WTJ 44 (1982) 290-307

THE DIVINE WARRIOR:

THE NEW TESTAMENT USE OF AN
OLD TESTAMENT MOTIF*
TREMPER LONGMAN III

XTENSIVE study has been done and continues to be done by

scholars on the subject of Holy War as a literary theme, institution, and ideology in the OT. Articles and books on Holy War
are so numerous that it is hard to remember that the earliest work
on Yahweh's role in Israel's warfare dates back only to 1901 and
the work of F. Schwally.1 Much later, G. von Rad2 brought the
biblical theme of Holy War to prominence, and his work in this
area continues to have a tremendous influence on present research
as well. Today, the study of Holy War in the OT is most closely
connected with the work of F. M. Cross3 and his students, particularly P. D. Miller, Jr.4 Conservative scholars have also written

* An earlier version of this article was presented at the 33d Annual Meeting
(1981) of the Evangelical Theological Society held at Ontario Theological
Seminary in Toronto, Canada. I would like to thank Professors R. D. Dillard,
R. B. Gaffin, V. S. Poythress, and Moiss Silva of Westminster Theological
Seminary and Professor Terry Eves of Westmont College for reading this
paper and making many helpful comments.
1
Friedrich Schwally, Der Heilige Krieg im alten Israel (Leipzig:
Dieterich'sehe Verlagsbuchhandlung, Theodor Weicher, 1901).
2
Gerhard von Rad, Der Heilige Kreg im alten Israel (Gttingen: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 1952).
3
Frank M. Cross, "The Divine Warrior," in Canaanite Myth and Hebrew
Epic (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1973).
4
Patrick D. Miller, Jr., The Divine Warrior in Early Israel (Cambridge:
Harvard University Press, 1973). Other students of Cross have contributed
to the discussion: see Duane L. Christensen, Transformation of the War
Oracle in Old Testament Prophecy (Missoula, Mt.: Scholars Press, 1975);
Paul Hanson, The Dawn of Apocalyptic (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1975) ;
W. R. Millar, Isaiah 24-27 and the Origin of Apocalyptic (Missoula, Mt.:
Scholars Press, 1976) ; Leonard J. Greenspoon, "The Origin of the Idea of
Resurrection," in Traditions in Transformation (eds. Baruch Halpern and
Jon D. Levenson; Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns, 1981) 247-321; J. J.
Collins, "The Mythology of Holy War in Daniel and the Qumran War

290

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on the theme usually focusing their attention on the problematic

question of the relationship of OT Holy War to Christian ethics.5
While the function of Holy War as a literary theme, institution,
and ideology has been recognized in OT studies, its extensive use
in the NT has not been elucidated; at best it has been only
implicitly recognized.6 This paper demonstrates that the NT
utilizes Holy War themes, particularly that of the Divine Warrior,
in many places and for many purposes.
The intention of this paper is not to be exhaustive in its survey
of the NT use of the Divine Warrior theme. The passages which
will be examined have been divided into two categories: eschatological (using this word in a strictly futuristic sense) and noneschatological. Texts belonging to the first category will be discussed under four subheadings, each of the four representing a
particular way in which the NT writers utilized the OT Divine
Warrior theme: (1) The Day of Yahweh; (2) Jesus Christ as
Cloud Rider; (3) Christ the Divine Warrior in Revelation; (4)
New Song. Similarly, the non-eschatological texts will be dealt
with as they relate to two matters of discussion: (1) Holy War
as a conceptual background to Christ's death and resurrection and
(2) the Divine Warrior and the Christian struggle.
However, before proceeding to these subjects, it may be helpful
to define briefly the essence of Holy War in the OT with particular
attention given to the role of the Divine Warrior.
Deuteronomy 7 and 20 provide legislation concerning the waging
of war by Yahweh's people. These passages and the historical
narratives which recount Israel's battles reveal certain information concerning Israel's ideology of Holy War. For example, one
Scroll: A Point of Transition in Jewish Apocalyptic," VT 25 (1975) 596-612
and D. Stuart, "The Sovereign's Day of Conquest," BASOR 221 (Feb. 1976)
159-64.
5
See Peter C. Craigie, The Problem of War in the Old Testament (Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans, 1978) ; Millard C. Lind, Yahweh is a Warrior (Scottdale,
Pennsylvania: Herald Press, 1980) and Vernard Eller, War and Peace (Scottdale, Pennsylvania: Herald Press, 1981).
6
Paul Minear, / Saw a New Earth (Washington: Corpus Books, 1968),
treats the theme of the warring Messiah extensively, but never connects it
with OT Divine Warrior theology. J. Massyngberde Ford (Revelation [AB
38; Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1975] 52ff., 137f.) notes connections with the Divine Warrior motif, as does A. Y. Collins, The Combat
Myth in the Bock of Revelation (Missoula, Montana: Scholars Press, 1976)
and The Apocalypse (Wilmington: Michael Glazer, Inc., 1979).

