Creating the Conditions 27/2/05 4:32 pm Page 1

Creating the Conditions

For Ambitious, Excellent Schools

A Submission to the Scottish Executive

By Teacher Support Scotland March 2005
Creating the Conditions 27/2/05 4:32 pm Page 2

Executive Summary
i

1. Central to this submission is the evidence provided by research into the wellbeing of teachers in
Scotland1. The interventions described draw upon sound theoretical perspectives and practical
experience.

2. If all of Scotland’s schools are to be ambitious and excellent then the conditions which allow this to
happen have to be present. Evidence suggests that these may not be in place.

3. The prevailing view among teachers in Scotland is that the pressures they experience are
considerable and that these are not recognised and understood. The prevailing view among
employers is that existing levels of support are adequate. While these positions remain un-reconciled
the effectiveness of Scottish education is impaired.

4. There is a clear business case for ensuring employees’ wellbeing.

5. Half of teachers in Scotland find their jobs very or extremely stressful and nine out of ten believe
that the situation has become worse. Reported levels of stress are lower in the independent sector
and higher in areas of deprivation.

6. More than three-quarters of teachers believe that psychological stress at work has a knock-on effect
on their physical wellbeing. The incidence of mental health problems and depression among teachers
(especially male teachers) is higher than in health workers.

7. Two-thirds of teachers report personal problems which affect their work and find it difficult to
separate stresses at work from stress at home.

8. Stress and work-related illness have a detrimental impact upon teacher retention. Teachers who
suffer ill health are likely to feel stressed and are more likely to consider leaving.

9. Teachers’ perceptions of their health are influenced by length of service. There is a relationship
between length of service and burn-out. The age-profile of teachers in Scotland, means that this
situation will get worse.

10. Stress among teachers is a complex phenomenon caused by factors that are intrinsic to teaching,
systemic factors and teachers’ cognitive responses to these. Teachers perceive pupil behaviour,
workload and relationships with managers to be the main causes. Stress caused by indiscipline is
localised in individual schools and in individual teachers, depending on local conditions and
individual responses.

11. Teachers who feel appreciated and involved are more likely to remain in the profession.

12. There is little dedicated support for teachers in Scotland. Support is generic and provided at the
individual level, rather than being discipline-specific or targeted at the interface between individual
and organisation.

13. Accessing support is difficult. Three-quarters of teachers are unaware of services provided by their
employer and are concerned about confidentiality. Teachers working in local authorities where a
Teacher Welfare Officer is present are twice as likely to be aware of services provided. Only five
employers provide this service.

