Senior Capstone Project: The

Composition Process and the

Role of Composers Today
Molly Turner ('15)
November 2014

Table of Contents
Introduction
I.
The Compositional Process
A. Melody
B. Rhythm
C. Counterpoint
D. Harmony
E. Orchestration
II.
History of Composition
A. The Common Practice Era
1. Baroque
2. Classical
3. Romantic
B. 20th Century
1. Impressionism
2. Primitivism
3. Neo-Classicism/Neo-Romanticism
4. Expressionism/Atonal/Pantonal
5. Serialism
6. Indeterminism/Texturalism
7. Minimalism
8. Jazz
9. Electronicism
10. Eclecticism
III.
Composers Today
A. How Do composers compose?
B. Role of Composers Today

Core question: What is the compositional process and what can I take from past composers in order to
compose my own work?
Introduction: People learn to communicate through words, writing, and the visual arts at an early age.
However, music education, let alone composing, is not as stressed in todays society. But in fact, music
can be just as effective (if not more) in communicating thoughts and emotions. The only problem is
classical music has a bad rep and few give it the focus it needs. However, symphonic music is a
powerful art form that can be appreciated by all ages. All we need to do is listen. This power of music
has inspired me to lead people on a journey of my own music, using the unlimited palette of sound.
I. The compositional process
Unless one is born with the innate talent of composing music or is a musical savant, music
composition requires a large background in music theory and sound. With a deep understanding of the
many dimensions of music, one can finally go about composing. Roughly speaking there is melody,
rhythm, counterpoint, harmony, and orchestration. Before one can even think about picking up the
manuscript paper, these five concepts must be fully mastered.
Melody is a combination of the first two dimensions of music - pitch and duration of pitch. It is
the most recognizable aspect of a piece and great melodies are in the hands of the few.
Rhythm can be seen in two lights - metric and phrasal. Metric is generally associated with
tapping feet, a dance feel, and a micro view of the bar line. Phrasing is associated with singing lines,
rhythmic and melodic direction, and the macro view of the entire piece.
Counterpoint is the interaction between two independent melodies and is purely horizontal in
concept.
Harmony is when counterpoint considers the vertical view of music more than simply the two
lines moving from left to right. It stems from counterpoint and is commonly known as four part
counterpoint or four part harmony. It is the third dimension beyond melody.
Orchestration, tone, and timbre posses their best definitions in the overtone series.
Orchestration adds a fourth dimension of color to a piece. A piece orchestrated for vastly different
instruments can carry different meanings.
Melody
Melody is the single line of notes that can define an entire song. Someone asks sing
Beethovens ninth and you respond with the melody of ode to joy. Sure, Beethovens ninth is scored
for a full symphony and choir, but a simple humming of the melody can define the famous final
movement. Composers often start with what they believe to be a perfect melody then harmonize it,
score it, and create a piece. (Of course, it is not that easy). To create an effective melody one first needs
the knowledge of scales.
The scale. Yes, it deserves its own sentence. It is the building block of all music and should be
perfect, squared at its edges, and strong. Western scales find their origin in Pythagoras and math ratios.
Pythagoras went about making a scale starting on a certain note using the simplest ratios above that
note. Lets say the first note of our scale is 440 Hz (Hz = Hertz = cycles per second). This note is known is
A-440, middle-A, or A4 and is the A above middle-C on a piano. To start making the scale Pythagoras
used the ratio 2:1. Thus, the note 880 Hz was born. This note is so consonant with A-440 that it could be
called the same noteA. Therefore, the scale would be notes between the two As and then could be
replicated an octave higher by multiplying each note by two.
The next simplest ratio was 3:2 and the note with 660 Hz became part of our scale. Pythagoras
desired simple ratios so he multiplied 660 HZ by 1.5 again to get 990 Hz. However, 990 Hz was past the

end of our scale (A-880) so he brought it down an octave (the same note) to 495 Hz. Now we have a
scale of 440 Hz, 495 Hz, 660 Hz, and 880 Hz. Pythagoras continued to multiply the last number of the
series by 1.5 then multiply by multiples of 2 to be in the same octave. The result out to six notes is: 440,
495, 556.875, 660, 742.5, 835.3125, 880. He went out to six because dissonance started to occur and the
ratios started falling apart. An additional note 4/3 above the first note (586.666 Hz) was added because
of its consonance (the perfect fourth) and it created seven distinct notes in the scale (a holy, lucky, and
complete number). The western major scale is born. [Note: Sometimes the Pythagorean scale is
described using the ratios of major thirds, majors sixths, and major seconds in addition to the perfect
fifth. This creates some discrepancies. However, the focus is on the use of basic ratios.]
Even today, we can recognize this major scale of seven notes. However, there are an additional
five chromatic notes used occasionally in common practice music. (Chroma- implies the addition of
color.) These five notes fill in the whole steps (ratio ~9/8) between parts in the scale and create
dissonance (and color) in the scale. They are evenly spaced between the whole steps. However, the ratio
between a note and a semitone up was inconsistent throughout the scale and changing keys was nearly
impossible. (The explanation for this is beyond the scope of this paper).
Maintaining even spacing between the now 12 semitones of a scale as opposed to ratios was
now the priority. This leads to the concept of equal temperament which describes any chromatic pitch
frequency based of the following equation:

where f(n) is the frequency in Hz and n is the number of half-steps above or below middle-A
With equal temperament composers could change keys, there was a standard of pitches, and
the ratios were maintained to a caliber the ears could not find as out of tune. Bach celebrated in the
concept of equal temperament by writing the Well-Tempered Clavier. It was a book of preludes and
fugues written in the 24 major and minor scales - something that could not be played on a Pythagorean
tuned instrument. The fall-back to equal temperament was that perfect ratios were not quite perfect
anymore (except the octave at 2:1). Also, on pre-tuned instruments (such as piano and harp), G-sharp
would be the same as A-flat (something a Pythagorean scale would distinguish). However, the desire to
change keys at a moments notice and Bachs book helped push the path for equal temperament.
With a deep understanding of the scale, the melody can now be constructed. As described
earlier, the 5 chromatic pitches in a scale are seldom used. Thus, melodies usually consist of the 7
distinct scale degrees. The major scale has a whole step/half step pattern of: [W W H W W W H]. While
the minor scale is [W H W W H W W]. The 6th and 7th degree are usually raised in a minor scale when
ascending towards the tonic in order to give direction to the tonic. This yields a pattern of [W H W W W
W H]. There are many other scales and modes beyond the scope of this paper that combine various
intervals of half steps, whole steps, larger intervals, and even quarter tones.
With our painters palette filled with a variety of scales and frequencies a melody can be
written. But what is the ideal melody? Several things must be kept in mind:
First, each note continues to ring in our head after it is heard. Notes are not sustained physically
after it is released but our mind logs it. Thus, a melody can simultaneously imply harmony by
taking advantage of our brains retaining the most recent notes. This means chromatic pitches
should be used seldom. On their own they may be fine, but with the surrounding notes ringing
in our head, it can create dissonance. That dissonance may be desired as color.
Most of a melodys notes are adjacent scale degrees and jumps should be used rarely. These
jumps should be consonant intervals and large jumps should be avoided.