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learns of specific cultic practices which were performed by the

army before and after the battle. The warleader normally inquired
of Yahweh's will before engaging in combat (1 Sam 23:1-6);
the army was sanctified before battle (Deut 23:13-15); and
7
praise was offered to Yahweh after combat (Judges S).
Nevertheless, the key element of Holy War is that Yahweh the
Divine Warrior led Israel into the battle and won the victory for
them.8 That this is the most important facet of Holy War is
recognized by Rudolf Smend and others who suggest replacing the
name "Holy War" with the term "Yahweh War."9 The historical
narratives confirm this interpretation of the essence of Holy War
by emphasizing again and again that the victory is Yahweh's not
man's. Exodus IS extols Yahweh's victory over the Egyptians; the
method of the destruction of Jericho, described in Joshua 6,
emphasizes that Yahweh accomplished the victory; and Gideon's
purposeful reduction of troops demonstrated that it was the power
of God and not that of man which defeated the Midianites.
Recognizing that the notion that the activity of Yahweh the
Divine Warrior is central to much of the OT, some passages may
now be examined which will demonstrate that the same notion is
evident in the NT.
I. Eschatological Passages
1. Day of the Lord
The significance of the phrase "Day of Yahweh" (Isa 13:
6,9; 22:5; Joel 1:15; 2:1,11; Amos 5:8-20; Zeph 1:7-8;
7
In a future article, I hope to demonstrate that the so-called enthronement
psalms (Mowinckel) or Divine Kingship psalms (Sabourin) are actually
Divine Warrior Litanies, that is, songs sung to Yahweh the Divine Warrior
when he returned to Jerusalem after waging victorious holy war.
8
Note however that there apparently was not a set cultic or ritual pattern
followed each time holy war was waged; cf. . Gottwald, "Holy War,"
IDBSup, 942-44.
9
Rudolf Smend, Yahweh War and Tribal Confederation (New York:
Abingdon Press, 1970), and G. H. Jones, "'Holy War' or 'Yahweh War'?"
VT 25 (1975) 642-58, who uses Yahweh War "to describe the actual experi
ence of Yahweh's participation and activity" and Holy War for the chrono
logically later scheme which had a "recognized set of concepts and terminol
ogy."

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293

Zech 14:1, etc.) 10 is a debated subject. S. Mowinckel has argued

that the phrase and the concept behind it belong to the ritual of
the New Year's Festival.11 Increasingly, however, scholars are
recognizing that Mowinckel's New Year festival of enthronement
is based on a faulty analogy with Babylonian texts. The OT does
not support such a construction. Early on, G. von Rad argued that
the concept of the "Day of Yahweh encompasses a pure event of
war."12 Specifically, he persuasively links the Day of the Lord
with early Israelite Holy War tradition. Furthermore, his conclusion holds, even if one does not accept his method of starting
the investigation with Isaiah 13, 24, Ezekiel 7, and Joel 2 or agree
with the manner in which he restricts his study to phrases which
use only the words Day of the Lord.13 F. M. Cross, while in some
respects mediating between S. Mowinckel and G. von Rad, arrives
at the same conclusion that the Day of Yahweh is grounded in
Holy War tradition.14 In any case, as D. Stuart points out in his
study of the extrabiblical background of the phrase, there is a
clear connection between the Yom Yahweh and military language.15
In the NT we again run into Day imagery, and it is connected
with the consummation and with military terminology just as in
its OT precursor. For example, Paul (1 Thess 5:1-10) writes of
the "sudden destruction" (v 3) which will come upon the unbe10

On Joel cf. J. Bourke, "Le Jour de Yahve dans Jol," RB 66 (1959)

5-31 and Ernst Kutsch, "Heuschreckenplage und Tag Jahwes in Joel 1 und
2," TZ 18 (1962) 81-94; on Zephaniah, D. L. Williams, "Zephaniah: A Reinterpretation" (Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Duke University, 1961) and
Hubert Irsigler, Gottesgericht und Jahwetag (St. Ottilien: EOS-Verlag,
1977).
11
S. Mowinckel, He That Cometh (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1956) 132-33;
also note "Yahves dag," Norsk Teologisk Tidskrift 59 (1958) 1-56 (not
available to me).
12
G. von Rad, "The Origin of the Concept of the Day of Yahweh," JSS
4 (1959) 97-108, esp. p. 103.
13
Concerning these methodological questions, see most recently Y. Hoffmann, "The Day of the Lord as a Concept and a Term in the Prophetic
Literature," ZAW 93 (1981) 37-50.
14
Cross, "The Divine Warrior," 9Iff.; see also P. D. Miller, Jr., "The
Divine Council and the Prophetic Call to War," VT 18 (1968) 100-07.
15
Stuart, "The Sovereign's Day of Conquest," 159. The connection of the
Day of Yahweh with Holy War imagery does not preclude a connection with
covenant curse imagery; see F. Charles Fensham, "A Possible Origin of the
Concept of the Day of the Lord," Biblical Essays (Bepeck, S. Africa: Potchefstroom Herald, 1966) 90-97.