1 The Teachers’ Health and Wellbeing Study Scotland commissioned by Teacher Support Scotland and NHS Scotland, conducted by the Healthy Working
Lives Group at the University of Glasgow (HWLG)
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Executive Summary
ii
14. The usage and perception of support services is in sharp contrast to the experience in England and
Wales where the ‘Teacher Support Line’ is available. More that three-quarters of the calls to this
service are work-related. More than half of teachers in Scotland would be interested in using a
helpline and more than three-quarters wanted a support service dedicated to teachers.
15. There are few examples of individual-organisational interface level interventions. Only one evaluated
example was found, the ‘Wellbeing’ programme operating in England. Evaluations found benefits in
retention, staff performance and culture.
16. The policy framework in Scotland is conducive to support teachers’ wellbeing but local delivery does
not match national policy. The relationship between employee wellbeing and effectiveness is given
insufficient consideration.
17. Systemic level interventions fail to recognise the specific needs of teachers and to deliver where
need is most acute. Services are not standardised, are fragmented and not tailored specifically for
teachers. There is little evidence of internal evaluation or monitoring of support and management
systems. There are few examples of sharing best practice.
18. Research identifies teachers as an ‘at risk group’. One of the most compelling views is by the Health
and Safety Executive who recognise schools as high-stress environments.
19. Pressure occurs mainly at the individual/organisational interface, especially in relationships between
teachers and managers, colleagues, pupils and parents. Research showed a dearth of interventions in
Scotland in this area, and raises questions about the nature of schools’ culture, management and
leadership and their effects on employee wellbeing and on individual and organisational
effectiveness. Personal development designed to improve self-efficacy, coping skills and resilience
would reduce stress and improve personal effectiveness.
20. The Healthy Working Lives Group study makes recommendations in relation to the provision of
occupational health services. It proposes that data should be routinely captured and used to inform
policy and practice, and argues for proper evaluation of interventions. It also recommends that
programmes targeted at teachers should be developed and that issue-specific interventions should be
developed and tested.
21. The submission concludes that:
• There is a compelling argument for the introduction of a support service similar to that provided
to teachers in England and Wales.
• There is a need to take a strategic approach to improving the wellbeing of the Scottish teaching
force that embraces and shares effective practice, and tries out new and innovative interventions,
especially at the individual/organisational interface.
• There is a professional argument for management within schools to become more person-centred,
and to provide managers and in particular, head teachers withappropriate CPD and support to
facilitate this.
These conclusions will form the basis of specific proposals to the Executive.
Acknowledgements
iii
Central to this submission is the evidence provided by the Healthy Working Lives Group (HWLG) of the
University of Glasgow in their research into the wellbeing of teachers in Scotland. This research,
commissioned by Teacher Support Scotland and NHS Health Scotland, is the most comprehensive study
into the wellbeing of teachers ever carried out. The study sheds valuable light on a hitherto under-
researched and misunderstood phenomenon. We would like to thank the Esmée Fairbairn Foundation and
NHS Health Scotland for their financial contribution to this research.
A number of references used in this submission were taken from the HWLG study. It was not practical to
attribute every reference to the researchers as to do so would make it unwieldy. We therefore
acknowledge their work as the main content of sections two and four, and as the basis of the proposals
made in the submission. We are grateful to Dr Ewan Macdonald and his team at the Healthy Working Lives
Group, particularly Dr Claire Dunlop, for their diligent work, and we acknowledge the significant
contribution they have made to inform this submission. We are also grateful to Dr Donna McKinnon and
colleagues at NHS Health Scotland who project-managed the research process.
Scottish local authorities contributed to the HWLG research, as did more than five-hundred teachers and
headteachers working in all types of school across Scotland. The General Teaching Council for Scotland,
the Educational Institute for Scotland and the Scottish Secondary Teachers Association provided the
researchers with logistical support. The research process was overseen by Dr Erica Wimbush, Director of
Research at NHS Health Scotland and Dr Sally Brown, Professor Emeritus of Stirling University. A
comparative study of teachers and health workers which looked at early retirement due to ill health
(Brown and Macdonald, forthcoming), validated a number of the HWLG findings.
Further research and information provides a clearer understanding of the influences on teachers’
wellbeing and their impact on costs, health, individual and organisational effectiveness: in particular,
‘Teacher Support Line – Four Years On’2, an analysis of the helpline provided by Teacher Support Network
in England and Wales. Telephone interviews with two hundred teachers and head teachers in Scotland
established their attitudes to their own wellbeing and that of their colleagues, and of the support
provided by their employers. A similar number of teachers have contacted Teacher Support Scotland with
requests for help, typically with workplace health or conflict issues. The level, frequency and content of
these calls back up the HWLG findings. Psychologist Dr Matt Jarvis provided important evidence and
perspectives on the unique pressures faced by teachers.
The proposals made in this submission complement the recommendations made by the HWLG in their
research. These recommendations were made in the full understanding of the policy context and national
priorities for health and education.
Interventions described in this submission draw upon sound theoretical perspectives and practical
experience of working in education, the public and private sectors. These were provided by specialists in
the fields of management development, workplace health and organisational culture, including
psychologist Robin Shohet, Dr Peter Hawkins, Chairman of the Bath Consultancy Group, Tommy
Macdonald-Milner, Head of Occupational Health for Marks and Spencer PLC, Patrick Nash, Group Chief
Executive Teacher Support Network, and Tony Buon psychologist and expert in employee support and
development.
2 Teacher Support Network (2004) London
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Acknowledgements
Contents
iv v

John Christie, Director of the Virtual Staff College in Scotland led a strategy development process with
officers from Edinburgh, Fife and Renfrewshire Councils to produce a comprehensive pilot programme to
Executive Summary................................................i
improve employee wellbeing in schools. Many individuals and agencies contributed to the development
ofthe pilot or were consulted during its development, including The Health and Safety Executive, HMIE,
Catherine Campbell, Teacher Welfare Officer for North Lanarkshire Council, David Cameron, Head of Acknowledgements.............................................. iii
Schools, East Lothian Council, Harvey Stalker, Director, The Health Promoting Schools Unit, Dr Jim
O’Brien, The Centre for Education Leadership, Carol Lynch Managing Director of Worklife Support Ltd,
John Blackburn of the Health and Safety Executive, Robin Shohet, Dr Peter Hawkins of the Bath
Consultancy Group and Fiona Burgess of PPC International. The Teacher Support Scotland Advisory Forum Preface.............................................................iv
were consulted throughout the process and provided useful advice. This work has helped to inform this
submission and will be the basis upon which proposals will be made.
Introduction........................................................1

Section One........................................................2

The Relationship Between Wellbeing and

Effectiveness...................................................... 3

Preface Section Two........................................................4

During the last three years Teacher Support Scotland has come to understand the dynamics of the
wellbeing of teachers very well. This has been achieved through partnership with individuals and
Teachers’ Wellbeing in Scotland............................... 5
organisations that have a legitimate interest, not only in the wellbeing of teachers, but in the health of
Scottish education – in every sense. Teacher Support Scotland is unique among organisations because it
spans health and education. Section Three......................................................8
With our colleagues in parallel organisations in England, Wales, Northern Ireland and the United States of
America, we have built a store of knowledge and understanding that can make a real and significant
contribution to the quality of education – therefore the educational experience of young people. This is
The Uniqueness of Teaching.................................... 9
our ultimate aim.

