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Chapter!2:!
Chemistry!of!Life!
Chemistry!
Matter is anything that has mass and takes up
space it is made up of elements. For instance:
organisms
-Examples: C, H, O, N, P, S
Elements are the basic building blocks of matter
that cannot be broken down by chemical means
(92 of 115 !(!ununpen'um )
Atoms are the smallest units of an element that
retain the element s physical and chemical
properties. These bond together to form
molecules
Naturally!Occurring!Elements!in!
Humans!
Nutrient!Deciencies!
Subatomic!par'cles!of!atoms!
Neutrons!have!a!neutral!charge!
Protons!are!posi?vely!charged!
Neutrons!and!protons!make!up!the!nucleus!
Electrons!are!nega?vely!charged!and!orbit!around!the!nucleus!
Subatomic Particles
Charge
Particle
Atomic Mass
1p
+1
Neutron
Electron
Proton
hydrogen
H
6p
6n
7p
7n
carbon
C
nitrogen
N
0.00055
8p
8n
oxygen
O
How!many!protons,!electrons,!and!
neutrons!are!in!an!atom?!
Atomic!Number!And!Atomic!Mass!
Atoms!of!elements!dier!in!
their!number!of!subatomic!
par?cles!
!
Atomic!number!
Mass!number!
!
Atomic!mass!
Step!1!
Use!your!periodic!table!
to!nd!an!element!
http://education.jlab.org/qa/pen_number.html
Step!2!
The!number!of!Protons!(+!charge)!
!
The!atomic!number!=!#!protons!
!
Kr!has!36!protons!
http://education.jlab.org/qa/pen_number.html
Step!3!
The!number!of!Electrons!(Q!charge)!
Remember!atoms!have!no!overall!charge.!
Atoms!must!have!an!equal!#!of!protons!and!electrons!
#protons=#electrons!
Kr!has!36!electrons!
Step!4!
The number of Neutrons (no charge)
Mass # (atomic weight rounded to nearest whole #)
Summary!
Number!of!Protons!=!Atomic!#!
Number!of!Electrons!=!Protons!!
Number!of!Neutrons!=!Mass!#!Q!Protons!
!
Problems!
1. Find!the!protons!(p+),!electrons!(eQ),!
neutrons!(n)!of!Oxygen!
2. Find!the!p+,!eQ,!n!of!Xenon!(Xe)!
3. Find!the!p+,!eQ,!n!of!Zirconium!(Zr)!
!
Oxygen!(O)!
p+,!eQ,!n!
Number!of!Protons!=!Atomic!#!
Number!of!Electrons!=!Protons!!
Number!of!Neutrons!=!Mass!#!Q!Protons!
Protons!=!8!
Electrons!=!8!
Neutrons!=!16Q8!=!8!
Xenon!(Xe)!
p+,!eQ,!n!!
!
Number!of!Protons!=!Atomic!#!
Number!of!Electrons!=!Protons!!
Number!of!Neutrons!=!Mass!#!Q!Protons!
Protons!=!54!
Electrons!=!54!
Neutrons!=!131Q54!=!77!
!
!
Zirconium!(Zr)!
p+,!eQ,!n!
Number!of!Protons!=!Atomic!#!
Number!of!Electrons!=!Protons!!
Number!of!Neutrons!=!Mass!#!Q!Protons!
Protons!=!40!
Electrons!=!40!
Neutrons!=!91Q40!=!51!
What!Is!An!Isotope?!
Radioac've!Isotopes!
Nuclei!decay!spontaneously!and!give!o!
par?cles!and!energy!(halfQlife)!
Used!to!date!fossils,!trace!atoms!through!
metabolic!processes,!sterilize!medical!
equipment,!diagnose!medical!disorders,!and!
treat!cancer!
Radioac've!Isotopes!Have!Many!Medical!Uses!
Low!Levels!
Small!amounts!of!
radia?on!can!be!used!
as!a!tracer!allowing!
doctors!to! see !inside!
of!the!body!
!
! !!a)!I131!used!to!
examine!thyroid!
!
! !!
High!Levels!
