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Abstract
This section gives basic metallurgical information for Chevron engineers and
inspectors supporting upstream operations, pipelines, refineries, and chemical
plants.
Chevron Corporation
Contents
Page
310
Introduction
300-3
311
312
313
Nature of Metals
314
315
316
317
318
Metal Properties
319
Welding
320
321
Stainless Steels
322
Nickel-Based Alloys
323
Titanium Alloys
324
Copper Alloys
330
331
Spheroidization
332
Graphitization
333
Temper Embrittlement
334
Creep Embrittlement
300-1
300-20
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335
336
337
338
Creep
340
341
342
The Basics
343
344
345
346
347
Autorefrigeration
348
Notes on Hydrotest
349
Worked Examples
350
351
352
360
Reference Tables
300-58
370
References
300-70
300-2
300-32
300-55
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310 Introduction
311 Metallurgy in Chevrons Business
The performance of materials plays a critical role in maintaining operations which
in turn impacts the Companys financial performance. Most pressure-containing
materials used in producing, pipeline, refining and transportation operations are
made of metal.
Metallurgy is fairly complex and usually best left to specialists. However, a working
knowledge of metallurgy (as described in this section) will be helpful in the
following situations:
Assuring appropriate and cost effective choices of materials for new or replacement equipment. These decisions should be based on an engineering analysis of
service life, maintenance costs vs. initial capital cost, and made after consultation with a specialist when appropriate.
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amount the hinged hammer travels after impact. The results of these tests correlate
reasonably well with the notch toughness.
Inclusions. Nonmetallic material contained in a solid metal.
Induction bending. The use of electric induction to heat a material to a high
temperature so it can be bent without introducing a significant amount of residual
stress in the material when it is cooled to room temperature.
Killed steel. Steel that has had silicon and sometimes aluminum added during the
melt to reduce oxygen so that the bubbling from carbon dioxide evolution is
stopped. This improves notch toughness. If only enough silicon is added to partially
stop bubbling the steel, the steel is referred to as semi-killed. Semi-killing gives
greater ingot yield but poorer impact properties than fully killed steel.
Martensite. The hard brittle structure formed by rapidly cooling steel from high
temperatures.
Modulus of elasticity. The relation between stress and strain in the elastic range.
MDMT (Minimum design metal temperature). The lowest temperature a piece of
equipment can safely be operated at without concern about brittle fracture.
Microstructure. The structure of a material revealed by viewing a polished and
etched metal under the microscope.
Normalizing. Heating a steel to a temperature high enough so that fine grains are
formed in the high temperature phase, and then cooling the steel rapidly enough so
that the fine grains are maintained, but not so rapidly that structures such as martensite are formed.
Notch toughness. The ability of a material to deform in the presence of a notch or
defect under tensile stress without failure below the tensile strength.
Pearlite. A structure seen in steel at high magnification that consists of alternate
layers of ferrite and iron carbide (cementite). Pearlite is formed by slow cooling
from elevated temperatures.
Precipitation hardening. Hardening (strengthening) of a material by heating in a
temperature range where a second phase precipitates.
Quench hardening. In steel, rapid cooling from elevated temperatures to form a
hard, brittle structure.
Quenched and tempered. In steel, having heated in an intermediate temperature
range to recover toughness while retaining the strength of the quenched material.
Recrystallization. Heating in a temperature range where fine grains form. The
formation of strain free grains results from cold worked material or a change in
crystal structure at high temperature.
Residual stress. The stress left in a material after all loads are removed. Commonly
caused by welding or cold working.
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Sigma phase embrittlement. The formation phase called sigma at high temperature in alloys containing iron and chromium. This phase tends to make a material
brittle at room temperature and slightly above.
Spheroidizing. In steel, the causing of iron carbide to form spheres as a result of
exposure to high temperatures.
Strain, elastic. The change in dimensions under load that is recovered after removal
of the load.
