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TEMPERATURE INVERSION DURING TAKEOFF

By Francis PAYEUR
Department Manager A300 / A310 Operational Standards

1. INTRODUCTION
In a standard atmosphere, the outside air temperature decreases as altitude increases (some 2C per
1,000 ft). The engine performance is influenced by various parameters such as outside air pressure
(altitude), aircraft speed, outside air temperature and bleed demand.
Under normal conditions, an increase of altitude brings a combination of two effects. The decrease of air
pressure decreases thrust. The decrease of temperature tends to increase thrust. Combination of both is
a net decrease of thrust, because of the influence of pressure is dominant
However, weather characteristics and geographical environment may affect the lower layer of the
atmosphere in such a way that the standard atmosphere is not encountered during each takeoff.
Amongst those cases, an increase of temperature can be met when altitude increases. That is the
temperature inversion.
Under such circumstances, an increase of altitude will bring a decrease of thrust that is substantial than
usual, because the effect of pressure and temperature both contribute to the decrease.
The aim of this article is to present the effect on the engine, and consequently, the aircraft performance
(full thrust takeoff, flex / derate takeoff) of a temperature inversion for all Airbus aircraft types and to
provide the Airbus recommendations in this matter.

2. ENGINE BEHAVIOR IN A STANDARD ATMOSPHERE

2.1.

General

Depending on the aircraft you operate and on the engine type installed on your aircraft, different thrust
control devices are installed. These devices meter the fuel to the engine in order to provide adequate
thrust according to the thrust lever position. For takeoff, the engine control is as follows:
-

On A300 B2 / B4 models, the engines are hydro-mechanically controlled. Above 60 Kt on the runway,
the target N1 is frozen and variation of OAT are no longer taken into account for adjustment.
However, due to the temperature and altitude effect during the takeoff, the N1 and consequently the
thrust will be affected.

On A310 / A300-600 models not fitted with a FADEC, the engines are controlled by a combined
electronic and hydro-mechanical system. These engines are controlled in the same way as a FADEC
engine as described below. The electronic control can be selected OFF. In this case, the engine is
only hydro-mechanically controlled similarly to A300 B2 / B4 models.

For last generation engines fitted with a FADEC, the FADEC refreshes computation of engine power
setting parameters (N1 or EPR) as flight conditions change along the takeoff path.
The regulation system is a sophisticated system and provides complex regulation. Whether the engine
control unit is a hydro-mechanical or an electronic device, the engine regulation depends on various
parameters such as:
flight phase
-

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selected operating mode (Max takeoff / Go around, Flex takeoff, Max climb, Max cruise, Max
continuous, Idle)
pressure altitude
TAT
Mach number
bleed demand

According to these parameters, the fuel schedule as controlled by the engine control device provides a
fan speed, thus, a given thrust.
2.2.

The flat rate concept

For takeoff (and Go around), the engine thrust is defined in order to meet the aircraft performance
requirements but also to maintain the EGT below the maximum certified EGT. Some margin to the
maximum EGT is applied to account for engine degradation during its life.
The engine is designed to provide a given thrust level up to a given OAT, this is the flat rate concept. This
temperature is usually named the Flat Rating Temperature, and is the indicated T.REF on the takeoff
charts. T.REF is defined as a differential temperature to ISA depending on the engine model as follows:
ENGINE

T.REF

ENGINE

(all temperatures in C)

A300 B2 / B4
GE CF6-50
PW JT9D-59A
A310 / A300-600
GE CF6-80A3
and
80C2A1/A3/A5
GE CF6-80C2A2

GE CF6-80C2A8

PW 7R4-D1

PW 7R4-E1

PW 7R4-H1

PW 4152

PW 4156A
PW 4158

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T.REF
(all temperatures in C)

ISA + 15
ISA + 15

A319/320/321
CFM 56-5A1 / A3
CFM 56-5B1(2)(3)
CFM 56-5B5 / B6

ISA + 15

CFM 56-5B4 / B7

ISA + 34 at 2000ft
ISA + 29 at SL
ISA + 25 at 2000 ft
ISA + 20 at 4000 ft
ISA + 16 at 5300 ft
ISA + 15 at or above 5650 ft
ISA + 24 at 2000ft
ISA + 20 at SL
ISA + 15 at or above 2000 ft
ISA + 26 at 2000ft
ISA + 18 at SL
ISA + 15 at or above 5000 ft
ISA + 26 at 2000ft
ISA + 18 at SL
ISA + 15 between 5000 and 12000 ft
ISA + 20 at or above 15 000ft