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liever on the day of the Lord. Furthermore, the believer is admonished to gird himself in spiritual armor (v 8) in anticipation
of that day (see below on the armor of God). Second, Peter (2
Pet 3:10) speaks of the "Day" in imagery highly reminiscent of
Divine Warrior epiphanies, especially those found in OT (proto-)
apocalyptic books (cf. Isa 24:1-13; Zeph 1:18). In addition, in
many NT passages the "Day of Yahweh" the Divine Warrior is
transformed into the "Day of Christ" the Divine Warrior ( 1 Cor
1:8; 5:5; 2 Cor 1:14; Phil 1:6,10; 2:16).
2. Jesus Christ Cloud Rider
In the OT, the Divine Warrior frequently appears on his cloud
war chariot. More specifically, Yahweh is described as riding a
storm cloud into battle against his enemies (Ps 18:9-15):
He spread out the heavens and came down;
dark clouds were under his feet.
He mounted the cherubim and flew;
he soared on the wings of the wind.
He made darkness his covering, his canopy around him
the dark rain clouds of the sky.
Out of the brightness of his presence clouds advanced,
with hailstones and bolts of lightning.
The Lord thundered from heaven ;
Elyon gave forth his voice.
He shot his arrows and dispersed them,
great bolts of lightning and confused them.
The channels of the sea were exposed
and the foundations of the earth laid bare
at your rebuke, O Lord,
at the blast of breath from your nostrils.

The psalmist here calls to his Lord for aid, and the Lord responds
by doing battle against his enemies and by saving him. Salvation
and judgment are the two halves of the same great warring
activity of Yahweh.16
A second example of Yahweh as the cloud rider comes in Ps
104:1-4, a section replete with Canaanite imagery.17 In this con16

As noted by Miller, The Divine Warrior in Early Israel, 172-74.

P. D. Miller, Jr., "Fire in the Mythology of Canaan and Israel," CBQ
27 (1965) 256-61, where jie identifies the Ugaritic background to "(He
makes) flames of fire his servants" (v 4b).
17

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295

nection, it is appropriate to mention the well-known Canaanite

background to Yahweh as cloud rider. After all, one of Baal's
18
main epithets is "rider on the clouds" (rkb 'rpt).
Perhaps not all the references which associate Yahweh with
clouds in the OT are to be interpreted as pictures of his war
chariot and thus with his divine warring activity, but certainly
such references are numerous (Isa 19:1; Nah l:2ff; Ps 68:4, 33;
Deut 33:26; Jer 4:13ff., etc.). However, for the purpose of this
paper, which is to connect the OT picture of the cloud chariot
with the NT references to Christ's descent on the cloud, I will
mention only one more passage, Dan 7:13: "In my vision at night
I looked, and there before me was one like a son of man, coming
with (Hm) the clouds of heaven. He approached the Ancient of
Days and was led into his presence."
In Dan 7:13 we encounter the picture of the "one like a son of
man" riding the storm chariot into the presence of the Ancient of
Days. Many scholars, however, have attached great significance to
the fact that the Hebrew text uses the preposition Hm here and
that Theodotion translates meta. Montgomery, for instance, pic
tures the one like the Son of Man as "wafted in the upper at
mosphere with the nimbus of a cloud."19 Further, he and more
recently Hartman and di Leila20 insist on the theological signifi
cance of the use of Hm rather than here. All of them believe
that only Yahweh can be a cloud rider, and not believing that
there is any messianic significance to Dan 7:13, they feel that the
use of im denies divinity to the son of man figure.
Actually, the case is not as certain as these scholars maintain.
First, while Theodotion translates Hm with meta, the Septuagint
uses epi which is the preposition used of a charioteer mounting his
chariot.21 Further, the NT, when it quotes Dan 7:13, uses en or
epi and meta once (Rev 1:7), for Aramaic Hm. Second, R. . Y.
CTA 4.5.12; 4.3.18; 2.4.8, etc.
19
J. A. Montgomery, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book
of Daniel (ICC; New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1927) 303.
20
Louis F. Hartman and Alexander A. di Leila, The Book of Daniel (AB
23; Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1978).
21
In a recent article, J. Lust ("Daniel 7:13 and the Septuagint," ETL 54
[1978] 62-69) argues that the evidence is even more complicated. Different
exemplars of both the Septuagint and Theodotion vary between meta and
epi. Lust himself argues that both epi and meta are valid translations of the
original Aramaic Hm.

