year Total Seizures
Percentage of total Heroin seized

South West South East Local/Unknown
Asian
Asian
Source
2002
993
94
2003
991
30
NA
NA
2004
1162
35
NA
NA
2005
981
40
NA
NA
2006
1182
35
NA
NA
2007
1186
35
NA
NA
2008
1063
35
NA
NA
2009
1045
21
NA
NA

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roximity to the largest producers of heroin and hashish-the Golden Triangle

Dr Pushpita Das is a Associate Fellow at the IDSA. She holds

Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses

IDSA Occasional Paper No. 24