Strain, plastic. The change in dimensions under load that is permanent after the
load is removed.
Strain hardening. The increase in hardness (strength) as a result of permanent
deformation.
Stress relief. Heating a material to a temperature, holding it at that temperature for a
length of time, then followed by slow cooling so that most of the residual stresses
are removed.
Temper. See quenched and tempered.
Temper embrittlement. Heating of steel, most commonly Cr - Mo steel, in a range
where undesirable impurities diffuse to the grain boundaries causing a lost in toughness at room temperature and slightly above.
Transition Temperature. The temperature where the fracture surface of an impact
test specimen is brittle and half ductile. Thus, the material is considered resistant
(but not immune) to brittle fracture above this temperature and not resistant to brittle
fracture below.
Ultimate tensile strength. The stress at which a material will fracture in a ductile
manner under a short-term load.
Upper Shelf in impact strength tests. The temperature range where the fracture
surface of an impact test specimen is fully ductile. Thus, the material is considered
immune to brittle fracture in this range. Conversely, the Lower Shelf is the temperature range where the fracture surface is completely brittle. Thus, the material is
considered brittle in this range.
Yield strength. The maximum stress a material can withstand without significant
permanent deformation.
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Crystalline Structure
All metals have crystalline structures. The photomicrograph in Figure 300-1 illustrates the crystalline structure (microstructure) typical of carbon steels. The figure
shows the irregular detail, texture, and variation in individual grains that are each
separated by the irregular lines (grain boundaries). While crystals are regular in
atomic structure, grains are crystals with irregular boundaries resulting when the
growth of each is impacted by the growth of other grains, randomly precipitating as
the liquid freezes to a crystalline solid. Grain boundaries frequently become important to metallurgists diagnosing problems because of both the physical and chemical discontinuities at the boundaries. In addition, atomic irregularities within the
crystals can be significant, but usually they have their greatest effect on the macroscopic properties of particular metals.
Fig. 300-1
Chemical Composition
Virtually all metals used in our business are solutions or mixtures of several
elements. Solution implies that the atoms are evenly distributed throughout the
metal while the phases in a metal are not usually evenly distributed. Many metals
exist in different phases at different temperatures, some with mixed phases.
For example, the most common material we use is carbon steel, a solution of iron,
carbon, and frequently minor percentages of other elements such as manganese and
molybdenum. Most steels also have trace amounts of several of the following: phosphorous, sulfur, silicon, copper, nickel, aluminum, chromium, vanadium, colum-
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bium, titanium. Carbon steel also contains a mixture of phases, with a separate
phase of non-dissolved iron carbide. Figure 300-2 shows the chemistry for some
typical steel grades used in industry pressure vessel shells.
Fig. 300-2
Chemical Requirements (from ASTM A 516 (p.248, ASTM Vol. 01.04, 1998 Standard) (Copyright ASTM.
Reprinted with permission.)
Composition, %
Grade 55
[Grade 380]
Grade 50
[Grade 415]
Grade 65
[Grade 450]
Grade 70
[Grade 485]
0.18
0.21
0.24
0.27
0.20
0.23
0.26
0.28
0.22
0.25
0.28
0.30
0.24
0.27
0.29
0.31
0.26
0.27
0.29
0.31
Heat analysis(2)
0.60-0.90
0.60-0.90
0.85-1.20
0.85-1.20
Product analysis(2)
0.55-0.98
0.55-0.98
0.79-1.30
0.79-1.30
Heat analysis
0.60-1.20
0.85-1.20
0.85-1.20
0.85-1.20
Product analysis
0.55-1.30
0.79-1.30
0.79-1.30
0.79-1.30
0.035
0.035
0.035
0.035
0.035
0.035
0.035
0.035
Heat analysis
0.15-0.40
0.15-0.40
0.15-0.40
0.15-0.40
Product analysis
0.13-0.45
0.13-0.45
0.13-0.45
0.13-0.45
Elements
Carbon, max(1):
Manganese:
1/2 in. [12.5] and under:
Phosphorus, max(1)
Sulfur, max
(1)
Silicon:
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Other commonly used alloys have unique properties due to chemistry and the presence of other phases. The particular chemistry or phase distribution in an alloy gives
it the ability to resist particular corrosion mechanisms or high temperature effects in
various applications. Common alloys include low alloy steels (low chrome-molybdenum carbon steels), stainless steels, copper alloys, and high chrome and nickel
alloys. Occasionally, titanium and other unique materials are used in alloys. By far,
the most common metals used in the petrochemical industry are carbon and stainless steels.