Monotony should be avoided by not repeating notes and not repeating phrases (known as
sequencing or ostinato, a sometimes effective technique for texture purposes).
If a chromatic tone is used, 1) do not jump into it 2) do not jump leaving from it 3) allow it to
resolve in the direction it was altered (e.g., if it was altered down a half step, it should resolve
down one half step more).
A melody should have contour by having one high point and a pleasing shape visually.
Rhythmic accents should correspond to melodic accents. A melodic change in direction is usually
accompanied by a rhythmic accent. Rhythm will be discussed further later.
These are not strict rules. Rather, the greatest and most pleasing melodies fit all these guidelines and
few break more than one guideline. This set is found in many books and is a great start to melody
writing. Also, there is no such thing as the perfect or ideal melody - just like there is no truly ideal
gas. There are many great melodies that are embellished through the next four aspects of music rhythm, counterpoint, harmony, and orchestration.
Rhythm
Rhythm is often associated with the tapping of feet, dancing, and the pulse of the music.
However, in an expanded view of music, rhythm is phrasal and even involves form. The following is a
discussion of rhythm in terms of meter, phrasing, and form.
Meter finds its origin in the meter of language. Gregorian chants were rhythmically based on the
Latin words and how it would have been said in speech. Then dance came along and music notation
necessitated a system of meter. The modern day system lays out 1) how many beats are in a measure
and 2) how each beat naturally divides. There can be any amount of whole beats in a measure and a
beat can divide into either 2 or 3. To do describe a meter, the word duple, triple, quadruple, etc. would
describe the amount of beats and the simple (2) or compound (3) would describe how those beats
divide. For example, a meter with 4 beats that divides into 2 would be quadruple simple. This is known
as common time and is written 4/4. The top four indicates 4 beats while the bottom 4 indicates the
quarter note gets one beat. Quarter notes naturally divide into 2 so it is simple. Another example - a
meter with two beats that naturally divides into triplets would be described as duple compound. On
sheet music it would like 6/8. The 6 describes the amount of beats and 8 directs the musician to give the
eighth note one beat. It is assumed those 6 beats are actually 2 pulses divided into three.
The meter indicates how a conductor should conduct, how dancers should move, and implies
much of the phrasing. The downbeat is often the loudest, most accented, and longest beat. The offbeats are softer. Placing notes on the off-beats or completely off the pulse creates syncopation and is
effectively used in ragtime. Also, many meters and specific rhythms are associated with certain types of
music. For example, 2/4 is often considered cut time or march tempo. 4/4 is common time and used in
nearly all popular music. Triple simple (3/4 or 3/8) is known as waltz or mazurka meter. In any
compound meter, the rhythm dotted eighth note, sixteenth note, eighth note is known as the Siciliano
rhythm.
The meter may also be made more complex. Although 4/4 naturally divides into two, it can be
forced to make triplets and create a polyrhythm that would resemble 12/8. This two against three is
seen throughout piano music, Spanish music, and is difficult to perform without rushing the simple
meter. Also, having two meters play at the same time adds a level of complexity. Musician 1 playing in
2/4 thinks ONE-two, ONE-two, etc. However, musician 2 playing in 3/4 thinks ONE-two-three, ONE-twothree, etc. The pulse or feel of the music is off-kilter and occasionally lines up. Extreme polyrhythm
(different meters at the same time) is seen in African drumming and is difficult for the standard western
trained musician. The effect is mostly one of texture.

Meter must also consider the tempo at which it is played. Tempo markings by composers are
known to be inaccurate and cause many large debates of how fast (or slow, in the case of Beethovens
9th second movement) something should be played. Several 20th century composers such as Stravinsky
are known to have conducted their own music at different tempi than written in their own score.
Nevertheless, several things should be considered when making a tempo marking:
Fast tempi tend to miss ornamentation, nuances, and detail. Even when played perfectly, the
listener cannot process everything and the sound is often muddled. (Sometimes this muddled
sound is desired, e.g. Berlioz Symphonie Fantastique Second and Fifth movement)
The difficulty of the passage must be considered. Musicians have limits and when the music
surpasses those limits, the initial intention is lost.
Musicians are in the organic process of music-making. They end up doing things how they want
and will often stretch and push the tempo at their own preference (even if it is not marked). This
is clearly shown in MIDI realization vs. live recording.
After the meter is set and tempo marking made, a composer must be aware of the overarching
phrase created by a set of measures. This is similar to the guidelines for the idea melody but zooms out
even further to the general form of a piece. This concerns how and when melodies should be repeated,
when new material should be introduced, and the overall wholeness of a piece. A discussion of form
belongs under rhythm because form is in fact constructed rhythmically. There are three well-accepted
forms from the common practice era: Sonata-Allegro, Theme and Variation, and Rondo.
Sonata-Allegro: It is easiest to explain Sonata-Allegro form (or just sonata form) as a parallel of
the infamous Five Paragraph Essay. Sonata form often starts with a slower introduction like the hook of
an essay. It then focuses itself to introduce one or several themes/motifs (a motif is a shorter often
rhythmic theme) that act as the thesis. The end of this introduction is represented by an authentic
cadence (a settling close to the music). The music then delves into several variations of the initial
themes often in closely related keys (key signatures one sharp or flat away from the home key). This
section is known as the development and is where the composer demonstrates their skill in
manipulating themes, harmony, and texture. The development acts as the body paragraphs that support
the thesis in an essay. Lastly, the music recalls the introductory material in the section called the
recapitulation. This is often a direct quote with added ornamentation and a different key signature.
Occasionally a coda is added for added closure just like an essay would add food for thought.
Honest, this is a textbook definition of sonata form and it does parallel the Five Paragraph Essay.
Sonata form was the prevailing form throughout Baroque, Classical, and even Romantic times. Almost
every symphony, quartet, and aria written before 1900 has a movement in this from. It is superior in
many aspects - it is repetitive enough to give unity to the piece, but allows room for development. Also,
although it appears to be restrictive (like the five paragraph essay), it has much room for creativity.
Perhaps the introduction is fast (not slow). Maybe there are three themes instead of the traditional two.
The development could be the star of the entire piece while the recapitulation is simply several lines. As
long as a piece has a distinguished Introduction, Development, and Recapitulation it can be said to be in
sonata form.
Theme and Variation: A rather self-explanatory name, Theme and Variation provides an initial
theme then continually develops it. It is similar to Sonata form but different as it only has one theme
and an infinite development. Developing the theme demonstrates the skill of the composer and can be
done is many ways: speeding up the melody, turning it upside down (inversion), playing it backwards
(retrograde), changing the key, using different instruments, creating a different accompaniment,
changing the meter, etc. A great example of theme and variation is Rachmaninoff's Rhapsody on a
Theme of Paganini. Rachmaninoff directly quotes Paganini's 24th caprice then develops it into a fulllength piano concerto. In fact, the most famous variation (No. 18) is simply the theme upside down!

Rondo: Another name that describes itself - round or cyclical. The generic form for rondo is A - B
- A - C - A - D - A etc. It is too like sonata form but differs in that each section is often shorter and A is
repeated. Also, sometimes A is altered slightly (fast, different key, shorter, etc.) to add diversity. Rondo
alla turca by Mozart is a famous example of this widely used form.
The meter and form of a piece are nearly the supports for the building blocks of scales and
melody. After the form of a piece is considered and a bag of melodies at hand, a composer beings to
look at counterpoint, harmony, and finally orchestration.
Counterpoint
Counterpoint (point against point) is the interaction of usually two independent melodies. It
takes more skill than simply writing a good melody. Counterpoint calls the composer to write two good
melodies at the same time that work together well. This concept is also known as polyphony - as
opposed to monophony where all voices move in the same direction (parallel motion). The concept of
counterpoint was articulated in words by Johann Joseph Fux (1660-1741) in 1725 in a book called
Gradus ad Parnassum (latin for steps to Parnassus", the highest altitude in Greece). A complete
translation by Alfred Mann was made in 1943. This text was worked through by Haydn, Mozart,
Beethoven, and nearly every composer since. A very brief summary of the species of counterpoint:
In counterpoint, there is the cantus firmus. It is usually twelve whole notes to provide the initial
melody that the counterpoint will compliment. The cantus firmus follows the rules of the ideal
melody. After the cantus firmus is created the counterpoint line is written either above or below. The
first, most basic, species of counterpoint involves one whole note of counterpoint for ever whole note of
cantus firmus (c.f.). The rules are as follows:
For starting the counterpoint above, use intervals of P1, P5, or P8. For starting counterpoint
below the c.f., start with either P1 or P8.
For ending the counterpoint in any mode, the last three notes must be: ^1, ^7, ^1. In the Dorian,
Mixolydian, and Aeolian modes a raised 7 is required (aka musica ficta) to create a leading otne.
The cantus firmus will always end 2, 1.
The remaining notes:
o the intervals must be a M3, m3, P5, M6, m6, P8, M10, or m10 (no P1).
o from perfect to perfect: contrary or oblique motion
o from perfect to imperfect: similar, contrary, or oblique
o from imperfect to perfect: contrary or oblique
o from imperfect to imperfect: contrary, parallel, similar, or oblique (no more than three
successive parallel thirds or sixths).
o tritones cannot be outlined, leapt, or created as an interval. To avoid this, b-flat is
sometimes employed.

http://academic.udayton.edu/PhillipMagnuson/soundpatterns/speciesctpt/spI.html

an example of first species counterpoint in the Aeolian mode

[Contrary motion is when one voice departs upwards while the other voice departs downwards. Parallel
motion is when both voices move the same interval number. Similar motion is when both voices depart
in the same direction but for different distances. Oblique motion is one voice stays the same while the
other moves.]
There seem to be a lot of limiting rules, but these rules help create the most consonant and
pleasing counterpoint parts. Also, the mastery of the first species is imperative in order to move on to
the second species. The exact rules for the next four species are superfluous as they can be located in
Fuxs Gradus ad Parnassum or any music theory text. Their brief descriptions are as follows:
Second species: two half notes of counterpoint for every whole note of c.f. (counterpoint can
start on beat 1 or after a half rest)

http://academic.udayton.edu/PhillipMagnuson/soundpatterns/speciesctpt/spII.html

Third species: four quarter notes of counterpoint for every whole note of c.f. (counterpoint can
start on beat 1 or 2)

http://academic.udayton.edu/PhillipMagnuson/soundpatterns/speciesctpt/spIII.html

Fourth species: counterpoint starts with a half rest then half note. The remaining notes are half
notes but suspension/ties over the bar line is encouraged.