ISA + 23 at 2000ft
ISA + 15 at or above SL
ISA + 30 at 1000ft
ISA + 15 at 5000 ft
ISA + 23 at 10 000 ft
ISA + 21 at 12 200ft
ISA + 24 at 14 100ft

ISA + 15
ISA + 15
ISA + 30
ISA + 29 below 2 000 ft
ISA + 18 between 5000 and 10000 ft
ISA + 23 at or above 15 000ft

CFM 56-5A4

ISA + 30 at or below 10 000ft

ISA + 23 at 15 000 ft

CFM 56-5A5

ISA + 22 or below 10 000ft

ISA + 15 at 15 000 ft

IAE V2527A5
IAE V2522-A5
IAE V2524-A5

IAE V2530-A5
IAE V2533-A5

IAE V2500-A1

IAE V2527EA5
IAE V2527MA5

ISA + 20 at 1000ft
ISA + 18 at SL
ISA + 15 at or above 1 200 ft
ISA + 19 at 1000ft
ISA + 15 at or above SL

Chapter 25

ISA + 33 at 1000ft
ISA + 31 at SL
ISA + 25 at or above 5 000 FT
ISA + 40 at or below 8 000ft
ISA + 30 at or above 13 000 ft
ISA + 19 at 2 000ft
ISA + 15 at SL
ISA + 13 at 8 000 ft (V2530 only)
ISA + 18 at 10 000 ft
ISA + 19 at 11 000 ft
ISA + 26 at or above 14 500 ft
ISA + 18 at 1000ft
ISA + 15 at or above SL
ISA + 35 at 2 000ft
ISA + 31 at SL
ISA + 26 at 2 000 ft
ISA + 17 at 5 000 ft
ISA + 15 between 6000 and 8000ft
ISA + 18 at 10 000 ft
ISA + 19 at 11 000 ft
ISA + 26 at or above 14 500 ft

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A330
GE 80 E1
PW 4000

ISA + 15
ISA + 20 at 2000 ft
ISA + 15 at or above SL
RR TRENT 768
ISA + 15
RR TRENT 772
ISA + 15 at or below 8000 ft
ISA + 10 at or above 10000 ft
(With linear variation in-between the values)

A330 (contd)
RR TRENT 772B

ISA + 22 at or below 2000 ft

ISA + 15 between 5000 and 8000 ft
ISA + 10 at or above 10 000 ft

A340
CFM 56-5C

ISA + 15

Below this T.REF the engine provides a rather constant thrust for a given altitude and Mach, above this
T.REF, thrust is decreased and aircraft performance is adjusted accordingly.

THRUST
Pressure altitude 0 ft
Pressure altitude > 0 ft

T.REF

ISA

The reason for decreasing the thrust above the T.REF is to prevent an engine over-temperature, ie, to
maintain a rather constant EGT level below the red line.
With the temperature increasing, more thrust would be needed to meet the aircraft performance.
Consequently, more fuel would be needed to increase N1 and thrust. Resulting from this increased fuel
burnt, the EGT would be increasing.
However, to prevent deterioration of the hot section and rotating parts of the engine, the EGT is limited
and the thrust is consequently reduced when the ambient temperature is above the T.REF in order to
satisfy the certified EGT limit as illustrated below.
A margin between the actual EGT and the EGT red line not only accounts for engine transient
characteristics, altitude effect and engine deterioration but also temperature inversion.

EGT

RED LINE
MARGIN
Deterioration

T.REF

ISA

The engine thrust setting for takeoff is determined according to the defined thrust levels to comply with
these thrust and EGT requirements.

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N1 or EPR for power management schedule is defined depending on the temperature in order to maintain
the thrust constant below the T.REF and to reduce the thrust above this point as schematically shown
below.
In fact, N1 parameter is not directly used for engine thrust management. N1 is corrected as a function of
the TAT (depending on aircraft speed). This corrected N1 is also called N1K. There is a direct relationship
between N1K and thrust. Below the T.REF, N1K is consequently constant while N1 is decreasing.
However, since N1 is the main parameter used for engine thrust control by pilots and auto-thrust system,
this article will refer to N1 as necessary.
Similarly to N1K, EPR is function of the TAT. There is a direct relationship between EPR and thrust. EPR
remains constant below the T.REF.