Phase
The primary phases in carbon steel and stainless steel are ferrite or austenite. The
atoms in a ferrite phase are arranged in a regular pattern called a body centered
cubic structure shown in Figure 300-3. The atoms in the austenite phase are
arranged in another regular pattern called face centered cubic shown in
Figure 300-4. These terms are of both practical and theoretical importance. Carbon
steel is predominately ferrite (with some iron carbide) while many commonly used
stainless steels (300 series) are austenitic (or at least mostly austenitic) at ambient
and normal operating temperatures. Ferritic materials are magnetic, and austenitic
are not (thus a magnet is often used to distinguish between ferritic and austenitic
materials).
Fig. 300-3
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Cast Irons
Cast irons-mostly iron with typically a few percent of carbon-are even less expensive than carbon steel. However, the high level of carbon is in the form of graphite
flakes or nodules. These nodules essentially cause the material to behave as if it
were full of small cracks, and so it is very brittle. Particularly for fire safety reasons,
we therefore rarely use cast irons except for water service.
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315 Some Features of the Most Commonly Used Pressure Vessel Steels
SA-516 Grade 70 and SA-285 Grade C are the two most widely used plate steels for
pressure vessels. SA-285 is not made to fine grain practice and can have comparatively poor toughness, so its use is generally limited to lower pressure and thinner
wall vessels up to " thick. SA-516 Gr. 70 has better fracture toughness, particularly in heavy sections, since it is made to fine grain practice and is required to have
a normalizing heat treatment if thicker than 1". For this reason, today SA-516
Gr.70 is the workhorse steel used for most moderate and high pressure services
where section thickness is greater than ".
SA-201 and SA-212 plate steels were commonly used prior to 1968, when they
were replaced by SA-515 and SA-516 specifications. The SA-201 Grades A & B
had minimum tensile strengths of 55 ksi and 60 ksi, and the SA-212 Grades A & B
had minimum tensile strengths of 65 and 70 ksi. SA-212 had slightly higher limits
for carbon content and a lower ductility requirement to accommodate its higher
strength. SA-201 and SA-212 could either be ordered for low temperature service
(meaning fine grain practice and probably a normalizing heat treatment) or for high
temperature service (meaning coarse grain practice for better high temperature
strength, but lower toughness). Since SA-201 and SA-212 steels may have either
high or low fracture toughness, Chevron assigns them to Curve A of ASME Section
VIII Division I, Figure UCS-66 unless we know enough about the production and
heat treatment history to be confident of their toughness. Pressure vessels made
from these steels often have higher minimum pressurization temperatures than most
modern vessels.
The modern equivalent specifications are organized differently. SA-515 and SA-516
both have four grades: 55, 60, 65, and 70 ksi minimum tensile strengths. SA-515
steel is made to coarse grain practice, whereas SA-516 is made to fine grain
practice and is given a normalizing heat treatment if thicker than 1". The finer
grain size of SA-516 gives it much better toughness than SA-515 at any given
strength level and plate thickness. The coarser grain size of SA-515 may theoretically give it better high temperature strength, but in practice the ASME allowable
stresses for SA-515 and SA-516 are the same. Consequently, SA-515 is seldom used
today in petrochemical services.