While our work has teachers at its core, the interventions we advocate are of value to everyone in Section Four......................................................12
education, and indeed, to everyone working in the public sector. We simply advocate effective practice,
and ask that the challenges faced by those working in the education service should be reassessed.
Existing ways of doing things in this field are not working. New interventions which are centred in schools Support for Teachers............................................13
are needed. Scotland has the opportunity to lead the way in an area of activity that will only become
more critical – securing maximum effectiveness in the workforce.
Section Five...................................................... 17

Conclusions.......................................................18
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Introduction
vi 1

If all of Scotland’s schools are to be ambitious and excellent, then everyone working in them has to be
ambitious and excellent too, and the conditions which allow this to happen have to be present: this is a
key element of support for learning. One of these conditions is the physical and emotional wellbeing of
everyone working in schools, especially teachers. The evidence presented in this submission will show
that the wellbeing of the Scottish teaching force is a cause for concern, and the provision of support
inadequate. This situation hampers progress and represents a real and significant barrier to achieving
ambitious, excellent schools.

Prevailing Views
The prevailing view among teachers in Scotland is that the pressures they experience on a daily basis are
unique and excessive and that available support is inadequate. They believe that these pressures are not
recognised and understood, or that they are ignored. Teachers consider occupational health policies and
management practices to be unsupportive, particularly in respect of absence policies which are generally
regarded as punitive. These perceptions are widely held and detrimental to individual and organisational
effectiveness. The generally held view among employers is that the pressures teachers face are not
unique or excessive, and that adequate support is available.

Long-Standing Assumptions
Long-standing assumptions exist on both sides which remain unchallenged. While these positions remain
unreconciled, the conditions necessary for the attainment of ambitious, excellent schools cannot be fully
in place and the effectiveness of Scottish education is impaired. The situation is exacerbated by the
tendency to misunderstand and over-simplify what is a complex issue, and to consider employee
wellbeing to be a purely a health, personnel or welfare matter.

Research conducted by the Healthy Working Lives Group (HWLG) at the University of Glasgow has helped
to establish the actual position in Scotland by mapping the context and support which is currently offered
to teachers in Scotland, surveying teachers themselves about their health needs and the support they
would like to see provided to them. The study also looked at interventions from around the world which
might be effective in addressing teachers’ health and well-being needs. When the HWLG study is
supplemented by other research and practical examples of interventions, a more objective assessment
can be made of the position of teachers in Scotland and the nature and the efficacy of support available
to them.

This submission will provide a clear picture of the state of the wellbeing of teachers in Scotland: it will
explain the relationship between the wellbeing of teachers and their effectiveness, and the importance
of ‘managing for wellbeing’ schools. Some specific proposals designed to improve wellbeing in Scottish
schools in the short and long term will be presented to the Executive as a result of this submission. We
believe that these proposals support the Executive’s agenda for action.
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Section One The Relationship between

2 3

Wellbeing and Effectiveness

At a national conference organised by Teacher Support Scotland to examine employee effectiveness,
Tommy MacDonald-Milner, Head of Occupational Health at Marks and Spencer PLC (M&S) set out the
business case for ensuring employees’ wellbeing. For M&S, the value of best practice policies for
employee wellbeing came in reduced costs for sickness and absence, less risk of litigation, better
recruitment and retention of employees in a more difficult employment marketplace and crucially, in
individual effectiveness and organisational excellence. Practices were neither soft nor punitive: outcomes
were tangible and measurable. Results-orientated managers understood the relationship between
productivity and employee wellbeing.

Supporting Evidence
Numerous studies support the view that individual and organisational effectiveness are influenced by
employee wellbeing. Marks and Spencer’s approach is to recognise that employee wellbeing is part of the
overall mix in striving for excellence. Managing for wellbeing is therefore a conscious, commercial
decision. There are many challenges in managing for wellbeing. Managers need to understand the impact
of culture, leadership and management on employee wellbeing and effectiveness.