N1K / EPR
THRUST

N1

T.REF

ISA

When the crew selects engine bleed for air conditioning or anti ice, a decrement is applied to the power
setting parameters. This decrement permits to keep a constant EGT and EGT margin compared to the
bleed off operations at the same takeoff conditions.

2.3.

Takeoff without temperature inversion

During the takeoff phase, the thrust computer continuously computes the N1 / EPR target based on the
pressure altitude, the temperature and the aircraft speed.
Therefore, resulting from the evolution of the pressure altitude and the aircraft speed which increase, but
also resulting from the temperature which decreases, the engine parameters will change in the following
way during the takeoff:
-

Thrust decreases particularly due to the pressure altitude and aircraft speed effect
N1 / EPR and N2 slightly increases
EGT also increases

For instance, on an A330 aircraft fitted with CF6-80E1A4 engines, during a maximum takeoff thrust from
an airport altitude 0ft and OAT 15C (below T.REF) the engine parameters will change as follows:

Altitude 0ft (Mach 0.1) / temp 15 C

Altitude 1500 ft (Mach 0.3) / temp 12 C

N1 : 108.84 %
N2 : 106.64 %
EGT : 872 C
Thrust : 27 951 daN

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N1 : 109.38 %
N2 : 107.09 %
EGT : 885.2 C
Thrust : 23 730 daN

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Similar behavior will be noticed whatever the engines and whether the temperature is below or above
T.REF.
However, this effect on the engine behavior and parameters is the result of the combined effect of the
altitude, the temperature and the speed evolutions.
In order to better assume the effect of a temperature inversion, this article focuses on the sole effect of
the temperature during the takeoff. The two other parameters, i.e., the altitude and the speed will vary
rather in the same way, whatever the temperature evolution.

2.3.1. Effect of temperature on thrust

Considering the only effect of the temperature, the thrust is rather constant below the T.REF.
Above the T.REF, the thrust varies with the temperature. It will increase with a decreasing temperature.

THRUST

Initial
temperature

T.REF

ISA

For instance, on A320 fitted with CFM 56-5B4, for an altitude 0ft, the static thrust will vary from 10 838
daN at 50C to 11 256 daN at 44C (T.REF) and will remain somewhat constant below this temperature.
As a general rule, each degree decrease in OAT results in a thrust increase by about 0.75 % (above
T.REF).
2.3.2. Effect of temperature on N1 / EPR
Above T.REF, N1 / EPR will increase with a decreasing temperature to maintain power management
curve still keeping a rather constant EGT.
Below T.REF, N1K / EPR will remain constant to maintain a rather constant thrust (N1 will decrease).
Initial
temperature
N1K / EPR
N1

T.REF

ISA

For instance, on A310 fitted with PW 4152 engines, at sea level, EPR will vary from 1.387 at 55C (above
T.REF) to 1.476 at 42C (at or below T.REF).
On A310 fitted with GE CF6-80C2A8, at sea level, N1 will vary from 105.8 % at 55C to 108.3% at 30C
(T.REF) then to 95.1 at 40C (N1K will remain constant at or below T.REF).
2.3.3. Effect of temperature on EGT
Because power management is established to maintain a constant EGT above T.REF as indicated
above, the EGT will remain constant above T.REF and will decrease below T.REF since the thrust is
maintained rather constant.

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EGT
Initial
temperature

T.REF

ISA

As a general rule applicable to all engine models and to illustrate the effect of the temperature on the
EGT, it is considered that the EGT will decrease by approximately 3C for each degree decreased below
T.REF.
This summarizes the engine behavior with regards to a normal temperature decrease during the takeoff
phase.
However, weather characteristics and geographical environment may affect the lower layer of the
atmosphere in such a way that the normal standard temperature evolution is not encountered during each
takeoff.

3. TEMPERATURE INVERSION, THE WEATHER PHENOMENON

3.1.