http://academic.udayton.edu/PhillipMagnuson/soundpatterns/speciesctpt/spIV.html

Fifth species: a combination of the previous four species. Usually starts on second of fourth
species and usually ends with fourth species.

http://academic.udayton.edu/PhillipMagnuson/soundpatterns/speciesctpt/spV.html

Counterpoint at its greatest can be found in Bachs fugues in the Well-Tempered clavier and his
various Contrapunctus studies. However, counterpoint is a timeless and present art form. It is so
exposed, basic in form, and raw. As an art student strives to draw the perfect ear pinna, the
composition student strives to write the perfect counterpoint. Counterpoint is the start to really
understanding polyphonic music and how voices interact. Every music student learns it and only the
great composers use it well. Although contrapuntal etudes arent heard in the concert hall (except
Bach), the mastery of it will lead to what could end up in the contemporary concert hall.
Counterpoint is in its purest form (beyond fugues and contrapuntal studies) in the
unaccompanied duet. The Bach Double Violin concerto is a great example of counterpoint's role in
duets. A cantus firmus of sorts in introduced by the second violin then countered by the first violin.
It must be noted that counterpoint is purely horizontal - how each voice and newly formed
interval moves from left to right. The concern of motion and voice-leading is superior over the exact
harmonic or vertical implications. For example - in studies of three part counterpoint, an a-minor triad
would not be labeled, rather the intervals that make that triad and how that triad moves to the next set
of intervals. The exact vertical implications are only considered in four part counterpoint - known today
as four-part chorale writing or harmony.
Harmony
Harmony - the third dimension of music. As counterpoint developed more and four voice (1st
species) counterpoint emerged, harmony started becoming a more formal concept. In fact, in the four
part setting, harmony is simply counterpoint between the bass and soprano with the additional voices of
alto and tenor filling in. The inner voices are no less important, they are simply not heard as distinctly.
Rather they offer color. Harmony was also made possible by the well-tempered tuning system described
before hand - allowing an infinite amount of chords to be played in any key with almost seamless
transitions.
As melody and counterpoint is horizontal, harmony is purely vertical. In harmonic analysis,
students evaluate notes in terms of vertical chords - not melodic direction. Each harmony or chord is
evaluated in a standard way of notation. Effective analysis is necessary for composition. The most
common is Roman Numeral Analysis. This way of analysis describes several thing about a chord:
The scale degree from which the root position triad or seventh derives from. Root position is
when the chords notes are stacked in their most basic form (third on top of third; line-line-line,

space-space-space.) This defines if it is a G chord , IV chord, or four chord - regardless of

the actual bass note. It is notated by a Roman Numeral.
The quality (major, minor, diminished, augmented, etc.) of the triad. A capital Roman Numeral
indicates major. A lowercase Roman Numeral indicates minor. Lower case and a () indicates
diminished. Capital and a (+) indicates augmented. Capital in the context of seventh chords
indicates a Major-Minor seventh - the most common type.
Specific intervals above the bass note, which implies the inversion of that triad. These intervals
are Arabic numerals and placed to the right of the Roman numeral from highest to lowest going
down. The implied intervals above the bass note are already 5 and 3 (a root position triad).
However, the 5 and 3 are rarely written as they are assumed. However, in a first inversion, there
is a sixth above the bass. This necessitates only a 6 next to the Roman Numeral as the 3 is still
implied.
Alterations to any intervals above the bass note (accidentals outside of the key signature):
o any accidental placed below the Roman Numeral alters the third above the bass
o any accidental placed directly next to an Arabic number alters that interval above the
bass note
o an Arabic number with slash raises that interval above the bass note

http://academic.udayton.edu/PhillipMagnuson/soundpatterns/diatonicIII/tonicsub.html

an example of Roman Numeral analysis on a four part progression

However, progressing from one chord to another within a single key signature was still limiting.
It gave more texture than counterpoint but there was still room for development. The exact descriptions
of the following more complex harmonies are beyond the scope of this paper. Their purpose and sound
is described.
Non-harmonic tones - are added eighth notes not part of the said harmony that add diversity,
contour, and help with voice leading.
Tonicizations - briefly changes the tonic or key signature; adds color because it uses chromatic
pitches.
Modulations - use common chords between current and desired key signatures to change to
that new key signature; can modulate from minor to major thus changing the character. Must
have a cadence in new key, preferably a V/V in the new key at some point.
Miscellaneous chromaticisms - chords that either borrow from other key signatures briefly, add
chromatic tones to change the quality, or have very unique purposes. Examples are altered
chords, borrowed chords, Neapolitan six chords and augmented sixth chords.
Learning to effectively analyze and understand harmony in its basic form (four part writing) is
the key to learning how to effectively write harmonies that can be embellished. When writing
progressions, random chords and inversions are not used. In fact, there is a system to that, too! In the

broadest of contexts there is the tonic area, then predominant or connection chord, then dominant
area, then the tonic again. In non-music terms:
1. The home base - the tonic and related chords
2. A transition - moves away from tonic
3. The place that takes you back home - the tonal area that wants to resolve the tonic
4. Home, again
One can spend any amount of time in each area, but it must progress in that direction. Certain chords
are associated with each area. Each melodic phrase is often accompanied by a harmonic cycle closely
resembling the above progression.
This is why only certain progressions work - why hundreds of pop songs are from the same
progression. Its because they follow the natural harmonic cycle. Going against the cycle is confusing to
the ear. The ear anticipates the predominant area to go to the dominant. Then the dominant to go the
tonic. It is something almost programmed into our brains (and our western concept of scales).
Harmony isnt boring, it can be greatly embellished with chromaticisms, rhythm, melody,
counterpoint, and orchestration. However, in a broader context it is simple. This view that harmony
and music is really a simple progression is seen in the ironically complex method of Schenkerian Analysis
(beyond the scope of this paper). Even in the complex orchestral scores of Beethoven and Wagner, basic
harmonic progressions can still be identified (even after transposing all those instruments.) The main
point is that harmony is truly a compliment to the counterpoint between the soprano and bass and can
be expanded to greater more dense works.
As harmony works together with the other aspect of music a real depth and dimension is
created - however, orchestration can add even more colors to the palette of listening.
Tone/Orchestration
Why does a trumpet sound different than a violin? Why does a violin sound different compared
to another violin, even with the same pitch, octave, player, and bow? This is the concept of timbre
(TAM-ber, not TIM-ber; nothing is falling down) - the fact that things have a different sound, even
though the pitch is the same. The answer to how timbre is created lies in the depths of the overtone
series.
When a single note is played from an acoustic instrument there is more than one frequency
sounding. Try recording a basss open A-string on an audio recording program and you will see it is not a
perfect sine wave moving 110 cycles per second. In fact, it is a complex wave unique to that instrument.
This is because there is more than one frequency going through our ears. There is the fundamental
frequency of 110 Hz - the one identified as the pitch of the note. However, multiples of 110 are
transmitted also - 220 Hz (the octave), 330 (octave and a half, or a P5), 440 (2 octaves), 550 (two octaves
and a quarter, or a M3), 660, 770 and so and on. In theory, all of these overtones are being
transmitted.

http://dictionary.onmusic.org/terms/2459-overtone

In theory, all of these notes are sounding when the fundamental (1) is played. This chart is based off of
C, the bass example was based on A
What distinguishes each instrument from playing this A is how loud and how long each of its
overtones are. For example, cylindrical flutes and clarinets strongly suppress even-numbered overtones.
Brass boost high-frequency overtones for a brighter sound. Each violin has its own sound by having
slightly different balances of overtones. Even oboe and bassoon (both from the double reed family) have
different overtone distributions. From instrument to instrument, each overtone is either louder or softer
than the other.
Not only is the intensity of the overtone involved in creating timbre, but how the overtone
continues to sound. After the release of a note, overtones continue to ring, some longer than others
depending on the instrument, hall, player, and note. An [in-tune] brass section in an outstanding hall can
get five seconds of ringing overtones after the note is released.
Understanding how the overtones of an instrument dictate its timbre is rather academic and not
essential to composing. However, it shows the unlimited possibilities of sounds that can be made.
Composers dont often deal with unaccompanied solo music. It is combinations of instruments and thus
combinations of complicated overtones, that produce unique colors to a piece of music. Not only is
melody, rhythm, and harmony a factor - but the colors of the instruments that play them and how those
colors mix.
When orchestrating a piece (deciding which instrument should play which parts and which parts
should be doubled), many things must be considered:
The color of instruments and the combinations of them: It takes years of experience to mix the
perfect sky blue paint. Likewise, it takes years of experience to combine the correct instruments
for a passage to convey exactly what one wants. It isnt a matter of brass plus woodwinds
equals a good sound. It is a careful combining of specific instruments, using knowledge of their
individual sound and joint sound/articulation, that goes into creating the correct color.
Range of the instruments: First of all, the range of each instrument must be respected. A violin
cannot go below G3 or above G7 in orchestral playing. Second of all, a violin changes timbre
dramatically going from that low G-string to the stratosphere on the e string. Both of these
concepts must be considered when putting a passage in a certain range.
The ability of the instrument and players: A baby could play a black key glissando on the piano.
On the violin, it would take a trained musician a good hour to get that same run of notes at half
the speed. Some things are easier on one instrument and harder on the others. Also, the skill of
the intended players must be considered. However, this is not solely for how easy it must be.
Many great composers were close with popular soloists and would write concertos specifically
for their style of playing. Sarasate wrote many pieces for himself to demonstrate his own
impeccable technique.
The certain way to play an instrument: Wind players can put space between each note by using
their tongue and creating a different articulation. String players can pluck their strings, use the
wood of their bow to hit the string, or use harmonics. Brass can use a variety of mutes.
Thorough knowledge of an instrument helps a composer utilize every type of sound it can
create.
The density of the sound: The density of the sound concerns the quantity of those playing, the
total range of the pitches, and the distribution of those pitches. For example, Prts Cantus uses
a full string orchestra and bells playing at a large and filled in range. This yields for almost a
mass, thick, and viscous sound (even when played softly). In contrast, Saint-Sans Elephant
from the Carnival of Animals has only two playing a wide range, but not an even distribution