Occasionally we find pressure vessel steels designated as Code Case 1280, which
is equivalent to SA-516 Grade 70, or Code Case 1256, which is equivalent to
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SA-442. These code cases predated the establishment of the now equivalent ASME
specifications, and were in use for only a short period.
1960s and earlier vintage specifications often refer to the terms firebox quality
(FBX) or flange quality steel. Firebox quality steels required more testing, tighter
control of chemistry, and slightly higher ductility. Therefore, firebox quality steels
were generally used for pressure vessels.
Nozzles in carbon steel pressure vessels are typically made from SA-105 forgings or
from SA-106 seamless pipe. There has been little change in these specifications
over the years.
Iron-Carbon Diagram
The Iron-Carbon Phase diagram (Figure 300-5) is of particular use to experienced
inspectors and experienced plant engineers concerned with damage mechanisms
occurring in their plants. At the far left of the diagram we see the stable phase is
ferrite. However, less than 0.02% of carbon is soluble in the ferrite phase. Therefore, carbon exists in two different forms in the steel: first, a small amount is
dissolved in the atomic (crystalline) structure, being finely dispersed. The remainder
of the carbon is combined with iron in the form of a separate phase called iron
carbide. Iron carbide is a very hard, very strong material.
The combination of ferrite and cementite typically forms pearlite. Figure 300-6, a
high magnification photo of a carbon steel, shows the white grains of ferrite. The
darker material is the carbide, cementite. For these steels, the cementite often forms
a long rod-like shape. These patches of alternating cementite and ferrite form what
is called pearlite.
Lets see what happens as we increase the temperature of a typical carbon steel, with
about 0.15% carbon. At most temperatures we deal with, the microstructure of the
steel is ferrite and pearlite. As you increase the temperature, the strength of the steel
decreases, but the microstructure of the steel does not change.
At 1100F, the yield strength of the steel is about 1/3 of what it was at 80F. That is
why, when we stress relieve carbon steel welds at 11001200F, we do not change
the steel microstructurally, but the metal can relax and lower the residual stresses
to about 1/3 of the 80F value.
As we go still higher in temperature, say a little above 1200F, we start to see a
microstructural change as the lamellar shape of the carbides in the pearlite become
rounded, or spheroidized. This permanently reduces the high temperature strength
(creep strength) of the material somewhat. Spheroidization is an indicator of the
metal becoming overheated and is actually a time-temperature phenomenon: the
lower the temperature, the longer the process takes. Some very old vessels operating at about 900F have developed spheroidized microstructures.
At still higher temperatures, we come to the lower critical temperature (Ac1) of
1330F. Here, the austenite phase starts to appear. Austenite is a high temperature
phase1, and it can dissolve much more carbon. The 1330F temperature is truly
critical to metallurgistsfor example, if there is a fire, we are often interested to
know if the steel got hotter than 1330F. Below 1330F, the steel may soften a little,
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Fig. 300-5
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but will probably not suffer a severe consequence. If the steel gets hotter than
1330F, it may end up with a very mixed up microstructure, with poor properties,
depending upon how it is subsequently cooled.
For this 0.15% carbon steel we see that above about 1590F we are above the
upper critical temperature (Ac3). Here the carbon is completely dissolved. (If
you wish to gain the maximum hardness of a steel, you would raise its temperature
above this upper critical temperature to make sure all of the carbon was in solution,
1.
For many of the stainless steels Chevron uses, austenite is the stable phase for all practical temperatures,
including room temperature. The 300-series stainless steels, such as Type 304 SS, are called austenitic stainless steels.
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Fig. 300-6
Ferrite
Pearlite
then cool it as rapidly as possible-quench it-to form the highest hardness possible
for that chemical composition).
Somewhat higher temperatures are used for annealing or normalizing. Normalizing
is typically done at about 1650F for carbon steel. Much higher temperatures are
used for forging, and the steel actually melts at about 2800F.