The Health and Safety Executive set out what it described as ‘the business case’ for tackling stress in the
workplace. Referring to research they suggest that work-related stress affects an organisation adversely
in terms of:
• Commitment to work
• Performance and productivity
• Staff turnover and intention to leave
• Attendance levels
• Recruitment and retention
• Customer satisfaction
• Organisational image and reputation
• Potential litigation

Leadership and Management Styles

M&S recognise that management style and leadership have a profound effect on employee wellbeing, and
that managers themselves need particular support and appropriate professional development. Valuable
data is captured and used to inform policy and identify problem ‘hot spots’. Marks and Spencer, is not
alone in its’ approach, enlightened employers understand that maintaining and developing employee
wellbeing is simply good management practice and sound commercial logic.

Research3 shows that leadership style is a significant organisational factor which affects teachers’
wellbeing. Jarvis quotes Harris (1999) who assessed teacher stress and leadership style in three American
primary schools using the Wilson Stress Profile for Teachers. The Principal in each school was classified
differently, and teachers had significantly lower stress in the school where the Principal was classified as
high in both task and relationship focus - this leadership style being associated with both strategic vision
and a close personal relationship with staff. Leadership style appears in part to be a response to 'trickle-
down' stressors. Hoel et al (1999) surveyed teachers in England and found that 35% reported having been
bullied by a manager in the last five years, as opposed to an average of 24% across all occupational
sectors. This was interpreted as managers failing to cope with workloads and resorting to bullying as a
maladaptive coping strategy. Lack of appropriate management training and development for head
teachers and managers may also have been a contributory factor.
3
* Conclusion by The Southeast Centre for Teaching Quality (SEQT) from a recent report to Mike Easley, the Governor of Carolina in the USA and Mike Matt Jarvis. Stress News 2002; Vol. 14: No. 1 International Stress Management Association
Easly’s own conclusion. The same report showed the relationship between leadership, teachers’ wellbeing and attainment.
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Section Two Teachers’ Wellbeing in Scotland

4 5

The HWLG study and other evidence suggest that the conditions necessary to facilitate ambition and
excellence in schools across Scotland may not be in place, especially in areas of deprivation.

A Real Phenomenon
Research concluded that the phenomenon of teacher stress in Scotland is real, costly and damaging to
health and effectiveness. In line with other studies, including the Northern Ireland Teachers’ Health and
Wellbeing Study, almost half of teachers questioned reported that they found their jobs very or
extremely stressful; with nine out of ten teachers believing that the job has become more stressful in the
last five years.

More than three-quarters of teachers in Scotland believed that psychological stress at work had a knock-
on effect on their physical wellbeing and almost half suffered from a particular health problem; 12% of
these were mental health or behavioural problems, which in a comparative study was shown to be
significantly higher than in health workers (Brown & Macdonald forthcoming). The incidence of mental
health problems and depression among teachers gives cause for concern.

Personal Problems
Two-thirds of respondents reported personal problems which affected their work, which is consistent with
data from Teacher Support Line in England and with that generated from Employee Assistance
Programmes (EAPs). Teachers found it difficult to separate stresses at work from stress at home.

The study showed that teachers who suffer ill health are likely to feel stressed and more likely to
consider leaving the profession as a result.

The researchers concluded that stress and work-related illness have a detrimental impact upon teacher
retention.

Length of Service
Teachers’ perceptions of their health were influenced by length of service. Those teachers scoring their
health as ‘excellent’ and ‘very good’ were more likely to be recently qualified. The HWLG study
commented that ‘given that the teaching population in Scotland is an ageing one, the relationship
between this longevity and general health present a particular challenge to teachers’ employers and
education policy makers’. Over two-thirds of teachers in their probationary year felt that stress rarely
affected their physical well being. This contrasts sharply with those teachers with more than fifteen
years service, 83.3% of whom felt that a positive relationship often or sometimes existed between the
stress that they experienced and physical ill-health.

There is a clear relationship between length of service and burn out.

Given the age-profile of teachers in Scotland, this position is therefore likely to get progressively worse
in the foreseeable future.
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6
Teachers’ Wellbeing in Scotland Teachers’ Wellbeing in Scotland 7

Complex Causes The Overall Picture

The causes of stress among teachers are complex but teachers believe that pupil behaviour, workload and
relationships with managers/head teachers were the main causes. These findings are again consistent
with other studies and in particular the findings of Matt Jarvis (Section Three).
Teachers want to feel appreciated and involved. Evidence shows that this has the effect of reducing
stress. Those who do not feel involved are more likely to say they want to leave the profession. This has
clear implications for leadership, management style and school culture.
The overall picture of teachers’ wellbeing in Scotland is one of high levels of stress, which is endemic,
though not evenly distributed. Factors intrinsic to teaching were identified as stressors (such as
workload). Others, such as stress caused by indiscipline could be reasonably considered to be localised in
individual schools, and in individual teachers, depending on local conditions and individual responses. The
age profile of teachers was found by researchers to be a predictor of stress. New recruits into the
profession were found to be remarkably stress-free. How long they remain so in what is recognised as a
high-stress environment is a moot point.