General

In meteorology, air temperature at the earths surface is normally measured at a height of about 1.20
meter (4ft) above the ground. From that temperature, which is reported by Air Traffic Control, takeoff
performance will be defined.
All along the takeoff flight path, aircraft performance is computed considering the altitude gained, the
speed increase, but also implicitly considering a standard evolution of temperature, i.e. temperature is
considered to decrease by 2C for each 1000 ft.
However, although most of the time, temperature will decrease with altitude in quite a standard manner,
specific meteorological conditions may lead the temperature evolution to deviate from this standard rule.
With altitude increasing, marked variations of the air temperature from the standard figure may be
encountered. In that way, air temperature may decrease in a lower way than the standard rule or may be
constant or may even increase with altitude. In this last case, the phenomenon is called a temperature
inversion.
As described below, this may particularly affect the very lower layer of the atmosphere near the earths
surface.
There are many parameters, which influence air temperature and may lead to a temperature inversion.
Close to the ground, air temperature variations mainly result from the effects of:
-

seasonal variations
diurnal / nocturnal temperature variations
weather conditions (effect of clouds and wind)
humidity of the air
geographical environment such as:
- mountainous environment
- water surface (sea)
- nature of the ground (arid, humid)
- latitude
- local specificity

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Therefore, it is not intended to describe here all the meteorological conditions which may lead to a
temperature inversion but your own experience and the local weather reports are obviously the best way
of knowing if a particular area in which you operate is subject to frequent temperature inversions.
However, as general rule, valid for everywhere, low wind conditions and clear skies at night, will
lead to rapid cooling of the earth and a morning temperature inversion at ground level.

3.2.

Morning temperature inversion

In the absence of wind or if the wind is very low, the air, which is in contact with a cold earth surface will
cool down by heating transfer from the warm air to the cold ground surface. This transfer of heat
occurs by conduction only and consequently leads to a temperature inversion which is limited in altitude.
This process needs stable weather conditions to develop.
Schematically, during the day, the air is very little heated by solar radiation and the earth is very much.
But the lower layer of the atmosphere is also heated by contact with the ground, which is more reactive to
solar radiation than the air, and by conduction between earth and atmosphere.
At night, in the absence of disturbing influences, ground surface cools down due to the absence of solar
radiation and will cool the air near the ground surface. In quiet conditions, air cooling is confined to the
lowest levels. Typically, this effect is the biggest at the early hours of the day and sunshine subsequently
destroys the inversion during the morning. Similarly, wind will mix the air and destroy the inversion.
3.2.1. Magnitude of temperature inversion
This kind of inversion usually affects the very lowest levels of the atmosphere. The surface inversion may
exceed 500 ft but should not exceed 1000 to 2000 ft. The magnitude of the temperature inversion cannot
be precisely quantified. However, a temperature inversion of about +10C is considered as quite an
important one. Usually, within a temperature inversion, temperature regularly increases with altitude until
it reaches a point where the conduction has no longer any effect.
3.2.2. Where can they be encountered?
This kind of inversion may be encountered worldwide. However, some areas are more exposed to this
phenomenon such as arid and desert regions. It may be also encountered in temperate climate
particularly during winter season (presence of fog). Tropical regions are less sensitive due to less stable
weather conditions.
In some northern and continental areas (Canada, Siberia) during winter in anticyclonic conditions, the low
duration of sunshine during the day could prevent the inversion from destruction. Thus, the temperature
of the ground may considerably reduce and amplify the inversion phenomenon. In a lower extent, this
may also occur in temperate climate during winter, if associated with cold anticyclonic conditions.
Another important aspect of an inversion is wind change. The airmass in the inversion layer is so stable
that winds below and above, tend to diverge rapidly. Therefore, the wind change, in force and direction, at
the upper inversion surface may be quite high. This may add to the difficulty of flying through the
inversion surface. In some conditions, the wind change may be so high as to generate a small layer of
very marked turbulence.

3.3.

Other types of temperature inversion

The process described in the above paragraph 3.2 is considered as the most frequent and the most
sensitive. However, as discussed above, other meteorological conditions, of a less frequent occurrence
and magnitude, may lead to temperature inversions.