Excessive!amounts!of!
radia?on!will!damage!
DNA!!and!(cancer!
cell)!
Can!be!used!to:!
!!Kill!pathogens!
!!Treat!disease!(e.g.,!
cancer)!
a: Biomed Commun./Custom Medical Stock Photo; b(patient): Courtesy National Institutes of Health
(NIH); b(brain scan): Mazzlota et al./Photo Researchers, Inc.
ELEMENTS a review
Made!of!individual!atoms.!
Cannot!be!broken!down!into!simpler!
substances.!
Listed!on!the!periodic!table.!
Created!to!be!the!building!blocks!of!all!maeer.!
Molecules!&!Compounds!
Molecule Two or more of the same element chemically join
together.
Hydrogen (H2), Oxygen (O2), Nitrogen (N2) are not compounds
because each is composed of a single element.
Compound At least two different elements chemically join
together.
Water (H2O), carbon dioxide (C02), and methane (Ch4), are
compounds because each is made from more than one
element
Energy!Levels!Of!Electrons!
3Electrons
Types
Bonds:
are of
located
in energy
levels or electron shells
Ionic Bond
Covalent Bond
Hydrogen Bond
Periodic!Table!of!Elements!
Forma'on!of!Chemical!Bonds!
!Interac?ons!of!atoms!that!result!in!atoms!
staying!close!together!temporarily!
Ionic!bonding!
Covalent!bonding!
Ionic!Bonding!
Covalent!bonds!
Atoms!in!this!type!of!bond!share!electrons!
Results!in!a!stable!outer!shell!
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
1p
1p
8p
8n
8p
1p
oxygen
O
1p
8n
2 hydrogen
2H
water
H 2O
a. When an oxygen and two hydrogen atoms covalently bond, water results.
oxygen
O
oxygen gas
O2
oxygen
O
8p
8p
8p
8p
8n
8n
8n
8n
Covalent!Bonding!
Electronega'vity!
A!Covalent!Bond!can!be!Polar!or!Nonpolar!
Electronegativity the attraction of an atom for the
electrons in a covalent bond
Electronega'vity!and!the!!
Periodic!Table!
Waters!Importance!To!Life!
Water!contains!unique!proper?es!that!make!it!
a!life!!suppor?ng!substance!and!this!stems!
from!the!structure!of!the!molecule!
Polar!molecule!
Hydrogen!bonding!
Hydrogen!Bonds!Between!H2O!
Molecules!
Four!Emergent!Proper'es!Of!Water!
Proper?es!of!water!arise!from!the!aerac?on!!
between!oppositely!charged!atoms!of!
dierent!water!molecules!by!hydrogen!bonds!
Cohesive!and!adhesive!behavior!
Ability!to!moderate!temperate!
Expansion!upon!freezing!
Versa?lity!as!a!solvent!
Cohesion!and!Adhesion!of!Water!
Cohesion!is!the!clinging!of!water!each!other!
!
!
!
Adhesion!is!the!clinging!of!water!another!
substance!
Both!adhesion!and!cohesion!helps!transport!!
water!and!dissolved!nutrients!against!gravity!
Cohesion!and!Adhesion!In!Plants!
Transpires
Modera'on!of!Temperature!
Water!moderates!temperatures!by!absorbing!
heat!from!warmer!air!and!releasing!stored!
heat!to!cooler!air!with!only!slight!changes!in!
its!own!temperature!
High!specic!heat!of!water!(boil!water)!
High!heat!of!vaporiza?on!of!water!
Floa'ng!Of!Ice!On!Liquid!Water!
Water:!The!Solvent!Of!Life!
Water!is!the!solvent!in!aqueous!solu?ons!
Solvent!
Solute!
Acidic!And!Basic!Condi'ons!
Water!is!in!a!state!of!dynamic!equilibrium!in!
which!water!molecules!dissociate!at!the!same!
rate!at!which!they!are!formed!
The!pH!Scale!
Buers!
Substances!that!minimize!changes!in!
concentra?on!of!hydrogen!ion!or!hydroxide!
ion!in!a!solu?on!(pH)!