Evidence argues for a more person-centred school culture and regime. The root causes of stress within individual teachers and in the profession generally are examined in the
next section.
Working in Areas of Deprivation
In the HWLG study, important differences were found between the reporting of stress levels according to
whether or not teachers considered themselves to be working with a deprived population. Most notably,
respondents working in deprived areas tended to view their job as more stressful. This may not be
surprising but the implications for achieving ambitious, excellent schools in the very areas that need
them most are profound. The inevitable consequence of this situation is that effectiveness may be
impaired, and recruitment and retention in these areas may be more difficult.

Mental Health
In a study into ill health retirement, when compared with findings on medical conditions reported by
health care workers (Brown and Macdonald, forthcoming), a greater proportion of teachers wre found to
suffer from circulatory, mental, respiratory and nervous system disorders. A greater incidence of mental
disorders was found amongst men (46.7%) than women (31.4%).

Evidence gathered by the researchers and other studies, notably the comparative study of teachers and
health workers, Hoel et al (1999), point to high levels of burn-out and early retirement due to
psychological problems, including depression.

Given the job they do, the incidence of mental health problems and depression among teachers in
Scotland is cause for concern.

Ill Health Retirement

The Brown and Macdonald Study (forthcoming) showed 36%4 of teachers taking early retirement due to ill
health were able to return to work at a later date, the figure for health workers was 10%. Over 90% of
health workers retiring due to ill health had used occupational health services: the corresponding figure
for teachers was 10%.

Around 350 teachers retire each year due to ill health. The inference is clear - better access to
occupational health services is likely to reduce this number.

4 Nearly half of men taking early retirement due to ill health (46.7%) did so because of mental disorders and depression: this is cause for concern.
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Section 3 The Uniqueness of Teaching

8 9

The HWLG research shows that teachers perceive themselves to be in a high stress work-environment.
This perception is confirmed by evidence from the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) and numerous other
studies. Research by Psychologist Matt Jarvis explains why stress is so prevalent in teaching and why it
affects teachers so much 7.

Causal Factors
Based on a review of international research, Jarvis concluded that ‘teacher stress is a real phenomenon
and that high levels are reliably associated with a range of causal factors’. Jarvis divided these factors
into three broad inter-related areas; factors intrinsic to teaching, cognitive factors affecting the
individual vulnerability of teachers and systemic factors, operating at the institutional and political level.

Jarvis’s research showed that there was strong evidence to indicate that work overload and excessive
working hours were associated with emotional exhaustion in teachers. Related to this was ‘role
overload’, where teachers had to cope with a number of competing roles within their job. This view is
confirmed by the HWLG study and in data from ‘Teacher Support Line’ in England and Wales.

Cognitive Vulnerability
Bringing together a substantial body of contemporary research, Jarvis examined cognitive factors
affecting individual susceptibility to stress and concluded that self-defeating beliefs were prevalent
among teachers. He showed that endorsement of these beliefs was widespread and significantly
associated with high levels of stress in the profession. Another study showed the association between
internal attributions and symptoms of burnout, suggesting that teachers who blame themselves for
difficulties are more vulnerable. Jarvis concluded that low self-efficacy had an effect on emotional
exhaustion. In other words, teachers’ self-esteem not only influenced their effectiveness but also created
additional stress. Research showed that low self-esteem among teachers is prevalent.

The Effects of Indiscipline

In the HWLG study, indiscipline was perceived by teachers to be their greatest stressor. Jarvis provided
evidence which showed that the impact of indiscipline is dependent upon the individual, mediated by
their own make-up, and amongst other things the self-efficacy which they feel in their job. Jarvis cited
further work on teacher’s coping strategies as they relate to indiscipline, which he considered to be
another factor intrinsic to teaching. Jarvis showed that an individual’s coping style is critical.

Social Support
Quoting various studies, Jarvis considered the associations between stress, coping responses and social
support. High levels of stress were associated with low social support and the use of disengagement and
suppression of competing activities as coping strategies. Understanding how individual teachers react to
pressures, providing them with a range of support, and building resilience is an important part of
reducing stress in the profession.

7 Matt Jarvis. Stress News 2002; Vol. 14: No 1. International Stress Management Association
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10
The Uniqueness of Teaching The Uniqueness of Teaching 11

Systemic Factors
Jarvis also considered systemic stressors; this is a term used to denote a broad cluster of organisational
factors that are not intrinsic to the nature of teaching, but rather dependent on the climate of the
educational institution or the wider context of education including the political domain. Jarvis cited work
by Travers & Cooper (1997) who found that teachers named lack of support, lack of information about
changes and constant change as among their greatest sources of stress. The HWLG study showed that
teachers in Scotland share this view.