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For instance, the displacement of a cold air mass over a cold ground surface may lead to turbulence
resulting in a transfer of heat to the lower levels of this mass, thus, also creating a temperature inversion
in the lower levels of the atmosphere below this air mass. Usually, this kind of inversion has lower
magnitude than the previous case described above.
In any case, your experience, weather reports or pilot reports will be the best way in identifying
such weather conditions.

4. ENGINE BEHAVIOR IN A TEMPERATURE INVERSION

During the takeoff phase, the thrust computer continuously computes the N1 / EPR target based on the
current temperature. Thus, the effect of a temperature inversion on the engine parameters will be in the
reverse way as the effect described in the above paragraph 2.2.
However, the effect of a sudden increase in ambient temperature on the engine control during takeoff will
depend on the type of takeoff being performed and on the magnitude of the temperature increase. The
three following cases are considered to assess the effect of a temperature inversion:

4.1.

Temperature inversion during a maximum takeoff below T.REF

If a maximum (or a derated) takeoff is being performed below T.REF and if a temperature increase occurs
which is still below the T.REF, the N1 target will increase to maintain thrust for the higher temperature.
N1K and EPR will remain constant. Resulting from the higher temperature, the EGT will increase versus
the no inversion case but will be maintained below the maximum EGT.
Because still lower to T.REF, i.e., on the flat part of the thrust curve, then, no effect on thrust will occur
compared with the standard temperature evolution as illustrated below:

THRUST

Max takeoff thrust at 0ft

A

Max takeoff thrust at 1500ft

T.REF

ISA

A = No temperature inversion
B = Temperature inversion
In both cases, the thrust level will remain the same.
For instance, on an A330 aircraft fitted PW4168A engines, during a maximum takeoff thrust from an
airport altitude 0ft at ISA, the thrust will be as follows:
- Altitude 0ft (Mach 0.1) / OAT 15 C: Thrust = 27 498 daN (EGT 530 C)
- Altitude 1500 ft (Mach 0.3) / with no temperature inversion: Thrust = 24 060 daN (EGT 540 C)
/ with a temperature inversion of +10C : Thrust = 24 060 daN (EGT 570 C)
Consequently, this shows that a temperature inversion has not effect on the engine performance as long
as the ambient temperature does not reach T.REF. The only effect will be an increase of the EGT
compared to the normal case with no temperature inversion.

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4.2.

Temperature inversion during a maximum takeoff thrust above the T.REF

If a maximum (or a derated) takeoff is being performed and if a temperature increase occurs which is
beyond the T.REF, the N1 / EPR target will decrease to maintain N1 / EPR power management curve
and to maintain a rather constant EGT. This concept is used in order to protect the engine against EGT
exceedance. Resulting from this, the thrust level will decrease compared to the case with no temperature
inversion in order to maintain a rather constant EGT. EGT will remain approximately constant versus the
no inversion case. The higher the temperature level above T.REF, the greater the reduction on thrust will
be as illustrated below:

THRUST
Max takeoff thrust at 0ft
A
Max takeoff thrust at 1500ft

T.REF

THRUST REDUCTION

ISA

A = No temperature inversion
B = Temperature inversion

As general rule and to illustrate the effect of the temperature inversion on the thrust, a temperature
inversion of + 10 C will result in a thrust reduction of about 10 % (between 8 and 12 % depending on the
engines). This applies whatever the engine.
For instance, on an A330 aircraft fitted with RR Trent 772B engines, a temperature inversion of +10 C
will result in the following thrust levels:
- Altitude 0ft (Mach 0.1) / OAT 40 C: Thrust = 27 086 daN
- Altitude 1500 ft (Mach 0.3) / with no temperature inversion: Thrust = 23 035 daN
/ with a temperature inversion of +10C : Thrust = 20 685 daN ( -10.2 %
compared to the case with no inversion)
However, this loss of thrust applies at the maximum magnitude of the inversion (in this example, 10
degrees). As discussed in the above paragraph 3, the temperature should regularly increase with the
altitude. Consequently, the thrust should be regularly reduced compared with the normal case from
nothing at the ground level to approximately 10 % when reaching 1500ft.
The consequences of this thrust reduction on the aircraft performance will be developed in the paragraph
5 of this article.
4.3.