!
Usually!buers!are!acidQbase!pairs!that!accept!
hydrogen!ions!in!solu?on!or!donate!hydrogen!ions!
Weak Acid!
Weak Base!
Carbon:!The!Backbone!Of!Life!
Cells!are!70Q95%!water,!but!living!organisms!
are!made!up!of!chemicals!that!are!mostly!
carbonQbased!
Organic!chemistry!is!the!study!of!compounds!that!
contain!carbon!
The!Forma'on!of!Bonds!With!Carbon!
Carbon!contains!four!valence!electrons!
(tetravalence)!in!a!shell!that!holds!eight!
Most!frequent!bonding!partners!include!
hydrogen,!oxygen!and!nitrogen!
Molecules!Of!Life!
Dehydra'on!Synthesis!
Hydrolysis!
Nucleic!Acids!
Made!of!monomers!called!nucleo?des!
Deoxyribonucleic!acid!(DNA)!
Ribonucleic!acid!(RNA)!
Nucleo'de!Structure!
Nitrogenous!Bases!
Structure!of!DNA!
Structure!of!RNA!
Proteins!
Proteins!account!for!more!than!50%!of!the!dry!
mass!of!most!cells!and!the!func?ons!of!living!
organisms!depends!on!proteins!(enzymes,!
defense,!storage,!transport,!hormones,!
receptors,!contrac?le!and!structural)!
Made!of!monomers!called!amino!acids!
Amino!Acid!Structure!
Polypep'des!
Polymers!of!amino!acids!that!range!in!length!
from!a!few!to!more!than!a!thousand!amino!
acids!
Amino!acids!are!linked!together!by!pep?de!
bounds!by!dehydra?on!synthesis!
A!protein!consists!of!one!or!more!polypep?des!
Forma'on!Of!A!Pep'de!
Protein!Structure!and!Func'on!!
A!func?onal!protein!consists!of!one!or!more!
polypep?des!twisted,!folded,!and!coiled!into!a!
unique!shape,!which!is!determined!by!the!
sequence!of!amino!acids!
Protein!structure!determines!its!func?on!
Primary!structure,!secondary!!
structure,!ter?ary!structure!!
and!quaternary!structure!
Primary!Structure!Of!A!Protein!
Secondary!Structure!Of!A!Protein!
Ter'ary!Structure!Of!A!Protein!!
ThreeQdimensional!shape!of!a!protein!!
!
Quaternary!Structure!Of!A!Protein!!
Results!when!two!or!more!polypep?de!chains!
form!one!macromolecule!
What!Determines!Protein!Structure?!!
In!addi?on!to!primary!structure,!physical!and!
chemical!condi?ons!can!aect!the!structure!of!
a!protein!
Altera?ons!in!pH,!salt!concentra?on,!temperature!
or!other!environmental!factors!can!cause!a!
protein!to!unravel!
Denatura'on!
Rela'onship!Between!Proteins!and!DNA!
Enzymes!
Cataly?c!protein!that!speeds!up!a!chemical!
reac?on!by!lowering!the!ac?va?on!energy!(EA)!
Enzymes!are!substrateQspecic!
Example:!hydrolysis!of!sucrose!by!sucrase!
(enzyme)!into!glucose!and!fructose!
Cataly'c!Cycle!Of!An!Enzyme!
What!are!EnzymesQHow!Do!They!
Work?!
Carbohydrates!
Made!of!monomers!called!monosaccharides!
or!simple!sugars!(CH2O)!
Fuel!for!cellular!work,!raw!material!for!making!
other!organic!molecules!or!disaccharides!and!
polysaccharides!
Monosaccharide's!
Simple!sugars!containing!3!Q7!carbons!in!their!
backbone!
Disaccharides!Synthesis!
Polysaccharides!
Polymers!containing!a!few!100!to!a!few!1,000!
monosaccharide's!linked!together!
Provide!sugar!for!the!cell!(storage!
polysaccharides)!or!protect!the!cell!or!a!whole!
organism!(structure!polysaccharides)!
Storage!Polysaccharides!