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Weldability is important in vessels, tanks, and piping where shop and field
fabrication are common.
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Resistance to brittle fracture (toughness) is critical in low temperature applications, thick wall materials, and services that become saturated with hydrogen.
Ductile (not hard) steels and welded areas are needed in services subject to wet,
sour service.
Note Refer to procedures in the Welding Manual and get expert counsel when
appropriate to help assure mechanical integrity regarding heat treating and welding
operations.
Metal Grain Size and Heat Treatment. In the next section, we note how the size
of the grains of the metal affects metal properties. The heat treatment of the metal
determines the grain size.
The following steps would be used to increase the grain size:
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heat treatments. For example, when vessel plates are stacked on top of each other to
cool after the hot rolling process, the middle plates may have a slow cooled,
annealed type structure, while the top plate may have cooled rapidly enough to have
a much finer grain size. Also, if the steel is used in the as-rolled condition we
typically will not be able to predict the microstructure, because the steel can cool at
various rates as it is being rolled (flattened) into shape.
If having a fine grain size is important to us, then for extra cost (perhaps 1040%
extra for a typical carbon steel) we can require it be made to fine grained practice
(you may sometimes see the initials FGP on drawings). The steel maker will typically adjust the chemistry slightly (for example, adding aluminum) to make sure
fine grain size can be achieved with practical cooling rates, and almost always a
normalizing heat treatment will be done. This normalizing both makes the grain size
smaller, and it definitely makes the grain size more uniform. It is possible to
normalize (heat treat) the steel and gain some benefit, without the raw steel itself
being made to fine grain practice.
As the steel is first made, the nature of the cooling process tends to force impurities
to the center of the original cast ingot or slab. When the steel is flattened into the
shape for plates by the rollers in the rolling mill, the defects in the steel are squeezed
together and flattened into pancake shape defects, called inclusions. This is why
such defects are typically found in the middle of the plate thickness (or the middle
of the pipe wall, if it is large diameter pipe made from plate). These types of defects
are seen less frequently in seamless pipe.
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Fig. 300-7
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2.
Strength and hardness are closely related. High hardness materials are strong
(and less tough, i.e., more brittle).
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Heat treating. Commonly specified in ASTM metallurgy standards for standard materials for plate, piping, etc., and also controlled in shop and field fabrication.
Welding specifications. See Section 319. Also see the Welding Manual, and
consult a specialist if in doubt.
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Rolling the steel into flat plates forces shut many of the defects or gaps in the
material, thereby increasing the soundness of the material. Rolling also can help
break apart large grains, and make the material somewhat more homogenous.
Forging the steel-quite literally, hammering the steel into shape using very large
hammers and dies-similarly closes up defects and improves the properties.
Drawing the material-in which the steel is pushed over a mandrel to form a
tubular shape for tubing or pipe-again helps improve the product, although typically such material has been fairly heavily worked before it gets to the drawing
mandrels.
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remove oxygen. The silicon abruptly stops or kills the bubblinghence the name
killed steel. Steel makers can partly or fully deoxidize the steel. Examples of
semi-killed steel is A53 pipe and A285 plate2. Examples of fully killed steel are
A106 pipe and A516 plate.
Rimmed steels have no special deoxidationthe interior portion of the steel ingot
is full of gas pockets and impurities, and only the outer portion is used. Because of
this, rimmed steels are not used for modern vessels or piping.
Sulfur. Steel purity has greatly improved over the past few decades. The sulfur level
in 1990s steels is typically less than that in a typical 1970s material (often less than
0.010 wt.% today versus 0.025 wt.% in the 1970s).