At the level of the institution factors such as social support amongst colleagues and leadership style were
found to be important in affecting levels of stress. It was found that social support had both a direct
positive effect on health and a buffering effect in respect of work stress. This was also confirmed by the
HWLG study.

Some research has identified a cyclical pattern in the effects of overwork, contingent on the academic
year. It was found that recovery from stress occurred each weekend during the spring term, but that by
the end of the longer autumn term weekend recovery no longer took place.

Coping Styles
The foregoing suggests the value of helping teachers to develop appropriate coping styles, building their
resilience and providing support. Helping teachers to feel good about themselves and the job they do was
therefore likely to have a positive effect on their wellbeing and effectiveness.

Jarvis’s work both confirms and validates the HWLG research into teachers’ stress in Scotland. It explains
the nature and extent of stress in the profession and why teachers are more affected than other worker
groups. His work also suggests how teachers may be helped to deal with the pressures of the job and to
become more resilient. It also helps employers and others to understand the causes of the problem,
provide necessary support and develop strategies to address the causes.
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Section Four Support for Teachers

12 13

Many agencies can claim to have an interest in employee wellbeing by virtue of:

• Statutory responsibility (e.g. the Health and Safety Executive)

• Mandate (e.g. the trades unions)
• Expertise (e.g. NHS Health Scotland)
• Remit (e.g. Scotland’s Health at Work (SHAW) and the Health Promoting Schools Initiative)

The ultimate legal responsibility for employee wellbeing however clearly lies with employers through
their duty of care. Employee wellbeing is however not just a matter of health or of terms and conditions
of employment, it is a matter of individual and organisational effectiveness. Employee wellbeing is the
responsibility of operational managers in schools, supported by employers and agencies that have both
the resources and expertise: not just a question of health expertise.

Interventions
It is helpful to consider a framework for interventions in support of employee wellbeing.

The HWLG study provided such a framework6

1. Individual level interventions – measures which are focussed upon the teacher as an individual with
his or her own health needs.
2. Individual-Organisational Interface level interventions – interventions whose focus is the workplace.
These will seek to modify either the day-to-day work environment or to address staff relationships
within schools.
3. Systemic level interventions – initiatives which usually take the form of policy-related changes that
influence health and wellbeing.

There is little dedicated support for teachers in Scotland except where a teacher welfare officer is
employed (See below). Support is typically generic and provided at the individual level, rather than being
discipline-specific or targeted at the interface between individual and organisation.

Employee Assistance Programmes

The most common form of support provided are Employee Assistance Programmes (EAPs), which
employees can call for information, advice and in some cases, counselling7. Great store is put on these
programmes by employers as a means of discharging their duty of care but the HWLG study found little
evidence of the effectiveness of EAPs, or of the systematic collection of data relating to problems
presented by users. Their purpose appears more defensive than pro-active.

It is easy to understand why employers consider that support for teachers is adequate as there appear to
be numerous interventions. On closer inspection however it becomes clear that the existing interventions
fail to recognise the specific needs of discrete groups of workers, including and especially teachers, and
that the value of some of these services is limited. Critically, research shows that it is at the
individual–organisational interface where most effect can be expected. Such interventions are few and
far between in Scotland.