within that range. There is only the very low ranged double-bass solo and the middle-upper
range piano (nothing filled in between). This gives a quaint clumsy sound of an elephant.
Orchestration is often a finishing touch. Some start with a group in mind - especially chamber
groups like woodwind quintets, string quartets, and duets. However, many composers create a piano
score then orchestrate it into certain instruments. (Liszt is known to do the opposite and take famous
orchestral compositions and rewrite them for piano.) Some are even famous for how they orchestrate.
Tchaikovsky and Mahler will always be recognized for their skill in orchestrating. Ravels orchestration of
Mussorgskys Pictures at an Exhibition is played just as often as the original piano solo (and often in the
same concert). Orchestration is discussed last because it is the culmination of the previous aspects. Also,
on the music history timeline, orchestration was only considered after melody, rhythm, counterpoint,
and harmony had been developed. This was also when instruments were developed enough to play in
tune, skillfully, and just as good as a piano. Also, orchestration is often only considered after
considerable mastery of the previous aspects.
II. History of Composition
The next major section of this text focuses on the history of music. In order to write great music,
one needs to know what has come before them - then draw ideas from the past and develop a new
voice.
Each major era of music will be discussed in chronological order. It must be noted that these are
not set in stone groupings - they are all music. However, each group does distinguish itself in terms of
melody, rhythm, counterpoint, harmony, and orchestration. I will try my best to provide accurate music
examples, composers associated with that era, and analysis through each aspect of music. As art
developed from cave paintings to Picasso and literature developed from Virgil to Hemingway, music
history progressed all the way from Bach to Glass.
Common Practice Era
The Common Practice Era was roughly 1600 to 1900. When the average person thinks of
classical music, they are thinking of piece from the common practice era. It comprises probably 95% of
concert hall music and is widely studied, performed, and enjoyed. Before this momentous era was
sacred music that consisted of basic lines and no counterpoint. The creation of more advanced (but still
limited) woodwind and string instruments, the well-tempered scale, and a society ready to embrace it,
helped bring about the common practice era. There are three distinct parts of this era - Baroque,
Classical, and Romantic. Each marks a new stage of musical composition, performance, and
development. Also, each part follows closely with historical landmarks, social developments, and
political developments.
Baroque
Baroque music is defined by elaborate ornamentation, a break from monophony and strides
into polyphony, and chamber ensembles. It started around 1600, but its end is marked distinctly by
Bachs death in 1750. It was written for the church, the state, and secular purposes. Baroque
architecture is a great visual representation of baroque music - it is balanced, strives for perfection, and
greatly ornamented. Meanwhile, Galileo and Newton were discovering modern science. Descartes,
Newton, and Leibniz were inventing calculus. And Locke and Spinoza were breaking barriers in the realm
of philosophy. Academic, visual, and musical arts were all breaking some ground into stating Europe as
the top dog, providing a sense of the word modern, and breaking from the dark ages.
Melody, scales, and tonality were in their final stages of development (until they are re-invented
in the 20th century). There was the major scale (thank you Pythagoras), the minor scale (based on half

step patterns found in the major scale), and modes (major scale pattern, starting on a different tonic).
Key changes were seldom as most baroque pieces tend to communicate one feeling. Also, there was
little concert hall scene - music was for the rich, the religious, or the state. Composers and musicians
were merely craftsmen offering their craft to those with money. Lastly, counterpoint remains one of the
single defining features of the baroque era. For so long had songs been simple melody lines that other
voices simply followed - there was no independence between voices. However, after Fuxs book on
counterpoint described what had been brewing in minds of music theorists, baroque music would never
look to monophony again. Bachs great fugues and contrapuntal studies really capture the genius of
Bach and abilities of counterpoint.
Rhythm and meter never ventured into far-flung territory - it stuck with 2-4 pulses and simple or
compound subdivision (as described beforehand). Dance suites were popular and each dance was
defined by a certain rhythm or meter. For example, there was the Gavotte: typically in 2/2 or 4/4 time,
starts on the middle of the bar with a quarter note, and originated in France folk music. There was the
courante: a fast triple meter piece that literally means running and implied a jumping step. The
Boure: a quick double time piece (like a Gavotte) that starts on the 4th beat of the measure and is
marked by its carefree sound. The dances were often put in a dance suite to be played by any number of
instrumentalists.
Harmony was not a defining feature - it used mostly diatonic chords (chords of the key
signature). In some cases, chromatic notes would be used - melodic minor scale, tonicizations, and
modulations. An important feature of baroque harmony is the idea of a basso continuo - a harpsichord
and cello would use interval numbers and indicated bass notes to improvise their own bass line. They
would play as the whole orchestra provided melody and counterpoint. It is like jazz musicians using lead
sheets to construct solos and a rhythm section. Throughout melody, counterpoint, rhythm, and
harmony, everything strived to be ideal. Everything was rather prim and proper - it was written for the
upper class (except on occasion, folk music and country songs).
Instruments were very different back then - there was not full symphony that we hear today in
concert halls. Most music was for smaller chamber groups or choir. Remember the audience: there was
really no public audience for the concert hall, only the upper class and church. The woodwinds were
usually only recorders, oboe, or bassoons. All baroque winds were wood, even flutes. They also had
fewer keys and softer sound. The strings were in their final stages of development - the ideal instrument
for virtuosity, sound, and performance. Thus, composers wrote more demanding parts. Also, the viola
da gamba from the Renaissance stayed through the baroque. It was a six-string fretted instrument,
played like a cello, and with the approximate range of a cello (basically cello and guitar mix). It often was
part of the basso continuo. However, it faded into the past after the 18th century.
Some defining features of the Baroque era are the concept of solo music, concerto grosso, and
solo concerto. Solo music made the musician the star of the show, it wasnt merely background music. A
great example is the Bach Sonatas and Partitas for Solo Violin. Also, the concerto grosso made its debut
through Corelli. There would be solo and tutti (everyone together) passages alternating back and forth.
It would and open and close with tutti and have brilliant solo passages in the middle. Then, the solo
concerto made the solo passages longer and more distinct - this was developed by Handel, Vivaldi, and
Bach. Later, the classical period would take this idea of alternating solo and tutti on to the level of
Mozart piano concertos. Great examples of the baroque and all its wonderful embellishments are Bachs Double Violin Concerto, Vivaldi Four Seasons, Bach Fugues, and Handel Violin Sonatas.
Classical
The classical period was from 1750 to roughly 1825. It was marked by several things - expanded
orchestration and the symphony, music accessible to the common man, and a vast expansion of form
and style. It was pioneered by Mozart, Haydn, and later Beethoven. Intellectually, this era was marked