319 Welding
Welding is a common and necessary process in both new construction and maintenance. However, welding must be conducted within tightly controlled variables to
assure reliable joints. By its nature, welding involves changing from a solid to liquid
phase and back to solid. During this operation, the equipment may undergo changes
in its local chemistry as well as changes in the crystalline structure and mechanical
properties
Figure 300-8 is a sketch of typical microstructures at a butt weld of two plates, pipe
or vessel walls. This figure illustrates the various microstructures near the weld, all
resulting from different thermal histories. Note the difference in the structure as the
weld progresses from the previously liquefied zone through the heat affected zone
(HAZ) to the unaffected parent metal. The material affected by the welding process
has varying grain structures that affect strength, resistance to cracking, brittle
failure, and may have slightly different chemistry that affects mechanical properties
and resistance to corrosion. Common concerns are hard welds that are prone to
attack from dissolved sulfides in the process streams, or welds that contain so much
trapped hydrogen that they are prone to immediate or delayed cracking.
Why are not all materials fully killed? Primarily, because fully killing the steel reduces the amount of steel a
steel maker can get from a particular ingot.
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Fig. 300-8
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The ferritic and martensitic stainless steels contain chromium, but little or no nickel.
They are not typically as corrosion resistant as the austenitic alloys, but have high
ambient temperature strength in addition to relatively good corrosion resistance.
Duplex stainless steels have a mixed austenitic and ferritic microstructure. The
duplex stainless steels are useful for their ability to withstand SCC in aqueous chloride services. They are typically used for piping and heat exchanger tubing in
aqueous chlorides where both corrosion and SCC resistance are needed.
A list of commonly-used stainless steels, their product form ASTM designations,
and brief descriptions of corrosion resistance and mechanical properties appear in
Figure 300-22 and Figure 300-23.
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between about 800F and 1600F, so it is important that the annealing temperature
be sufficiently high, and that the subsequent cool down move rapidly through the
embrittling and carbide precipitation range. Use of L grades reduces the risk of
grain boundary carbide precipitation during heat treatment and therefore resists
sensitization.
Since rapid cooling may leave high residual stresses in the finished product, stress
relief at 1600F may be done following cooling to eliminate residual stresses. Stress
relief is especially important if the steel is to be used in a SCC environment.
Residual stress greatly increases the risk of stress-corrosion cracking of austenitic
stainless steels.
A stabilizing anneal may be given to Types 321 and 347 stainless steel. These
grades are known as stabilized grades because they contain elements (titanium in
the case of Type 321 and niobium in the case of Type 347) which form carbides that
are more stable than iron carbides.
Stabilized carbides are important when the steel is to be used at elevated temperatures. This is because at about 700F and higher, the non-stabilized grades (such as
Types 304 and 316) are susceptible to intergranular precipitation of chromium
carbides (Cr23C6) which causes sensitization and can lead to intergranular cracking
and corrosion. By adding titanium (in the case of 321 stainless steel), titanium
carbides (TiC) are formed in the steel, rather than iron carbides. Titanium carbides
are more stable than iron carbides at elevated temperatures and do not transform to
grain boundary chromium carbides until at least 850F. For use in the 850900F
range, niobium (also called Cb) is added to form niobium carbides in 347 stainless
steel, which are stable at those temperatures.
The stabilizing anneal is performed at a temperature which is higher than the iron
carbide dissolution temperature but lower than the TiC (or NbC) dissolution temperature, usually at 16001650F. By holding the steel at that temperature for four
hours, carbon in the steel reacts with either titanium or niobium, and little or no iron
carbide remains. Later, when the steel is used in elevated temperature service, there
are fewer iron carbides to transform to grain boundary chromium carbides, and so
the physical and mechanical properties are maintained even after years at elevated
service temperatures.
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sion-resistant counterpart of martensitic low carbon steels. Due to its high strength,
however, it can yield very hard welds. For this reason the Type 410S (low carbon)
or Type 405 is typically chosen for welded construction if its strength is sufficient.