Temperature inversion during a flex takeoff

If a flex takeoff is being performed, and a temperature inversion occurs, the two following cases have to
be considered:
-

If the temperature increase stays below the selected flex temperature, then no effect on thrust will
occur. The engine being regulated and thrust adapted according to the selected flex temperature, the
thrust will remain constant compared to the case with no temperature inversion.
The effect on the engine parameters will be mainly an increase of the EGT due to the higher ambient
temperature.

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THRUST

thrust at 0ft
thrust at 1500ft

OAT

T.REF
SELECTED
FLX TEMP

FLX TO THRUST

ISA
A = Temperature inversion during the takeoff. No effect since thrust is still limited by the
flex takeoff thrust.

If the temperature increase goes above the selected flex temperature, then the flex temperature
takeoff will be de-selected and will revert to the maximum takeoff thrust. A reduction of thrust relative
to the magnitude of the temperature increase above T.REF and above the selected flexible
temperature will occur (similarly to the case described for a maximum takeoff thrust above T.REF).

THRUST

thrust at 0ft

T.REF
SELECTED
FLX TEMP

thrust at 1500ft
THRUST
REDUCTION

ISA

However, this case is less likely to occur than the previous case described for flex takeoff since it requires
an already high temperature on the ground with a limited amount of reduced thrust and a temperature
inversion higher than the difference between the actual temperature and the selected flex temperature.
As discussed in the paragraph 3 of this article, a relatively important temperature inversion should not
develop or should be destroyed when the temperature is high.

Consequently, this shows that a temperature inversion during takeoff has no effect on the engine
performance when it occurs during a maximum takeoff thrust below T.REF or when performing a
flex takeoff with the OAT at or below T.REF.

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5. THE EFFECT ON AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE AND RECOMMENDATIONS

As previously discussed, a temperature inversion will result in a reduction of the thrust mainly when
performing a maximum takeoff thrust during hot days, i.e., the actual ambient temperature is above
T.REF. This is the result of a design concept in order to prevent EGT exceedance by maintaining the
thrust at a constant level above T.REF. Allowing an increase of thrust above T.REF would lead to
reduction of EGT margins, thus, resulting in rapid engine deterioration. It would also result in frequent or
even regular EGT limit exceedance, thus, calling for manual thrust reduction in accordance with the
procedures.

5.1.

Effect on aircraft performance

The certified takeoff performance is based on a constant ISA during the climb. In the event of
temperature inversion, the climb performance will be affected in the cases where the thrust is affected as
described in the above paragraph 4.
However, to affect the aircraft performance, a temperature inversion must be combined with other factors.
During a normal takeoff with all engines operative, the inversion will have no effect since the actual
aircraft performance is already far beyond the minimum required performance.
Then, the actual aircraft performance could be affected only in the event of an engine failure at takeoff.
However, conservatism in the aircraft certified performance is introduced by the FAR/JAR Part 25 rules,
to take account for inaccuracy of the data that are used for performance calculations. Although not
specifically mentioned, temperature inversions can be considered as part of this inaccuracy.
Therefore, a temperature inversion could become a concern during the takeoff only in the following worst
case with all of these conditions met together:
-

The engine failure occurs at V1,and

Takeoff is performed at maximum takeoff thrust, and
OAT is close to or above T.REF, and
The takeoff weight is limited by obstacles, and
The temperature inversion is such that it results in the regulatory net flight path margin cancellation
and leads to fly below the regulatory net flight path.

In all other cases, even if the performance is affected (inversion above T.REF), the only detrimental
effect will be the climb performance to be lower than the nominal one.
The minimum climb gradient required at the point 35 ft above the runway for the second segment one
engine inoperative is:
-

2.4 % for twin engine aircraft.

3 % for four engine aircraft.

The margin between the net and the gross flight path is:
- 0.8 % for twin engine aircraft.
- 1 % for four engine aircraft.
Assuming a 10C temperature inversion (above T.REF) between the ground and 1500 ft, the effect on the
aircraft performance will be as described in the following graph.
The first graph applies to an A320 fitted with CFM engines. However, the effect of the temperature
inversion on the engine thrust is quite similar whatever the engine type as described in the paragraph 4.2
(about 10 % thrust loss with a 10 C inversion). Thus, the effect on the climb performance, in terms of
climb gradient, will be similar whatever the twin engine aircraft model.
With an engine failure at V1, the graph shows the gross trajectory (curve A) limited by the minimum
required second segment climb gradient with a normal temperature evolution with the altitude (-3C
between ground and 1500 ft). The curve B shows the relevant net flight path.
The curve C shows the gross trajectory with a 10C inversion from the ground to 1500 ft.