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Scott has pointed out that Hm interchanges with other prepositions

in the book of Daniel, particularly b-.22 This probably explains
the variety of Greek translations. Last, on analogy with other OT
passages, some of which are mentioned above, it is better to
translate "in" or "on" rather than "with." Nevertheless, "with"
as a translation is not incompatible with the cloud riding picture.
Is it not as explicit as 'al but certainly to say that a charioteer is
coming "with" his chariot is not inappropriate.
Dan 7:13 provides a bridge to the NT use of the motif of the
Divine War chariot, since it is alluded to in the NT with great
frequency.23 The description of Jesus Christ's return as one taking
place on, in, or in accompaniment with (epi [Matt 24:30; 26:64],
en [Luke 21:27], and meta [Rev 1:7] are all used in quoting
Daniel 7) the cloud is found in the Gospels, Paul's Thessalonian
correspondence, and the book of Revelation.
Due to space limitations, we will restrict our remarks to the
Gospel references. They come in two places: (1) in the so-called
little apocalypses (Matt 24; Mark 13; Luke 21) and (2) in Jesus'
speech before the High Priest.
The former is a quite definite Holy War context. There is a
common OT theme that, when the Divine Warrior wars, nature
languishes, often on a cosmic level.24 This motif is found in Matt
24:29 where the author cites Isa 13:10, which is a Divine Warrior
passage as well. In an oracle against Babylon, Isaiah describes the
tumult which takes place as the Lord gathers his army together to
do war against the world. In the context of describing this day
a day of God's wrath the cosmic bodies are said to languish
(cf. also Joel 3:14ff.). Back in the Matthew passage, right after
the cosmic bodies convulse, the Divine Warrior appears in the
22
R. B. Y. Scott, "Behold, He Cometh with Clouds," NTS 5 (1959) 128.
E. J. Young, "Daniel's Vision of the Son of Man," in The Law and the
Prophets (ed. J. Skilton; Nutley, N.J.: Presbyterian and Reformed, 1974)
425-51 argues that the use of the preposition Hm rather than 'al in Dan 7:13
does not deny divine status to the one like the son of man. Young does not,
however, identify the cloud theophany in Daniel 7 with the divine chariot
and errs in stating, "Nowhere does He (Christ) speak of a coming upon the
clouds, but rather of a coming in association therewith" (p. 437). Note Matt
24:30 and 26:64.
23
This is debated by Maurice Casey, Son of Man: The Interpretation and
Influence of Daniel 7 (London: SPCK, 1979).
24
Greenspoon, "The Origin of the Idea of Resurrection," 26Iff.

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heavens, on the clouds. The clouds here are not just symbolic of
God's presence, but certainly describe the Divine War chariot.
The same is true for the reference to cloud riding invoked in
Jesus' response to Caiphas' question if he is the Christ, the Son
of God. The high priest is shocked with Christ's answer because
among other factors he identifies himself with the divine figure in
Dan 7:13 who rides the Divine War chariot.
In conclusion, the NT references to Christ's return on the clouds
of heaven are references to his role as the Divine Warrior of the
eschaton for the following two reasons: (1) the strong OT background which demonstrates that the vehicular cloud is a war
chariot, (2) his return, initiated by his cloud epiphany, is intimately associated with his warring activity, which is most fully
outlined in the book of Revelation (next section).
3.

Jesus Christ Divine Warrior in Revelation

The Divine Warrior image is so frequently encountered in

Revelation that it is best to focus on one passage and merely
allude to others. The clearest use of the Divine Warrior motif in
the book of Revelation is without a doubt Rev 19: Uff. The reason
why it is the clearest is due to the fact that the book of Revelation
concentrates on the second coming by employing different cycles
(seals, trumpets, bowls, and so on), each of which recounts the
second coming, but with development. By way of example, the
seals cycle covers the period from the beginning of the last war up
to the second coming and then ends. The bowl visions start a
little later, but also end with the appearance of Christ. Further
on, the white horse section (Rev 19: Uff.) begins with the appearance of Christ (i.e., begins where the earlier cycles end) and
narrates some of the events which result from his appearance.25
Thus, Rev 19: Uff. (the white horse cycle) yields a fuller picture
of Christ's activity during the last battle.
25
A. Y. Collins points out that the oldest complete commentary on Revelation, that of Victorinus of Pettau, held to the recapitulation approach; cf.
The Combat Myth in the Book of Revelation (Missoula, Montana: Scholars
Press, 1976) 8, 9. Recent advocates of the recapitulation theory include G.
Bornkamm, "Die Komposition der apokalyptischen Visionen in der Offenbarung Johannis," ZNW 36 (1937) 132-49, and A. Y. Collins, The Combat
Myth and the Apocalypse (Wilmington: Michael Glazier, Inc., 1979).