Heat Treatment of Ferritic and Martensitic Stainless Steels. The tensile strength
of martensitic stainless steels like Type 410 can exceed 300 ksi. The very high
strength and hardness makes these steels susceptible to stress-corrosion cracking in
wet H2S environments, so they must be chosen carefully in petrochemical applications. Only in cases where the process temperature is hot enough so that no liquid
water exists or where there is no H2S present should martensitic stainless steels be
considered.
If corrosion resistance is the primary need, and the strength of a martensitic structure is not necessary for a particular application, Type 410 can be tempered or
annealed. Tempering for several hours at 12001600F yields tempered martensite
which retains very high tensile strength, but is tougher and more ductile than
quenched martensite.
Annealing at 1600F followed by slow cooling coarsens and softens the martensite
enough that ductility can be raised from near zero to as high as 10% or so. Ferritic
steels can also be purchased in the annealed condition if corrosion resistance,
ductility, and toughness are required.
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common Hastelloys we use; they have excellent resistance to corrosion in acids and
are immune to chloride SCC. Typical uses are tubes for heat exchanger bundles in
refinery and chemical plants where acids and chloride salts are likely.
Inconel 600, 601, and 625 contain 6075 wt.% nickel and 1520 wt.% chromium,
and up to 10 wt.% molybdenum; they are primarily used for high-temperature
strength and outstanding corrosion resistance. Incoloy alloys like 800 and 825 are
not technically considered nickel-based alloys because they are a mixture of about
equal parts of iron, chromium, and nickel (2040 wt.% each). These alloys can be
used in both corrosive aqueous environments and in high-temperature oxidation
applications.
Incoloy 800H is commonly used in high-temperature services in chemical plants,
where operating temperatures may exceed 1200F. Ethylene and styrene plants, in
particular, make use of Incoloy 800 and 800H pressure vessels, transfer piping, and
furnace tubes. Incoloy 800H is distinguished from Incoloy 800 for its minimum
carbon level of 0.04 wt.% and its high-temperature tensile strength. Whereas
Incoloy 800 has excellent corrosion and SCC resistance in aqueous chlorides, the
extra carbon in Incoloy 800H allows it to be used for Code pressure vessels and
piping as high as 1650F.
A major caution with Incoloy 800H is that it sensitizes to a very great degree; therefore, we must avoid using the H grade for aqueous services. Even the standard
Incoloy 800 has become more susceptible to sensitization in recent years due to the
manufacturers trends to increasing the grain size. Contact a materials engineer if
you are dealing with these alloys. Incoloy 825 finds use in effluent air coolers where
ammonium chloride salts form which would typically cause cracking of lesser
austenitic stainless steels. The 825 grade is resistant to sensitization at elevated
temperatures due to titanium additions.
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As noted below, the copper alloys have good corrosion resistance to water, but they
are relatively weak and have very poor fire resistance. See Section 215 for a more
complete description of the corrosion resistance and potential problems with these
alloys.
Brasses
Our largest use of copper alloys is for heat exchanger bundles. Admiralty brass is
the most commonly used of the copper alloys for heat exchanger tubing because of
its resistance to corrosion in water. A potential problem of brass is its susceptibility
to ammonia or sulfate stress corrosion cracking.
About 28 wt.% zinc and 1 wt.% tin are added to copper to make Admiralty brass. A
few variations of Admiralty brass are the arsenical, antimonial and phosphorized
inhibited Admiralty alloys. In these inhibited alloys, about 0.1 wt.% max. of
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Bronzes
Bronzes are copper-based alloys which are alloyed with tin, aluminum, and/or
silicon, but with less zinc than the brass alloys. Due to their lower zinc content,
bronzes are not as susceptible to SCC as the brasses, but they are also not as corrosion resistant. For this reason, we do not use much bronze in Company applications. Where SCC and impingement resistance are needed in conjunction with
excellent corrosion resistance, we typically upgrade Admiralty brass by jumping
directly to copper-nickel alloys.