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2000

1800

1600

Height above surface (ft)

1400

1200

1000

B
800

600

400

200

0
0

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

12000

14000

16000

18000

20000

22000

24000

D is ta n c e fr o m b r a k e r e le a s e (m )

Similarly, for an A340 aircraft, the following graph shows the effect of the temperature inversion during
takeoff:

2000
1800
1600

Height above runway (ft)

1400

1200
1000

800
600
400
200
0
0

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

12000

14000

16000

18000

20000

Distance from BRP (m)

These graphs show that for conservative conditions and particularly an engine failure at V1 and a
temperature inversion of 10C, although the gross climb gradient is affected it should not become a
concern.
Should the engine failure occur later during the takeoff, it will provide an additional margin since providing
more time and more climb capacity with all engines operating.

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These graphs also show that there is a margin between the gross flight path (with inversion) and the net
flight path (computed without inversion) which still remains available for obstacle clearance.
Obviously, the margin reduces with the distance due to the inversion. However, it is more likely that an
immediate return to the departure airport will be initiated following an engine failure at V1 while only very
remote obstacles would be a concern.
An extrapolation of the above graphs will show that the actual gross climb gradient (with a 10C
temperature inversion) will reach the required net gradient (calculated without inversion) at a distance of
approximately 42 000 m for twin engine aircraft or 38 800 m for A340 models.
This situation could become a concern but again, this is still assuming an engine failure at V1, a climb
gradient limited by very remote obstacles, no immediate return to the departure airport, takeoff performed
on a hot day condition (while inversion should not develop) and a temperature inversion with a great
magnitude. This has a very low probability of occurrence.
Consequently, this paragraph has shown that a temperature inversion has no significant effect during a
normal takeoff with all engines operative, which is obviously the very large majority of takeoffs performed.
For the whole Airbus fleet since the entry into service of the first A300 in 1972, the number of engine
failure cases at takeoff is 73. This figure includes all cases of engine failure after V1 including those
occurring while the aircraft has already reached some tens or even some hundreds feet after rotation.
This figure has to be compared with the number of takeoffs performed during this period, i.e., 22 271 900
(until mid Jan 2001)! Thus, the probability of an engine failure during the takeoff phase is very remote, i.e.
approximately 3.25 X 10-6.
However, although very remote, an engine can fail at takeoff and from the regulatory point of view, this
occurrence must be taken into account in the performance determination. In this case, assuming an
engine failure at V1, the temperature inversion may have an effect. However, this effect may become
significant when the magnitude of the temperature inversion is such that the regulatory margin between
the gross and the net gradient is cancelled.

5.2.

Recommendations

5.2.1. Expected temperature inversions during takeoff

From a regulatory point of view, there is no requirement to take into account the temperature inversion for
required takeoff performance determination.
Due to the low probability of an engine failure at the most critical case, i.e. V1, together with all the
conditions leading to a thrust reduction as described in the paragraph 5.1, we believe that this very
remote case does not need to be taken into account in addition to the regulatory performance
conservatism.
This approach is well reinforced by the experience in operations, as no event due to the effect of a
temperature inversion occurring during takeoff has ever been reported
Additionally, it must be kept in mind that a temperature inversion with a great temperature magnitude
remains an exceptional event. Temperature inversions with low magnitude may be more frequently
encountered but we have seen that their effect on the aircraft performance is quite negligible.
However, more than a general rule, the experience of individual airlines according to the specific weather
conditions they encounter on the airport frequently operated should be the main criteria in decision
making for accounting of temperature inversions.
Some airlines operating in desert regions being subject to frequent temperature inversions have
established with their local meteorology agency a policy with regard to the temperature inversions.
The inversions being regularly published by the meteorology agency during the day, these operators take
them into account in the takeoff performance determination.
Pilot reports can be also used for inversions encounter report.