by the Era of Enlightenment. Rousseau, Voltaire, and Montesquieu pioneered ideas of the common
man, logic over faith, and the power of the human being. The French and American Revolution
demonstrated this new era of thought. The most important aspect of this era is that music went beyond
the church and the courts - the common man now felt he could enjoy music, too. Public concerts were
now in full gear.
Melody and scales through this period remained fairly intact from the Baroque period. They
were balanced, thoughtfully phrased, and still following the rules. However, in general (seen in other
aspects of music), the classical era is marked by a lightness instead of the heaviness of baroque era.
Phrases may be similarly constructed, but more flowing and lighthearted. Counterpoint was still
respected from the Baroque period. However, it was placed in a lighter context. Instead of complex and
driven fugues, it would be scene in a light interlude of several voices.
The vocabulary of harmony remained somewhat the same - major, minor, augmented, and
diminished chords, tonicizations, brief chromaticisms, etc. However, in general, there was a range
harmonic movement - sometimes two bars would represent one harmonic area and sometimes the
harmony would change every eighth note. Baroque music was so focused on the vertical aspect and
changed chords almost every beat. Classical era music sometimes gracefully sweeps from chord to
chord, sometimes keeping the harmony for several measure. Then, in more experimental measure, the
harmonies would change quickly and unexpectedly. Baroque harpsichordists bustling away at the
figured bass never considered this broader macro-view of harmony. Also, rhythm was relatively the
same. Basic meters were still the norm and polyrhythm in its early stages. However, the rhythmic style
of each part started to distinguish itself. In a four part context, the soprano is the melody. The alto and
tenor are the engine - the same rhythmic pattern or pulse over and over. Lastly, the bass is the time
keeper and/or counterpoint to soprano - consistently reminding the ensemble of the big beats. A great
visual example could be any Mozart Quartet.
Lastly, orchestration and instruments were very distinct from their Baroque counterparts. The
winds were more advanced, had a greater range, and were more capable. The brass was expanded
beyond trumpets and cornets - classical orchestras included trombones (first used in Beethovens Fifth),
modern French horns, and larger brass sections in general. The strings were arguably at their peak with
Stradivari and Guarneri making violins that are even coveted today. Everything was more efficient, had
greater tone, and expanded the palette for the composer. This is why modern orchestras rarely play
Baroque pieces - the instruments are simply different and the sound wouldnt be authentic anyways.
(However, there are some Baroque chamber orchestras that recreate the music using authentic
instruments, markings, and settings.)
Form was hugely revamped during the classical era. Concerto grosso wouldnt simply move back
from tutti to solo. Sonata Allegro form (described earlier in comparison with the Five Paragraph essay)
was introduced in the Baroque era, but seen everywhere in the Classical. Every symphony contained at
least one movement in Sonata Allegro Form. Also, since the orchestra was expanded so much, the
symphony was born. The father of the symphony is often identified as Joseph Haydn (he wrote 106 of
them). A certain rule book was created for writing symphonies - rather, something that the public
loved and composers continued to replicate. There were four movements. The first movement was in
Sonata Allegro form. The second was either a scherzo or slow movement. The third was a minuet and
trio or a scherzo (never two scherzos). The last was a finale. This four-movement form would be
recognized throughout the classical era, some of the Romantic, and even today.
The defining features were numerous. With more advanced instruments, color was greatly
enhanced and the symphony established. Most baroque music sounds similar - it is hard to distinguish
Vivaldi and Corelli. However, most classical era music has a distinct sound and color - Mozart
Symphonies are vastly different from Beethoven symphonies and close to Haydn. Also, the music found
its way into the public, not just church and state. Masses and religious music was still written, however,

the idea of concert hall music was established. Lastly, composers had the freedom to compose for
themselves - not for a king or pope. They had the freedom to experiment - thus, Choral Symphonies
(earliest example, Beethovens Ninth), complicated string quartets (Mozart and Beethoven) and brilliant
solo passages were born. As they continued to push melody, rhythm, counterpoint, harmony, and
orchestration beyond the original concept (most notably Beethoven) - the classical era transitioned into
the Romantic era.
Romantic
The Romantic era is known for its passion, energy, and innovation. The classical form was
somewhat restrictive and needed even more expanding and experimentation. In fact, Romanticism was
almost a response to classical music. All these ideas that reason would always trump faith and science
was the answer angered many and led to an era of Romanticism, idealism, and hopefulness. Emerson
and Thoreau sought simpler more ideal lives at Walden Pond. Nathaniel Hawthorne writes of a woman
who could redeem herself through hard work - what a romantic image!
Why tamper with something people already enjoy? - it allowed composers to express a wider
range of emotions and colors. As Bach was the transition from Baroque to Classical, Beethoven brought
us from Classical to Romantic - and thats just another reasons why theyre so famous. With this move,
all aspects of music were altered and varied to suit the emotions, life, and story the composer wanted to
convey. Music was written for the church, then the state, then the well-to-do man. Now, the composer
frankly wrote for himself. It was all more personal and thus more accessible and lively.
It is rather repetitive to review each aspect of music - they were simply at the composers
disposal. At this point, composers had what the classical era presented in terms of form, harmony, and
orchestration. Then, the Romantics expanded some forms and invented whole new approaches to new
subject forms. For example, the textbook four-movement symphony was completely turned upside
down with Beethovens Pastoral Symphony (5 movements) and Beethovens Ninth (adding a chorus and
time - it is a good hour performance). This is almost like writing a book, but only including the odd
number pages. Or not using pronouns. It was simply ground-breaking and offered new music that
conveyed deep emotions, complex storylines, and life.
Also, harmony is worth noting - it completely changed and was sometimes completely
unexpected. Chromaticism was extreme, resolutions delayed significantly, and distant keys (more than
one sharp or flat away) were explored often. In fact, the thick and intense harmonies (provided with
masterful and innovative orchestration) helps define romanticism. The more dissonance and
unexpected key changes show emotion, change, and unique color. The diminished seventh chord and
related chords were exploited more often - especially for larger key changes. Simply put - harmony was
not a perfect cycle seen in a textbook, it was colorful, unique, and expanding.
There was were many notable features of Romantic music. Most general, the strict formulas of
symphonies and sonata form were broken. Also, the subjects of pieces of music were more personable a scene on the countryside or a grand ball. Some of the forms that began to flourish were the tone
poem, overture, and stand-alone orchestral pieces. Also, the virtuoso was born in this era - much more
advanced than Corellis solo work. Liszt wrote demanding piano music that pianists strive to master
today. (Rather, Liszt wrote music to show his own brilliance - composers are human, too). Chopin
composed and performed piano as well. Paganini (with the help of Marfan syndrome that made his
fingers longer) composed dazzling and nearly impossible violin music to display his own virtuosity. In the
world of opera, cue the entrance of Verdi and Wagner. Before, opera had simple subject matter and was
broken into short numbers like musicals. Now, the subject material was social, political, or
nationalistic and had complex plots. Also, Wagners operas were long and continuous flows of music.
Since Romanticism expanded so many aspects and features of music there are several examples
of pieces that evoke a certain aspects of Romanticism. Tchaikovskys 1812 Overture easily demonstrates

the power of nationalism. Its subject matter was a battle in which Russia defended the motherland
against the invading Napoleon in 1812 (no relation to the War of 1812). In fact, the invasion was a huge
embarrassment for the French. There are various Russian folk songs, the French national anthem, and a
few church hymns in the hugely popular overture. [Tchaikovsky wrote this for the public, not himself - it
is still very showing of the Romantic era]. Also, almost any Russian piece seems to draw from either
Russian folk music or lush melodies that are simply identified as Russian. Another feature of
Romanticism was virtuosity. To name a few, Liszts Black Key Etude, Paganinis Caprices, and Sarasates
Zigeunerweisen. These all find their way on the standard repertoire along with conservatory auditions
and symphony auditions. Lastly, emotion and life. Personal favorites that evoke life and passion are
Rachmaninoff's Piano Concerto No. 2, Tchaikovskys Piano Concerto No. 1, Brahms Tragic Overture, and
the Mendelssohn Reformation Symphony.
Ideas and compositions were being experimented with so much that musical rules and
textbooks simply had to be rewritten - we are entering the 20th century.
20th century
Rules were made in the Baroque Era. They were expanded in the Classical era. They were
altered and expanded more in the Romantic era. They were utterly broken and frankly vanished in the
20th century. This is the era that is most relevant to my compositions - they are new, fresh, and in some
ways, evolve from the common practice era. How the 20th century composers learned from the
common practice era is how I will learn from the 20th century. Note that the common practice is not
done, it has morphed dramatically. All composers in this so called modernism learned from the
greats of the 18th and 19th century - then they took a stab of their own.
Impressionism
Just like impressionist painters, impressionist composers were concerned more with the idea
of an object rather than the exact definition. In the literature, music, and art of Impressionism there is a
common thread - a suggestion of meaning without a direct allusion to reality. This era of art is defined
by vagueness, simplicity, and cloudiness. It focuses on the impression the subject gives - which
translates into attention to color, shades, and lighting. In music, impressionism was pioneered almost
exclusively by Claude Debussy.
The tonality is loosely held together by pedal points and key signature changes are frequent.
Also, counterpoint (and all the rules that came with it) is virtually nonexistent - a true break from the
past. Harmonies are built on thirds, along with fourths (quartal harmony) and fifths (quintal harmony).
Time signatures serve little purpose in the concept of beat and meter, but are used for the musicians
sake. These changes were made so more unique colors could be created.
Perhaps the greatest example of impressionism is Claude Debussys Prelude to the Afternoon of
a Faun. It was not written for royalty like many of Beethovens Symphonies. It was not written for the
church like Bachs music. It was not written for the public like Tchaikovskys 1812 Overture. It was
written to convey what its like for a faun to wake up, enjoy the day, then fall asleep. Clearly not as
intense as Brahms Tragic Overture, but so simple and beautiful. It is content, colorful, and relaxing. It
doesnt contain a distinct classical melody, but creates an atmosphere and its techniques will be
considered for composers to follow.
Primitivism
Primitivism was a response to the music of the impressionists. It looked to less-developed nonWestern cultures for inspiration. They found other cultures to be more honest and genuine. They
believed Western art avoided this feeling with refinement and a polished look.