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Many may not accept this view of Revelation as a sevenfold

recapitulation, but in any case Rev 19: Uff. clearly describes
Christ's second coming and does so employing military imagery
strongly reminiscent of Divine Warrior passages in the OT.
As a matter of fact, one finds a description of Christ the Divine
Warrior which on the one hand connects him with Yahweh the
Divine Warrior in the OT and, on the other hand, contrasts him
and sets him in opposition to the satanic warrior, the unholy
warrior of Revelation 13.
Concerning the former,26 Jesus is described as wearing a robe
dipped in blood (cf. Isa 62:2-3 which describes the bloodstained
garments of Yahweh the Divine Warrior after waging war against
Edom). Second, he is pictured as leading the heavenly army in
battle, an image reminiscent of Yahweh Sebaot (the Lord of
Hosts) in the OT who led his army in battle against the historical
enemies of Israel. He is further described as one with a rod in his
mouth (Isa 11:4b, cf. 49:2). The messianic Divine Warrior also
rules with an iron rod, an allusion to Ps 2:9; further, he treads
the wine press of the fierce wrath of God, the Almighty (cf. Isa
63:3 and Joel 4:13both divine warrior passages). Last, he is
called King of Kings, Lord of Lords (Deut 9:17; Dan 2:17; Ps
136:2ff).
Second, as mentioned above, Jesus Christ the Divine Warrior
is also contrasted with the hellish warrior of Revelation 13, the
beast. This becomes clear that moment in which the beast emerges
from the sea. The beast is described as "having ten horns and
seven heads27 and on his horns were ten diadems." These ten
diadems may be compared with the many diadems on Christ's
head. Further, right after the mention of his diadems it is stated
that "He (Christ) has a name written upon him which no one
knows except himself" (Rev 19:12b), "His name is called the
Word of God" (v 13b), and lastly, "On his thigh he has a name
written 'King of Kings and Lord of Lords' " (v 16b). This con26

M. Rissi, "Die Erscheinung Christi nach Offenbarung 19:11-16," TZ 21

(1965) 81-95.
27
A passage which brings to mind the Ugaritic text concerning Leviathan
(Un) is CTA 5.1.28 (cf. 5.1.1 and Isa 27:1):
Un. bin. tkly.
bin. *qltn".
lyt. d sblt. rasm.

You destroyed Ltn,

the crooked serpent,
the tyrant with seven heads.

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trasts with the hellish warrior in 13:1b on whose heads "were

blasphemous names." There may also be a contrast between the
beast and Christ in that the former has a number which conceals
a name, and the latter has a name which conceals a number.
P. W. Skehan argues that the beast has a number 666 which
conceals his name and that Christ has a name (King of Kings and
Lord of Lords) which when converted to Aramaic and added up
results in 777.28
Thus in Rev 19:1 Iff we have the clearest picture of Jesus Christ
as the eschatological Divine Warrior. More can be said. In the
OT, the theme of the Divine Warrior is closely connected with
other themes. For example, when the Divine Warrior fights, nature
languishes, but when victory is achieved, nature is restored with
renewed vitality.29 In the last part of Revelation, this motif can
be recognized in the disappearance of earth and sky during the
judging activity of the Divine Warrior (Rev 20:11), which is followed by a description of the new Jerusalem (21:1). Second, in
the OT, the Divine Warrior theme is often connected with God's
kingship and his temple building. In Rev 20:4-6 we get the
description of the enthroned Christ which is followed by a unique
temple building scene. In Rev 21:9-27 there is a description of the
new Jerusalem which is striking by virtue of its lack of a temple.
The temple is not needed because all of the new Jerusalem is a
temple, since God and the Lamb dwell there (21:22ff.).
As mentioned, Rev 19: Uff. contains the most explicit use of
the Divine Warrior motif, but there are others which can briefly
be mentioned.
The sixth seal (Rev 6:12-17) describes the great day of the
wrath of the Lamb. Here, nature convulses and writhes on a cosmic
level and the military leaders, among others, seek refuge from the
Lamb's mighty warring power.
The seventh trumpet (11:15-19) brings us up to the point of
the beginning of the great battle, but does not describe the battle.
It ends with the familiar language of a Divine Warrior theophany
(v9).
Then in Rev 14:14-20 we have the picture of one like a son
28 p. Skehan, "King of Kings, Lord of Lords, Rev 19:16," CBQ 10 (1948)
398.
29 See Greenspoon, "The Origin of the Idea of Resurrection," 247ff.

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of man descending, seated on a white cloud with a sickle in his