Structural!Polysaccharide:!Cellulose!
Structural!Polysaccharide:!Chi'n!
Lipids!
Large!class!of!molecules!that!have!liele!to!no!
anity!for!water!because!they!contain!mostly!
hydrocarbons!
Examples!include!triglycerides,!phospholipids,!
steroids,!waxes!and!some!pigments!
Fats!Or!Triglycerides!
Fa\y!Acid!Varia'on!
Phospholipids!
Plasma!Membrane!
Steroids!
Lipids!characterized!by!a!carbon!skeleton!
consis?ng!of!four!fused!rings!
CHAPTER!2!Q!CHEMISTRY!OF!LIFE!
REVIEW!QUESTIONS!
1.!Dene!the!following!terms:!chemistry,!maeer,!mass,!weight,!element,!trace!elements,!atom,!subatomic!
par?cles,!atomic!symbol,!atomic!number,!atomic!mass,!mass!number,!isotope,!radioac?ve!isotope,!halfQlife,!
valence!shell,!valence!electrons,!octet!rule,!ion,!ca?on,!anion,!molecules,!compounds,!electronega?vity,!polar!
covalent!bond,!nonpolar!covalent!bond,!hydrogen!bonding,!cohesion,!adhesion,!specic!heat,!heat!of!
vaporiza?on,!solvent,!solute,!hydrophilic,!hydrophobic,!buer,!organic!chemistry,!polymers,!monomers,!
dehydra?on!synthesis,!hydrolysis!synthesis,!phosphodiester!bond,!polypep?de,!protein,!pep?de!bond,!alpha!
helix,!betaQpleated!sheet,!glycosidic!bond,!saturated!fat,!unsaturated!fat!and!trans!fat.!
2.!Name!the!four!elements!make!up!96.0%!of!the!human!body.!!
3.!Describe!the!characteris?cs!(loca?on,!charge!and!mass)!of!the!three!subatomic!par?cles!that!make!up!an!
atom.!How!to!calculate!each!one!by!using!the!periodic!table.!
4.!Describe!the!maximum!number!of!electrons!that!can!be!located!in!the!rst!shell!and!second!shell!of!an!
atom.!
5.!Describe!what!happens!to!electrons!during!ionic!bonding!and!provide!an!example!of!a!molecule!that!forms!
this!way.!
6.!Describe!what!happens!to!electrons!during!covalent!bonding!and!provide!examples!of!molecules!that!form!
this!way.!!
7.!Describe!how!the!structure!of!water!inuences!the!behavior!of!water!molecules!(polar!molecule!and!
hydrogen!bonding).!
8.!Describe!the!four!emergent!proper?es!of!water!and!how!each!property!contributes!to!the!homeostasis!of!
human,!plant!or!aqua?c!life.!!
9.!Describe!the!pH!scale!and!understand!its!rela?onship!to!concentra?ons!in!hydrogen!and!hydroxide!ion!
concentra?ons.!
10.!Describe!the!structure!of!carbon!and!its!importance!to!the!study!of!the!
diversity!of!organic!molecules.!!
11.!Describe!the!four!organic!macromolecules!of!life.!!
12.!Describe!the!structure!of!a!nucleo?de.!
13.!Compare!and!contrast!the!structure!and!func?on!of!DNA!and!RNA.!!
14.!Describe!the!general!func?ons!of!proteins.!!
15.!Describe!the!structure!of!an!amino!acid!and!the!importance!of!the!R!
group.!
16.!Describe!&!Iden?fy!the!four!levels!of!protein!structure.!!
17.!Describe!denatura?on!and!the!altera?ons!that!can!occur!in!an!
environment!to!make!denatura?on!happen.!!
18.!Describe!the!structure!and!func?on!of!monosaccharide's.!!
19.!Describe!an!example!of!disaccharides!that!was!discussed!in!lecture.!!
20.!Describe!the!structure!and!func?on!of!a!triglyceride.!!
21.!Describe!the!structure!and!func?on!of!a!phospholipid.!!
22.!Describe!the!structure!and!func?on!of!a!steroid.!