Primitivism is tonal music like the common practice era. However, the tonic is not established by
resolution of the dominance, but by asserting one more than another. Primitivism has ties with
exoticism (use materials from other cultures), nationalism (using folk songs indigenous to specific
countries), and ethnicism (using materials from European ethnic groups). It later developed into Neoclassicism. Composers associated with primitivism are Igor Stravinsky and Bla Bartk.
A tonic is usually quite obvious - through consistent repetition on rhythmic stresses. Nontraditional scales are used (still around one tonic) such as the whole tone scale (six whole tones),
octatonic (M2, m2, M2, etc.), and synthetic scales crafted by the composer. Counterpoint is still used
and ostinato (repeated melodic and rhythmic figures). Chord clusters (such as quartal and quintal
harmony) are used often along with polychords (chords with two juxtaposed harmonies). Rhythm is
defined but often in non-traditional meters, beats of unequal length, and awkward subdivision. Meters
change often and sometimes two meters occur at the same time (polymeters). A great example of all of
these aspects of primitivism synthesized is Stravinskys Firebird.
Neo-classicism and Neo-Romanticism
Both Neo-classicism and Neo-Romanticism are a yearn for the past, stability, and previous styles
of the common practice era. However, they are not exact imitations. These styles blend common
practice features with experimentation into more avant-garde features such as polytonality, poly-meter,
and chromaticisms.
Neo-classicism grew in popularity between the world wars - there was a desire for stability and
tradition. It stems directly from Primitivism; it was a reaction from the extremes of Impressionism and
Expressionism. The music is very accessible. There is balance, structure, clarity, and direction. Although
direct quotes from classical works were used as parody or main themes, originality and freshness was
maintained. Some notable composers associated with Neo-classicism are Bartok, Kodaly, Britten, VillaLobos, and Bloch. The tonality, scales, counterpoint, and chords are similar to primitivism - exploring
modes, hybrid scales, and more extreme chromaticisms. Most notable is the time organization. Neoclassicists will take a direct quote then shift one line off by an eighth note. It sounds off and is
unexpected. Overall, Neo-classicism is the same as primitivism only with different inspirations.
Neo-romanticism can be seen in two lights: 1) the extension of the traditional 19th century
Romanticism into the first half of the 20th century or 2) the re-invention of the Romantic tradition in the
second half. The pre-1950 composers were generally developing what the Romantics had started.
Fundamentally, they were maintaining the elements from the Common Practice with standard use of
tonality, counterpoint, and borrowed chords. An example of this pre-1950 extension of Romanticism is
Hanson's Symphony No. 2, "Romantic." However, the younger composers grew more experimental, the
Neo-romantic era transitioned into a reinvention of the Romantic tradition. It was not an imitation or
continuing of Romanticism, it was a blend of Romanticism with the avant-garde and experiments. There
are exotic scales, planing, excesses polytonality, and other aspects that label it as truly modern. In
visual arts, Max Ernsts Attirement of the Bride is a good example of Neo-romanticism. It places a
romantic subject, a beautiful bride dressing for a wedding, in a peculiar context.
Expressionism/Atonal/Pantonal
Expressionism is the historical successor or the common practice era. Unlike impressionism,
primitivism, neo-classicism, or neo-romanticism, it is completely ground-breaking and a complete break
from the past. It completely altered melody, counterpoint, rhythm, and harmony as we knew it. The sole
goal of the expressionists was to abandon a specified tonal center - there are no expressionist pieces
with key signatures. They sought to write without a tonal center (atonal). However, they preferred it to
be classified as pan-tonal (all the pitches being equal).

Arnold Schoenberg (1874-1951; pronounced SHUR-in-burg) was the well-known founder of this
movement. He started purely as a 19th century Romantic - in fact, some of his first works (Transfigured
Night, 1899) seem rather Wagnerian. However, he expanded heavily into dissonance and chromaticism.
He could care less about a key signature or chromatic notes properly resolving. Other notable features
were:
a focus on the intervals between certain groups of notes instead of the melodic contour - these
could be organized into cells or sets that identify the amount of each type intervals between all
the notes in the set of notes
pointillism - melodies with large leaps (breaking the rules even more...) from one register to
another
diverse textures - a wide variety of timbre, dynamics, densities, and articulations
no distinction between melody and harmony - the construction of both have the sole goal of
avoiding a tonal center; counterpoint is non-existent and harmonies are not evaluated (only in
cells as described above.)
unexpected meters and rhythms
It must be noted that music has not fizzled to randomness. Although many atonal pieces are difficult to
listen to due to their apparent randomness, the concepts described in expressionism are used to great
effectiveness in other more accessible styles. Some great listens are Schoenbergs Five Pieces for
Orchestra, Weberns Five Movements for String Quartet, and Bergs Altenberg lieder.
Serialism
Schoenberg was not done when he threw tonality, counterpoint, and harmony out the window.
The use of cells and creating Expressionist music was rather haphazard and still failed to treat each pitch
equally. Schoenberg stopped composing for nearly ten years in order to develop a new system. This is
now known as the twelve tone-row. The concept was simple in nature - a tone row was created by
ordering all 12 chromatic pitches in any permutation with no repeated notes. Once a certain tone-row is
used, another can be used. All of 479,001,600 (12 factorial) unique tone-rows have the same pitches,
but the intervals between them are unique. When writing with tone rows he made a concerted effort to
avoid rows that spelled out triads, resolved, made cadences, or suggested a specific key signature.
Serialism implies an order or series. Thus, serialists write with various tone-rows or series. A
tone row is a series of all 12 chromatic pitches - however, the intervals between those pitches are more
important. A tone row is a concept - not quite music yet. It can be applied to writing music through 1)
melody by giving various rhythmic value to each note in order 2) harmony by grouping several of notes
of a row into chords, of course, in order from left to right 3) counterpoint by giving the notes to two
different instruments or overlapping derivatives of the tone row.
The derivatives or analysis of a single tone row is very important. The derivatives or other forms
of the initial tone row can be used to provide more unity to the piece and compliment the initial row.
The initial first row is called the Prime or P0. The transpositions are labeled P1 (all up a halfstep), P2 (up a whole step), P3, P4 ... P11.
The row can be played upside down or inverted. For example, if the first interval in P0 is up a
half step, then the inversion will start down a half step. These are labeled IO, I1, I2 ... I11 based
off of transposition up from P0.
The row can also be played backwards - aka the retrograde. So, if reading P0 backwards and the
first interval is up a major third, then the retrograde will start down a major third. These are
labeled R0, R1, R2 ... R11 based off of transpositions up from the end of P0 (because it starts
from the end.).

The inversion can be read backwards (in terms of intervals) and the retrograde can be played
upside-down - both yield what is called the retrograde inversion (RI0, RI1, RI2 ... RI3 based off
transpositions from the end of the inversions).
These can be conveniently translated into a matrix. The formation of this matrix is beyond the scope of
this paper but reading one should still make sense. The primes are read from left to right. The
retrogrades are read from right to left. The inversions are read from top to bottom. The retrograde
inversions are read from bottom to top.

http://academic.udayton.edu/PhillipMagnuson/soundpatterns/microcosms/serialism.html