hand. There is debate over whether this is an allusion to Christ
or to a created angel. In either case the harvest and vintage
images go back to Joel 4:13 as metaphors for the ultimate war of
the Divine Warrior against the nations.
Last, the sixth and seventh bowl visions picture the ultimate
Holy War. The sixth bowl vision describes the bowl poured out on
the Euphrates. Next in the passage occurs a reference to the three
frog-like spirits which come out of the mouth of the beast and the
false prophets. These are described as they who go out to the
kings of the whole world to gather them for the battle on the
great day of God Almighty (16:14). The seventh bowl explicitly
describes the Divine Warrior theophany which is accompanied by
lightning, thunder, earthquake, and so on. And once again nature
convulses and fights for the Divine Warrior.
Thus the book of Revelation employs the Divine Warrior motif
quite extensively to describe the warring activity and ultimate
victory of the Lamb in the last days.
That the Divine Warrior theme is so fully developed here should
not be surprising. After all, Revelation gains much of its imagery
from the OT, specifically the apocalyptic books. These apocalyptic texts employed the motif of the Divine Warrior in a new way.
Most of the older uses of the motif describe historical battles, but
in apocalyptic the theme has been transferred to the future in
other words the Divine Warrior is the one to whom the apocalyptists looked forward with hope that he would intervene in history
to judge their enemies, save them and establish himself as king.
The book of Revelation, itself apocalyptic and concerned with the
consummation, employed the theme in close connection with OT
apocalyptic.
4. New Song
In the book of Revelation, there is a lot of singing. Two of these
songs are particularly designated new songs (ode kain), Rev 5:9
and 14:3.1 am not concerned to differentiate the two songs which
follow these designations from others in the book, but I am interested in demonstrating that, in the light of the awareness of the
Divine Warrior motif in the book of Revelation, new song has
the particular meaning of victory shout, that is, a song of praise

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in response to, or in anticipation of, the victory of the Divine

Warrior. This can be seen of the following grounds: (1) the use
of new song (sir hadas) in the OT; (2) the nature of the songs in
the book of Revelation and (3) the relationship between music
and the Divine Warrior motif throughout Scripture.
( 1 ) New Song occurs frequently in two OT books, the Psalms
and Isaiah.30 In both there is a close connection with Holy War
ideology and Divine Warrior imagery. A couple of examples
include:
(a) Isa 42:10,13
Sing to the Lord a new song,
his praise from the ends of the earth,
you who go down to the sea, and all that is in it,
you islands, and all who live in them. . . .
The Lord will march out like a champion,
like a man of war he will stir up his fury ;
with a shout he will raise the battle cry
and will triumph over his enemies.

Here the new song is connected with the Lord's march against and
victory over the enemies.
(b) Ps 149:1,6-9
Praise the Lord.
Sing to the Lord a new song,
his praise in the assembly of the saints. . . .
May the praise of God be in their throats
and a double-edged sword in their hands,
to inflict vengeance on the nations
and punishment on the peoples,
to bind their kings with chains,
their nobles with shackles of iron,
to carry out the judgment written against them.
This is the glory of all his saints.

A similar connection between new song and Holy War can be

clearly recognized in Ps 40:3 ; 96:1 ; 98:1,3 and 144:9.
(2) As mentioned, new song occurs twice in Revelation. The
precise force of the newness has been explained in various ways in
the past, but the most common explanation of the newness of the
songs can be typified by Morris' statement: "The Lamb's saving
work has created a new situation and this elicits a new outburst
30

William R. Millar, Isaiah 24-27 and the Origin of Apocalyptic (HSM 11;
Missoula, Montana: Scholars Press, 1976) 97-98.

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31

of praise. No song meant for another situation quite fits this."

This is true, but the evidence indicates that the new song is new
more particularly because of the saving work of Jesus Christ the
Divine Warrior who creates all things anew with his warring
activity.
In Rev 5:9ff the new song is a hymn of praise to the Lamb
because of his worthiness to open the seals. And, indeed, what do
the seals symbolize ultimately, but the waging of Holy War? In
addition, the reason why the new song, the victory shout, can be
sung before the battle is that the victory was already won on the
cross (v 9b,c) a theme we will be returning to in the next
section.
(3 ) More generally and perhaps explaining the newness of the
new song is the relationship between music and the Divine War
rior. That relationship is similar to the relationship which bears
between nature and the Divine Warrior. During the divine warfare,
nature languishes, but after the victory, it is restored with greater
vitality. Music too ceases during the warring of the Divine Warrior
(the two themes of nature and music are intermixed in Isa 24:4ff.),
but with victory, music is renewed (Psalm 98). In the historical
books, women playing music greeted military leaders after a vic
tory (Exod 15:20ff.; Judg ll:34ff.).
Thus in Revelation, Jesus' victory or better stated proleptic
victory results in the singing of a new song.
II.

New Testament Holy War in on-Eschatological Passages

The above four topics describe the use of the Divine Warrior
motif in describing the consummation; it is time now to examine
the use of the motif in the rest of the NT. I suggest that the theme
is used with two purposes: to describe the death and resurrection
of Christ, and to explain the battle which the Christian wages
against the "powers and principalities."
1. Holy War as a Conceptual Background to Christ's
Death and Resurrection
John the Baptist and others apparently expected a Messiah
who would come much like the Divine Warrior figure of the
31
L. L. Morris, The Revelation of St. John (Tyndale NT Commentaries;
Grand Rapids: William R. Eerdmans, Co., 1969) 98, 99.