6
* The Teachers’ Health and Wellbeing Study Scotland The three levels are based on the categorisation first delineated by DeFrank and Cooper (1987) in relation to occupational healthcare interventions
in general.
7 Provided by 18 local authorities in Scotland
Creating the Conditions 27/2/05 4:32 pm Page 22
14
Support for Teachers
Access to Support Services
The HWLG study showed that access to available support services was difficult. When asked, the
overwhelming majority of teachers (three-quarters) were unaware that their employer ran or contracted
in an occupational health service (this figure was 59% where a Teacher Welfare Officer (TWO) was in post
and 87% where there was not). Commenting on the provision of support services, the study suggested
that ‘if staff are unconvinced that a clear separation exists between counselling and other functions,
notably the management of sickness absence, the service will not be trusted and so will not succeed’.
Teachers in Scotland expressed this mistrust and were disinclined to seek help because of it.
Occupational Health Services
Only one local authority in Scotland offered self referral to occupational health (OH) services.
Research showed that teachers perceived OH services as an integral part of absence policy and therefore
punitive, rather than supportive. Researchers found that occupational health services were fragmented.
97.8% of teachers surveyed in the research had never used a local authority support service. The
perception of teachers in Scotland was that support services, including occupational health, were part of
absence management policies, which they considered to be punitive in nature.
Usage of support services by teachers was increased where a TWO was in post. The HWLG study identified
that nine of the councils in Scotland had a staff welfare officer (generic to all local authority staff including
teachers) and seven authorities reported that they employed a welfare officer dedicated to teachers8.
Teacher Welfare Officers
TWOs were a point of contact specifically for teachers who required advice on their health and
wellbeing, particularly those to be referred to counselling services. The survey data showed that as well
as appearing effective in increasing the awareness of the services on offer, teacher welfare officers also
acted as an intervention in themselves and a first point of contact who could listen to and advise
teachers on the best course of action. In the survey teachers identified two particular roles performed by
them; as a counsellor to whom they can go to first, and the first point of contact after a period of
prolonged absence; e.g. where a phased return to work needs to be arranged.
In those authorities which have a dedicated teacher welfare officer a considerably higher awareness of the
services provided was found. Almost a third of teachers working in teacher welfare officer-assisted local
authorities were aware of services provided compared with half this number in authorities without this post.
The HWLG study did not attempt to evaluate the effectiveness of TWOs, but it seems a reasonable
assumption that their presence and work had a positive effect on teacher wellbeing.
Teacher Support Line
The usage and perception of support services in Scotland is in sharp contrast to teachers’ experience of
individual level support in England and Wales9. This is due mainly to the introduction of ‘Teacher Support
Line’, an individual-level intervention established for teachers in 2000 by Teacher Support Network (TSN).
8 10
Since the HWLG study was completed this figure has reduced to five
9Teacher Support Line Cymru was launched in 2002 with support from the Welsh Assembly. The service is specific to teachers in Wales and includes
access to Welsh language speakers
Support for Teachers 15
The service, part-funded by the DfES, offers a telephone helpline with a confidential and free stress
management and advice service. It provides information, counselling and referral to other agencies 24
hours a day, 365 days a year through its helpline and website. Over 76 000 teachers have made contact
with the support line in its first four years - more than 4% of the teaching population each year - and
usage continues to rise. In 2003, 78% of the calls to the helpline presented what were judged to be work-
related problems. TSN has estimated that the helpline has saved £25m to £50m p.a. The benefits of a
national phoneline, independent of local authority employers, may arise from teachers’ perceptions of its
confidentiality. However, it also rests on the investment made in the service, including advertising.
The HWLG study showed that 57% of Scottish teacher respondents expressed interest in using a helpline
such as that provided in England and Wales. More than three-quarters of respondents wanted a support
service dedicated to teachers.
Individual – Organisational Interface Level Interventions
The HWLG study unveiled few examples of individual-organisational interface level interventions with a
focus in the workplace which sought to modify either the day-to-day work environment or to address
staff relationships within schools. There is no doubt that this type of intervention will be taking place on
an ad-hoc basis throughout Scotland but the researchers found little evidence of effective practice being
disseminated. Only one evaluated example of individual-organisational and systemic level interventions
was found. This was the ‘Wellbeing’ programme operating in a number of LEAs and schools in England
(Norfolk, Wirral, Suffolk and Kent). The programme grew from a pilot project set up by school
development specialists Worklife Support Ltd and Norfolk Education Authority in 1999 to tackle work-
related stress across the teaching sectors in Norfolk. One hundred and twelve of the authority’s 450
schools participated in the two-year project, which involved all school staff. The programme has now
extended to include other local authority areas, including London, and over 1000 schools and 10,000
school staff now participate.
The Wellbeing Programme
The Wellbeing Programme10 goes beyond individual level interventions and uses a hands-on, bottom-up
approach within the school. The programme, which is funded by individual schools and LEAs, seeks to
modify the day-to-day work environment and address relationships within the school. The aim is to
change the culture within schools, making them more open, supportive and person-centred. The role of
managers and the head are critical to success. Uniquely, the Wellbeing Programme is not a top-down
initiative but is owned and operated by everyone in the school, including non-teaching and support staff.
Evaluations of the study suggest the value of organisational interface level interventions as defined by
DeFrank and Cooper (See Section Four). An evaluation by Opinion Leader Research in 2002, gathered the
views of headteachers and it found that:
• 89% rated the overall school culture as having improved since joining the Norfolk programme.
• 70% rated the retention of existing staff as either better or much better since joining.
• 88% rated their staff’s performance as being better or much better since joining the programme.
The Wellbeing Programme is a diagnostic and development tool provided by Work Life Support Limited
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Support for Teachers

Section 5
16 17

Another evaluation, a qualitative study by The University of East Anglia’s Centre for Applied Research in
Education (CARE) was more robust. The researchers tracked the changes in staff’s views and experiences
in four areas of most concern identified by staff before the Wellbeing Project. It was found on average a
4% improvement across them. 77% of staff said that the ‘Wellbeing’ philosophy and practice had closely
matched the needs of their school.

Systemic Level Interventions

The HWLG study concluded that the policy framework in Scotland was conducive to support teachers’
wellbeing but that ‘the established approach which has evolved within local authorities is one which is at
odds with the multi-level conceptualisation of health and well being promoted by the central agenda’.