An example of a twelve tone matrix: this could be used for analysis or composition. P0s first note (E in
this case) should be a diagonal from top left to the bottom right on the matrix.
A serialist composer would then choose certain rows for their composition - for example, RI3,
P4, P2, R4, then I11. Then, they would manipulate the rows into melodies, harmonies, and counterpoint.
Some composers are even known to take diagonal rows for pieces.
Just like serial killers, serial composers have everything planned out. Some serialist composers
go all the way to what is known as total serialism. This is when each pitch is assigned a number and
the matrix of notes translates into a matrix of numbers. Rhythmic units are then assigned to each
number. Then, a composer can have a row decide what the rhythm is and another row decide what the
pitches are. It goes on and on with dynamics and articulations. It seems as the piece writes itself - e.g. P2
is pitch, RI5 is rhythm, P6 is dynamics, and I2 is articulation. However, through this process - every pitch,
rhythm, dynamics, and articulation is treated equally.
Serialism, especially total serialism, is hard to listen to. But thats exactly what Schoenberg
wanted - a different genre of music. However, serialism is not the concert halls and many are critical of

it. I can only listen to a few pieces and total serialism sounds random. The concept and idea is important
- equal treatment of pitches and the unexpected. Some sample listens are Schoenberg Suite for Klavier,
Bergs Lyric Suite, and Weberns String Quartet Op. 28.
Jazz
Although this paper focuses on the common practice era and the classical tradition, jazz has its
place in the symphonic repertoire, too. It is the child of the European tradition and African culture. It has
even found itself in the concert hall and has greatly influenced popular music.
Tonality is clearly defined and often based off pre-existing popular song. Improvisation is large
part of jazz performance and lead sheets are used (instead of note for note sheet music). Improvisation
melds the composer with the performer. It displays the ability of the performer to spontaneously make
variations on chord changes and melodic lines. Scales are derived from bebop, blues, and pentatonic
scales. Bending notes is a common technique in jazz, too. Seventh chords are used extensively and other
basic chord types are expanded. There are even altered tonalities that go beyond traditional triads. Also,
there are many preset chord progressions - the most famous being the 12-bar blues. There are many
variations, but here is one version: [I - IV - I - I - IV - IV - I - I - V - IV - I - V]. Lastly, syncopation is a major
aspect of jazz (and later to be associated with ragtime). Swing rhythms are used often and later on,
there will be more asymmetrical meters and unique rhythms.
There three traditional levels of texture in jazz performance. There is the melody that is known
as the lead or solo line. Then there are the chord changes provided by several other instruments. Lastly,
there is the bass-line. The chord changes and bass-line line are known as the rhythm section and give a
background texture behind the solo. Traditional counterpoint is used occasionally (and is derived from
harmony, not creating it).
Jazzs place in the classical repertoire is small, but still existent. George Gershwin, Leonard
Bernstein, William Grant Still, and Copland all used some sort of jazz in their pieces. Of course, there are
countless other jazz musicians associated with the performance and composition of it. Even more
expansive are the derivatives of jazz and blues: bebop, ragtime, Dixieland, swing, and other fusions.
However, within the symphonic scene, some great listens are Gershwins Rhapsody in Blue and An
American in Paris - both regularly find spots on concert programs. Also, William Grant Still's AfroAmerican Symphony incorporates many jazz and blues aspects.
Indeterminism/Texturalism
Throughout western music and composition, the goal has been to create a detailed manuscript
and prompt an accurate performance based off of the directions of the music. The performers are
simply being prompted by notation on a paper. (Only in improvisation does the performer have much
say in the way the music should be played). Indeterminism (and later texturalism) is a response to this
restriction. Indeterminism can be a result of chance (like dice) or choice (not of the composer) and
avoids exact instruction on how a piece should sound.
Indeterminism was not a ground-breaking idea. Performers to a certain extent can change
tempi, articulation, and dynamics. Also, improvisation has a long history, whether in figured bass or the
writing of cadenzas (prolonged solo passages composed or improvised by the soloist). However, every
performance of indeterminist music is vastly different and chance is often based off things beyond the
composers and performer. Its randomness can sound almost like Total Serialism and possess great
complexity.
Some indeterminism evolved into a strive towards creating unique textures - texturalism.
Instead of focusing on melody and rhythm like the common practice, texturalism focuses purely on the
texture and gesture of the music. This texture can be achieved through indeterminist techniques:
create patterns mathematically then translate into music notation or electronic music

providing specific directions instead of music notations - e.g. John Cage Imaginary Landscapes
No. 4 in which he instructs 24 people to adjust 12 radios on channel and volume. The music is
not, play a C3 on beat two. It is increase volume of radio dial on beat 3 and move channel
volume counterclockwise on beat 4.
relying on other variables beyond the musicians and composer to create sound. e.g. John
Cages (most famous piece) 4 33 in which all musicians are tacet (not playing) for exactly four
minutes and thirty seconds. The sounds which are made of from the audience, ambient noise,
and the musicians moving around. Beyond the philosophical debate of what is music and what is
art - it creates sounds beyond anyones control.
juxtaposing various traditional textures (sometimes at random, hence the indeterminism)
o monophony - single line, even with multiple performers
o heterophony - multiple parts, but each based off the same structure with various
embellishments
o homophony - multiple independent lines creating harmony, but with relatively the same
rhythmic structure
o polyphony - multiple independent lines with distinct rhythms
Both indeterminism and texturalism extend performance techniques, rely on choice and chance, and
use instructions instead of staff lines. Some dont consider it music - it creates sounds we dont expect
(and maybe dont want to hear). Some argue it doesnt tell a story like the great composers and it is
merely sound effects. Nonetheless, some examples are Xenakiss Terretektorh, Stockhausens Gruppen,
Ligetis Atmospheres.
Minimalism
In response to all the complex ideas of atonal music, serialism, indeterminism, and texturalism
is the concept of minimalism. It strives for a simplistic view of music making. It was seen not only in
music, but also in visual art - an attempt to break down art to its purest and minimal form. In visual art,
Piet Mondrian vowed for a return to the basics - the primary colors. His artwork consists of
perpendicular black lines, white space, and several filled in boxes of primary colors. He is often criticized.

http://bigthink.com/endless-innovation/your-brain-looks-like-a-mondrian-grid-painting

an example of minimalist visual art

The same happens in minimalist music. Tonality, scales, and chords are extremely basic and
often short in length and continually repeated. Upon repetitions, sometimes the melody is altered
slightly until it completely changes. Time organization is usually based around ostinati (repeated
phrases) and phrase shifting (same phrase at different speeds). However, there is often a consistent
pulse throughout the piece. There are even elements of indeterminism in minimalist work. The result is

not a beautiful classical melody - rather, a repetitive texture that phases in and out. Minimalist works
are ironically often quite long.
The most famous minimalist work is probably Terry Rileys in C. He instructs any number of
performers (preferably around 35) to each play through 53 melodic patterns in sequence. Each melodic
pattern is repeated as many times as a performer likes and then they may move on to the next pattern.
Each performer may start when they wish (preferably not all at the same time). Performers should stay
within 2 or 3 patterns of each other and should not change at the same time - this allows for many
different textures to be created. Performers may also drop in and out at any time, create organic
crescendos and decrescendos, and communicate with other performers. There is often a constant highC eighth note pulse to aid the ensemble. When everyone reaches the 53rd melodic pattern, there are a
few crescendos and decrescendos, then each performer drops out as they wish. Performances of in C
last from 30 to 45 minutes. Clearly, there are elements of indeterminism, minimalism, and a call back to
the basics of music. Other minimalism examples are Reichs Piano Phase, Reichs Clapping Music, and
Glasss Einstein on the Beach (1976).
Electronicism
Electronic instruments began to spring up in the 40s. There was the telharmonium (electric
organ), the Theremin, and the Ondes Martenot. Also, when sounds could be made on computers
without the assistance of prerecorded sound, many synthesized sounds could be made: 1) the sine wave
without any overtones 2) the saw tooth with all the overtones sounding 3) the square with only odd
overtones and 4) the triangle with odd overtones but less upper range ones. Also, computers could now
process recorded sound better and create sound that didnt resemble and acoustic environment. The
leaders of electronics were Stockhausen and Pierre Schaeffer. There are three formats of electronic
music:
Musique concrete - the manipulation of live or recorded acoustic sound by physical or electronic
means
Synthesized sound - computer or device generated electronic sound
Synthesis of electronic and acoustic sound - live performances with pre-recorded sounds and/or
simultaneous electronic manipulation of acoustic sound.
Although some of the depths of electronic music sound like sci-fi and video game soundtracks,
technology has greatly affected the concert hall, learning music, and performing it. Many concert halls
(classical and popular) use microphones, reverberation, and speakers to enhance and amplify the sound.
Many musicians use electronic tools such as metronomes, drones, iPads, and computers for learning
music. Also, even in the classical scene, pick-ups and amps are used during performances. Some
examples are Babitts Philomel, Stockhausen Gesang der Junglinge (Songs of the Youths), and Schaeffers
and Henrys Symphonie pour un homme seul (1950).
Eclecticism
Eclectic means deriving ideas, style, or taste from a diverse range of sources. In music, this
applies to any 20th century composer who doesnt really fit inside a neat box. However, eclectic
honestly describes the individualism, pluralism, and creativity found throughout the 20th century regardless of pre-determined titles.
Eclectic music may draw from pre-existing music (quotes), non-Western music (generally labeled
as primitivism), popular music, and/or significant changes in traditional material. It can be a
juxtaposition of previously mentioned styles - for example serialism and indeterminism (rather
oxymoronic). Those associated with the eclectic movement are Charles Ives, Olivier Messiaen, and John
Cage. This also concludes the 20th century microcosms. It doesnt really end here - it points to the