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Consummation. In Luke 3:15ff. John explains to the masses that

one is coming after him with a winnowing fork in his hand. However, when Jesus does come and minister, he does not fit into
John's expectations. As a matter of fact, while in prison, John
sends two of his disciples to question Jesus. "Are you the one
who is to come, or shall we look for another?" (Luke 7:20). John
seemingly has his doubts about Jesus as he sits in jail. Jesus
responds to their question by healing and exorcising. Thus Jesus'
first coming was not in the role of the Divine Warrior of the
Consummation as John expected. However, Jesus does wage war
during his earthly ministry a war which culminates on the cross.
Jesus' Holy War is different from the Holy War of Israel. While
the latter, at the Lord's command, directed their warfare against
earthly enemies, Jesus struggled with the forces, the powers and
principalities, which stand behind sinful mankind (cf. his miracles
and healings).
On the prohibitive side, Jesus explicitly cuts off from the church
Holy War activity similar to that of the Israelites. At the moment
of crisis, when the soldiers arrested him, Peter according to John
18:11 drew his sword and struck the high priest's servant. Christ's
response is "Put your sword away. Shall I not drink the cup the
father has given me?"
Thus on the basis of this and other passages as well, Jesus turns
from the role of Divine Warrior directed toward the unbeliever.
His command is not to slay but to convert (Matt 28:16ff.).
On the other side, Jesus, by drinking the cup, wages Holy War
against the enemy, a war which he wins upon the cross. This is
why his death and resurrection are frequently likened to military
victory. Col 2:13ff.:
When you were dead in your sins and in the uncircumcision of your
sinful nature, God made you alive with Christ. He forgave us all our sins,
having canceled the written code, with its regulations, that was against
us and that stood opposed to us; he took it away, nailing it to the cross.
And having disarmed the powers and authorities, he made a public
spectacle of them, triumphing over them by the cross.

Notice the military language here. He "disarms"32 the powers and

32

F. F. Bruce (in E. K. Simpson and F. F. Bruce, Commentary on the

Epistles to the Ephesians and Colossians [NICNT; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1957] 239-40 n. 68) argues that the middle voice here simply indicates
personal interest and translates "having completely disarmed."

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principalities and indeed "triumphs" over them. This victory is

associated by Paul with Christ's death on the cross.
His resurrection too proves him to be the conqueror of the
powers, authorities and dominions since by raising him God
subjected all things to him (Eph l:19bff.). Notice the enthronement after the victory, fitting in with the ancient pattern found in
the Psalms and ultimately Canaanite mythology. Furthermore,
later in the book Paul quotes a well-known Divine Warrior psalm
(68:18) in 4:7ff. His ascension is here seen as a military victory.
Thus Jesus' death resulted in the victory over and the capture
of the powers behind the world. Yet there is an already/not yet
quality about this victory. Jesus has won the victory on the cross,
yet now everything is still not subject to him: "In putting everything under him, God left nothing that is not subject to him. Yet
at present we do not see everything subject to him" (Heb 2:8).
Thus, indeed, Jesus won the victory on the cross, but the fulness
of that victory will only come at the consummation, only at the
time when he comes again on the white war horse, the Divine War
chariot to purge the world of evil. Thus the argument connects
here with what I have already mentioned concerning Jesus Christ
the Divine Warrior in the book of Revelation.
In summary, Jesus Christ is pictured in some verses as waging
war with the powers and principalities. His healing and exorcising
may be seen as previews of the battle with the demonic hordes. On
the cross, Paul tells us that Christ won a victory over the satanic
powers. Note the reversal Christ the Divine Warrior wins the
war by being killed, not by killing. Nevertheless, the victory has
an already/not yet character to it. As Paul says in Rom 16:20,
"The God of peace will soon crush Satan under your feet." But
the victory is assured. When Christ opens the seals in the book of
Revelation, a new song, a victory shout, is able to be sung concerning Christ before the actual battle because the outcome is
certain. And why is it certain? Rev 5:9:
Because you were slain,
and with your blood, you purchased men for God
from every tribe and language and people and nation.

2.

The Divine Warrior and the Christian Struggle

The second area in which the theme of Holy War and Divine
Warfare is found is closely connected to the already/not yet