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Although temperature inversions are of a particular concern only when associated with additional
conditions such as high OAT, performance and remote obstacles limited takeoff weight and engine
failure, large temperature inversions can degrade the takeoff performance.
Therefore, if frequently exposed to large temperature inversions, and when they are reported, it is still
advisable to take them into account for performance determination particularly if obstacle limited and
OAT at or close to T.REF.
This permits, as an additional measure, to keep the required margin on the takeoff performance in its
whole in the event of an engine failure.
This can be made by adding the temperature inversion value to the OAT in order to correct the
temperature to be used for performance determination.
This precaution could be also considered if your engines are EGT limited at high temperature in order to
recover an adequate margin to the EGT red line.
If flex takeoff is performed, the flex takeoff can be normally made provided the inversion does not exceed
the maximum possible flex temperature for the actual takeoff weight.

Temp
inversion

Max
TOW
Actual
TOW
Actual
OAT

Normal Flex
takeoff can be
performed without
restriction

Max Flex
temp

5.2.2. Unexpected temperature inversion during takeoff

If not reported, there is obviously no way to account for the effect of a possible temperature inversion.
If an engine fails during the takeoff while an inversion condition is present, there is no requirement for
application of any specific procedure.
The low probability of having all the detrimental conditions previously described met together and no
possibility of return to the departure airport reinforces this.
The abnormal procedures for engine failure will have to be followed and we believe that, during this
particular and increased workload situation, there is no room for pilots to speculate for a possible
temperature inversion and no way to regain a part of the thrust.
This is particularly true for aircraft fitted with a FADEC fully managing the thrust according to the selected
Thrust Lever Angle (TLA).
For A310 and A300-600 aircraft models without FADEC but with an electronic trim, increase of thrust is
still possible but would require the remaining operative engine to be first set at idle in order to deselect the
ENG TRIM to prevent an engine overboost. This obviously cannot be recommended when this engine is
the only one providing thrust during the takeoff while the aircraft is still at a low altitude.
At the very most, and in accordance with the recommended procedures for engine failure during takeoff,
in the case where flexible takeoff was used, the performance may be improved if required, by setting the
operative engine to the full takeoff thrust.

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For A300 B2/B4 which are equipped with pure hydro-mechanical controls, the N1 / EPR can be increased
during takeoff if not already at the maximum setting but this would be detrimental to the other parameters
(N2 and EGT).
The FCOM chapter Procedures and Techniques (see chapter 8.03.14) has a specific procedure for
temperature inversion during takeoff. This procedure permits an increase of the N1 / EPR while
monitoring the other parameters in order to prevent limits exceedance.
Such a procedure should be considered as an additional precaution which is acceptable on aircraft
operated with 3 crewmembers while one crew member may have the dedicated task to closely monitor
the engine parameters during a takeoff with an engine inoperative.
However, whatever the aircraft, there is no requirement for monitoring the temperature (SAT, TAT) in
case of an engine failure at takeoff in an attempt to detect any unlikely temperature inversion.

6. CONCLUSION
This article has highlighted the effect of the temperature on the engine performance at takeoff. The
reduction of thrust when the outside air temperature increases beyond the T.REF is a design choice and
permits to reach a compromise between the engine (and aircraft) performance and the engine life span.
This is the result of the flat rate concept.
Thanks to this concept, the engine is protected against EGT limits exceedance with some margins and
engine deterioration is limited.
The aircraft performance is determined in accordance with this flat rate concept.
The takeoff performance is based on a constant reduction of the temperature with the altitude. However,
as discussed in this article, specific weather conditions may lead to temperature inversions.
There is no doubt that temperature inversions have a direct effect on the engine and the aircraft
performance during the takeoff climb.
This effect can be completely ignored when all engines are operative. When of a great magnitude and
when combined with other severe conditions such as an engine failure at V1, high OAT and performance
limited by remote obstacles, it may become a concern. But combination of all these events is unlikely to
occur.
Despite that there is no regulation requiring the taking into account of such an effect for takeoff
performance determination, temperature inversions with a great magnitude, when known, should be
considered. This is particularly true if you are operating in areas frequently affected by inversions with a
great magnitude.
On this subject, in the light of this article, your experience and your knowledge of the environmental
conditions you frequently operate will be the best clue in deciding for account of temperature inversions in
the takeoff performance determination.

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