endless possibilities yet to be discovered. With access to electronic music, more capable instruments,
and our trusty common practice era examples, there is still a long road ahead for music-making.
III. The Modern Classical Era and How Composers Compose
How do composers actually compose? How was it in the past, present, and future?
Rosemary Brown was an English composer and spiritualist who claimed dead composers were
talking to her and inspiring her to write. She claimed to have written Beethovens Eleventh Symphony as
fast as the dead and deaf Beethoven could dictate it to her. Although her work was later debunked due
to a lack of complexity and innovation, she did indeed possess an uncanny ability to notate music as
quickly as she could move her pen. Mozart seemed to work in a similar way but with more genius
attached.
In contrast, I and even the brilliant (but perfectionist) Beethoven often consider many things as
we slowly write down notes on manuscript paper. There is constant revision, reworking, and overwriting
that seeks to balance five aspects of music - melody, rhythm, counterpoint, harmony, and orchestration.
For the most part, it doesn't just "happen."
The following is a review of what the actual process is: pen-to-paper writing, the writing
process, and having your own work performed. One can write at the desk, the piano, and these days, at
the computer. Also, the music writing process is very similar to the English writing process. And finally,
rehearsing with musicians to perform your work is a topic of its own - they don't always do what you
want.
So how do composers actually compose? Do they sit down at the desk and wait for divine
intervention to move their hands on the paper? Do people arbitrarily write notes down they think will
sound good? Do people write strictly based on pre-determine frames? - e.g. measures 1-8 is slow, an
introduction and the key of D major, then measures 9-18 are faster and present the main theme, etc.
The answer is similar to that of the writing process - some prefer some methods over others. Some free
write with little goal in mind - or they improvise at the piano with little or no "inspiration." Some follow
strict sentence rules, structure, and forms already created. Some purely copy others. Some have an
audience in mind and write for that - e.g. those who write film scores have the specific film and plot in
mind. Each composer has their own style of music and their own style of creating that music.
Of course, I have my own personal preference. It serves to utilize all the possible ways of
composing and then synthesizing it all on a computer. First, I will create several chorales or chord
progressions for a frame of a certain phrase or melody (this is usually done on paper - it's almost purely
theoretical). Or, I will go to the piano and improvise a melody or part of a piece. In fact, improvising for
me, and for many others, is the core of the composition process. Whatever happens on the piano and is
worth remembering will usually end up on paper and then in a piece. Finally, I transfer what I like from
my chorales, melodies, and improvisation onto the computer. To be honest, I don't usually have a grand
plan for a piece. Rather, it is a synthesis of a variety of sketches, ideas, melodies, harmonies, and
improvisation ideas. Every composer is different. My style of composing can be summed up quite
basically - paper ideas, "thoughts," and improvisation are notated on a music program to be edited. (I
acknowledge the pre-determined for such as sonata form, rhythmic features, orchestration, melody,
etc. But that was addressed in the first two parts of this text). That's it.
On a side note, composing at the computer is a very new way of composing. In only the past ten
or so years have composers made the "switch" to learning music notation programs such as Sibelius and
Finale. I use the free and easy to use musescore software. It is a very different experience than writing at
the piano or at a desk. The notes can be played back perfectly and with proper instruments. However,
these are computer generations and often lack dynamics, phrasing, and accurate sounds. Nevertheless,

a composer can constantly play back their piece and edit. At a piano or a desk, the composer plays back
their piece how they want to hear it. It's similar to writing a novel in an isolated cabin in the woods as
oppose to writing a novel by speaking into microphone and having it played back. It's simply a different
experience. Also, different instruments and sounds require the use of technology and electronics. They
have a unique writing process at the computer as well.
The editing process is practically the same as the writing process we all know. It really requires
one to produce plenty of material (good, bad, or ugly) then continually edit it. After the editing process,
the piece may look completely different. However, there was a starting part and initial material. Also,
like any artist, composers are never quite done editing their work. For example, Stravinsky's Firebird
when under four additional revision beyond his original score - whether this be different arrangements,
edits, or orchestrations.
Lastly, beyond writing pen-to-paper, composing on a computer, and editing, there is the actual
debut of your work. It is an exciting process, sometimes stressful, and always a learning experience.
First, the composer needs to find some willing musicians to learn the music. [On another side note,
many musicians are reluctant to play music of living composers - the music is often hard to read, unenjoyable, and difficult to rehearse. In other words, keep your performers in mind during composing and
rehearsing.] Then, give the music to them well in advance. Then, create a rehearsal to run through the
piece and double check for confusions about markings - never leave a rehearsal with a confused
musician. Then record it or get a willing audience to hear it. It seems rather self-explanatory and easy but the logistics are quite difficult.
What is the role of the composers? What is the 21st century genre? The American Sound?
I end with an answer to the most important question about composers - what is their role? Who
cares about some music composition major trying to "be themselves" and write their thoughts in music?
Are composers only left to write for movie scores and background music?
Perhaps you can name one or two living composers - maybe you've heard of Philip Glass, Aaron
Copland, John Williams or John Cage. But there are thousands of composition students throughout the
world - all trying to make it somewhere. What exactly are they trying to do and why aren't you attracted
to their music?
First, pretend you are at the premiere of Beethoven's wildly experimental 9th Symphony. This is
considered one of the transition pieces to the vastly different Romantic period. All your life you have
been listening to Mozart piano sonatas, Haydn's symphonies, and Stamitz's string quartets. This is what
you pay to go to the concert hall for. Now, today, Beethoven is presenting his symphony. Maybe you
love it - but chances are, you think it is kind of weird. Who puts a full chorus in a symphony? And then
makes the whole thing over an hour long? Then the second movement is switched with the third
movement? The changes Beethoven made were arguably as vast as the changes modern composers are
making today.
So how did Beethoven catch on? He made some pretty crazy changes. Well, he was quite
renowned to begin with - his more conservative pieces and raw talent were truly flawless. Then, after he
learned the rules, he was allowed to break them. As he broke them, many followed suite in his rule
breaking frenzy. This transition also follows the historical and social period of the time - Romanticism in
literature was blossoming also. Then, it was a matter of the "mere exposure effect." The listeners were
listening to this different (Romantic) music so much, they started to like it out of mere exposure. This is
generally how eras rise and fall.
Now, we can argue that we are in a transition era. The 20th century era is filled with
experiments in Serialism, Minimalism, Impressionism, and Eclecticism. No one is the clear winner. Even

in this 21st century, more and more different styles and techniques are being used. It is a matter of
which ones catch on and which ones were too "crazy."
So, it's a combination of natural selection and mere exposure. Some styles emerge over others,
then it is exposed enough to catch on. Most important of all is that this takes time. There is a reason
famous composers and artists are rarely famous during their lifetime. So, the composer's job in all of this
is too, well, to compose! The student composer learns from the greats - the changes they made to move
beyond an era and the techniques they used. After the student has understood and mastered those
styles - they can reach into the great beyond.
Some people stay imitating other styles - as seen in Neo-Classicism and Neo-Romanticism. Some
reach in the great beyond such as John Cage's philosophical 4' 33'' or Total Serialism. Some meet
somewhere in the middle such as primitivism, Jazz (which is tailored to the popular interests), and
popular music.
Some write purely for popular interest or social interests. Take for example movie score writers.
They are no less than anyone else, they simply write for a pre-made storyline. Even classical symphonic
composers curtail to political and popular - for example, Tchaikovsky's 1812 Overture was written on
political and social pressure. He actually didn't really like it.
So you want a straight answer? Composers write for several things. They write academically; a review of
what others have already done. They write experimental pieces in an effort to create a new voice or
category - something completely self motivated. Then composers can write for other's interests - where
that be social and political pressures or a commission from a client.
Conclusion: Why do composers write music? If a composer could say what he had to say in words, he
would not bother trying to say it in music - Gustav Mahler
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of Tuning & Temperament, with Audio Examples. 1 Jan. 1998. Web. 22 Nov. 2014.
Benward, Bruce, and Marilyn Nadine Saker. Music in Theory and Practice. 7th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill,
1997. Print.
Daugherty, James. "THE CLASSICAL PERIOD (1775-1825)." THE CLASSICAL PERIOD (1775-1825). Web. 22
Nov. 2014.
Hart, Vi. "Twelve Tones." YouTube. YouTube, 27 June 2013. Web. 22 Nov. 2014.
Jourdain, Robert. Music, the Brain, and Ecstasy: How Music Captures Our Imagination. New York: Avon,
1998. Print.
Magnuson, Phillip. "SOUND PATTERNS." Sound Patterns. 1 Jan. 2009. Web. 22 Nov. 2014.
Piston, Walter. Orchestration. 1st ed. New York: W. W. Norton, 1955. Print.