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305

feature of Christ's victory. Since the enemy is not completely

subdued in the present, in the period between resurrection and
consummation, the Christian is called upon to wage war. Once
again, the warfare is not directed toward human adversaries but
33
toward the evil powers which stand behind evil men. I will
mention in this section only one passage, Eph 6:10-20. The
Christian, Paul writes, is engaged in a battle, and it is a battle
"not directed against flesh and blood, but against the rulers,
against the authorities, against the powers of this dark world and
against the spiritual forces of evil in the heavenly realms" (v 12).
The Christian is said to be fighting in true Holy War fashion.
That is, the real power is not found in the human participants but
rather in the power of God. After all, the armor is called the "full
armor of God." Much of the imagery found here comes from Isa
59:15bff., where God is displeased with injustice in the world. So
in OT Holy War terminology the Isaiah passage states that "his
own arm worked salvation for him." Donning a breastplate of
righteousness and a helmet of salvation he goes out to "repay
wrath to his enemies and retribution to his foes." Thus, regardless
of the question of Paul alluding to Roman armor, the imagery of
Eph 6:10-20 is grounded in an OT Divine Warrior passage.34
Conclusion
In conclusion, I would like to make three points: (1) Divine
Warrior imagery is employed in the NT. Thus we should no
longer think of it as a distinctly OT concept. While, of course, the
warring aspect of the Messiah's function has been recognized, up
until now the connection has not been explicitly made with the
OT image of Yahweh as the Divine Warrior.
Furthermore, we can see a progression in the NT use of the
theme. In the OT, the Divine Warrior wars mainly against human
adversaries. In the non-eschatological NT passages the Divine
Warrior leads his army against the powers and principalities. The
focus of the warfare shifts to the demonic agency which stands
33 Roy Yates, "The Powers of Evil in the New Testament," EvQ 52 (1980)
97-111 and P. T. O'Brien, "Principalities and Powers and their Relationship
to Structures," Reformed Theological Review 40 (1981) 1-10.
34 See R. . H. Uprichard, "Christian Warfare," Gospel Magazine (Feb.,
1982) 7-11.

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behind wicked men. Then, there is a climax in the eschatological

passages of the NT particulary Revelation where the Divine
Warrior wars against the demonic powers and their human followers. We are not to think of the present age as a period of time
between two periods of Holy War, but as an intensification, a
heightening of that warfare. And then a further heightening will
take place at the consummation.
(2) There is a second aspect of the relationship between the
OT and NT use of the theme of the Divine Warrior. We just
recognized that from one perspective there is an intensification in
the object of God's warring rule people -> powers powers
and people. But from a second perspective Kline's concept of "intrusion" becomes important. Kline points out that under normal
circumstances the relationship between Christians and nonChristians is governed by common grace.35 God in his mercy has
allowed the non-Christian to enjoy life, and many of its benefits.
However, at the time of the consummation, a new relationship will
ensue. The non-Christian will be judged by the Lord. Kline understands "intrusion" to be a time in the biblical period where the
conditions of the consummation intrude proleptically into the
period of Common Grace. Kline employs the concept to help us
struggle with some difficult ethical problems in the Scripture, but
most relevant here is the fact that he sees the Holy Wars of the
Israelites as such an intrusion of consummation conditions into
the period of common grace.36
(3) The Divine Warrior theme is pervasive. Literally, it is used
from Genesis to Revelation. Due to space limitations and the
nature of this paper, I was unable to discuss pre-Exodus Divine
Warrior imagery, but it is there. The extensiveness of the theme
raises the possibility of writing an OT theology with the Divine
Warrior motif as primary focus. This is not to say that I believe
that the motif is the central concept of the Scriptures or the key
to OT and NT theology, but it is a theme which occurs frequently
through most of the canon. As P. D. Miller, Jr., puts it:
The conception of God as a warrior played a fundamental role in the
religious and military experiences of Israel. . . . One can only go so far
in describing the history of Israel, or its religion, or the theology of the
35

M. G. Kline, "The Intrusion and the Decalogue," WTJ 16 (1953) 1-22.

Contra G. Bahnsen, Theonomy in Christian Ethics (Nutley, N.J.:
Presbyterian and Reformed, 1979) 571-84.
36

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Old Testament without encountering the wars of Yahweh. In prose and

poetry, early and later material alike, the view that Yahweh fought for or
against his people stands forth prominently. The centrality of that conviction and its historical, cultic, literary and theological ramifications can
hardly be overestimated.37

Westminster Theological Seminary

Philadelphia

37
Miller, The Divine Warrior, cited approvingly by Greenspoon, "The
Origin of the Idea of Resurrection," 264 (with no footnote). Thus, the
Divine Warrior theme could be used to complement recent endeavors in OT
theology which have taken a theme and have surveyed the OT through that
one perspective: promise (Kaiser), design (Martens), theophany (Kline).
Actually, I suggest that the Divine Warrior theme is pervasive because of
its association with the covenant. God has covenanted with his people and
this relates to his warring activity in two ways:
(a) Covenants have been successfully related to Ancient Near Eastern
treaties. In these treaties the vassal promises to give up an independent foreign policy on the condition that the sovereign protect him and defend him.
Yahweh (or in the case of the NT, Christ) has covenanted with his people.
He has pledged to protect them. Thus, Israel's enemies become his enemies
(Psalm 83). When Israel is attacked by a foreign power, the sovereign,
Yahweh, responds by protecting his people.
(b) In covenant treaties, there is a curse section. If the vassal breaks the
covenant the sovereign executes the sanctions against him. If Israel breaks
covenant, the covenant curses become effective. Thus we find in the OT that
when Israel breaks covenant, Yahweh, the Divine Warrior, attacks his own
people.

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