Researchers cite the Health and Safety Executive’s long-term strategy for occupational health Securing
Health Together (HSE 2000; Improving Health in Scotland – The Challenge (SEHD, 2003); the formation of
the Healthy Working Lives Group; and The Health Promoting Schools Unit, as examples of systemic level
interventions

Systemic level interventions are either failing to recognise the specific needs of teachers or to deliver
where the need is most acute, for individuals and in schools. Unless this is recognised and addressed it is
unlikely that the wellbeing of teachers in Scotland will improve: indeed, the indications are that it will
worsen.
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Conclusions Conclusions
18 19

The findings of the HWLG study show that the wellbeing of teachers in Scotland is a cause for serious
concern. This finding is supported by a wealth of research which identifies teachers as an ‘at risk group’.
One of the most compelling views is that held by the Health and Safety Executive which recognises
schools as ‘high-stress environments’. The work of Matt Jarvis et al explains the reasons why the
pressures teachers face are unique, and how they tend to respond to these. The HWLG study also shows
that support for teachers in relation to their wellbeing is inadequate, and even where provided is rarely
used, either because they do not know about it or do not trust in its confidentiality. The perceived link
between ‘support’ and absence management policies is counter-productive.
It may be argued that the research undertaken by HWLG only identified teachers’ perceptions and that
an epidemiological study would be more appropriate. However, for teachers their perception is reality,
which influences their health, behaviour and effectiveness. These perceptions cannot be dismissed and
must be taken into account when considering how they should be supported to improve their wellbeing
and to maximise their effectiveness.
The study goes beyond just the provision of occupational health. It provides a valuable insight into how
teachers perceive their wellbeing, their employers and the school as a workplace. When added to the
work of Jarvis et al, a clearer, if more complex picture of what is happening within individual teachers
and in individual schools emerges. This complexity needs to be recognised, understood and responded to.
• Innovative interventions focussed upon encouraging mutual support amongst staff should be
developed
• A strategy for positive action should be developed to address teachers’ health and well-being.
This submission concludes that:
• There is a compelling argument for the introduction of a support service similar to that provided to
teachers in England and Wales.
• There is a specific need to take a strategic approach to improving the wellbeing of the Scottish
teaching force that embraces and shares effective practice, and tries out new and innovative
interventions, especially at the individual-organisational interface.
• There is a professional requirement for management within schools to become more person-centred,
and to provide managers, and in particular, head teachers with appropriate CPD and support to
enable this

The body of evidence, which includes the HWLG study, shows that individual teachers would benefit from
support when the job, and/or their home life affects their wellbeing. It also shows that personal
development designed to improve self efficacy, coping skills and resilience are likely to go some way in
reducing stress and improving personal effectiveness.
The HWLG study also establishes clearly that pressure on individuals occurs mainly at the
individual/organisational interface: this means relationships between teachers and managers, teachers
and colleagues, pupils and parents. It is in this area where research showed a dearth of interventions in
Scotland. This raises questions about the nature of schools’ culture, management and leadership and
their effect, not only on employee wellbeing but also on individual and organisational effectiveness.
The integrated model provided by Marks and Spencer demonstrates the elements of a pro-active, ‘joined
up’ approach which addresses interventions at all of the three levels referred to in the HWLG study. The
M&S model relies on buy-in from line managers, ensuring that they understand their responsibilities but
also the relationship between wellbeing and organisational and individual effectiveness. The parallel with
Scottish education is an obvious one.
Proposals
Over the last three years we have worked with numerous people and agencies to gain a detailed
understanding of the issues highlighted in this submission. This has enabled us to develop with others
viable interventions that can improve the wellbeing of teachers in Scotland at individual level, at the
interface between individual and organisation and systemically. At the individual level we will be
advocating better support services for teachers, and explaining how this could be achieved quickly and
cost-effectively.
At the interface between individual and organisation we shall be proposing an integrated and innovative
approach which is firmly centred in the school and addresses the complexity of relationships. This would
involve individual and organisational development, and especially leadership and management
development, where we would want to see different imaginative approaches to ‘managing for wellbeing
being trialled and evaluated.

If Scotland is to create the ambitious, excellent schools it desires and needs, the wellbeing of teachers
must be addressed.

The HWLG study makes specific recommendations in relation to the provision of occupational health
services in Scotland. It proposes that information and data should be routinely captured and used to
inform policy and practice, and argues for proper evaluation of interventions. It also recommends that
health promotion programmes targeted at teachers should be developed.

The researchers suggest that:

• Issue-specific interventions should be developed and tested

Creating the Conditions 27/2/05 4:33 pm Page 28

Teacher Support Scotland

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