Copper-Nickel Alloys
The two common copper-nickel alloys which are used as upgrades for Admiralty
brass are 70-30 Cu-Ni and 90-10 Cu-Ni. The 70-30 alloy contains approximately 70 wt.% copper plus 30 wt.% nickel plus a small (<1 wt.%) iron addition.
The 90-10 alloy is about 89% copper plus 10% nickel plus 1 wt.% iron. Copper
nickel alloys are more resistant than Admiralty to wet acid corrosion. They also
resist ammonia and sulfate SCC.
Impingement attack is a scouring away of protective scales on soft copper alloys
due to contact with turbulent or high velocity fluid. Impingement attack can occur
on Admiralty brass in water streams where flow exceeds about 5 fps. In such cases,
upgrading to 90-10 or 70-30 may be necessary. The copper-nickel alloys generally
resist impingement attack to greater than 10-15 fps.
The nickel content of the copper-nickel alloys makes them more susceptible than
other copper alloys to corrosion in ammonium bisulfide and H2S environments.
Stainless steels and titanium alloys should be considered for upgrades to Admiralty
brass in sulfur-containing environments.
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Fig. 300-9
Damage Mechanism
Spheriodization
Graphitization
Temper embrittlement
Low-alloy steels
Creep embrittlement
Sigmitization
885F embrittlement
Nickel alloys
Creep
All metals
331 Spheroidization
Above about 1000F, carbides will agglomerate or spheroidize, and lose some of
their strengthening effect in carbon steels and low-alloy steels. Aside from some
reductions in ambient temperature strength, spheroidization can cause decreases in
creep and stress-rupture life, especially in furnace tubes which commonly run in the
spheroidizing temperature range.
332 Graphitization
Graphitization of carbon steels and carbon-molybdenum (C-Mo) steels can occur
after thousands of hours above 800F for carbon steel, and 850F for C-Mo.
Graphitization occurs most prominently in welds and weld heat affected zones
(HAZ), and results in the dissolution of iron carbides to iron and elemental carbon
(graphite). Linking together or alignment of graphite nodules and flakes causes
sharp decreases in ductility and toughness, which can make a material susceptible to
failure from mechanical and thermal shock. Graphitization is eliminated in lowalloy steels by the addition of 0.5 wt.% or more of chromium.
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elements which play the greatest role in temper embrittlement are antimony, tin,
phosphorus, and arsenic. In modern steel making practice, the levels of antimony
and arsenic in the steel should be zero. Tin and phosphorus, while usually present,
should be controlled to less than 0.01 wt.% to reduce the effects of TE.
Temper embrittlement is important in hydroprocessing reactors, since reactors are
typically fabricated from thick-walled 2Cr-1Mo in order to resist high-temperature hydrogen attack at temperatures in the 800F range. Thick-walled vessels are
more susceptible to brittle fracture even in the absence of temper embrittlement, so
concern is heightened when reactors operate in the embrittling range.
Concerns for in-service temper embrittlement cause us to warm these reactors
before pressurizing them. A minimum pressurizing temperature (MPT) is chosen for
each reactor depending on the performance of its fabrication heats to a step cooling
test. The step cooling test, developed by Chevron, is an accelerated temper
embrittlement test which predicts the amount of embrittlement which will occur in a
heat of steel after long service (100,000 hrs or more) in the embrittling temperature
range.
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1.
Creep embrittlement is more severe for higher tensile strength materials, particularly above 110 ksi.
2.
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3.
Often, creep embrittlement is most severe when small amounts of creep strain
occur over long periods of time. Therefore, it is more severe at the lower
temperatures in the creep range.
4.
5.
6.
Creep embrittlement, unlike some other forms of embrittlement, is not reversible by heat treating the material.
From the description above we can see that we are vulnerable to this mechanism
when we deal with the low chrome alloys in the creep range. The problem tends to
show up near welds, particularly at the coarse Heat Affected Zones. Creep embrittlement cracking has been a significant problem with Rheniformer reactors, particularly at nozzles. It has also been reported at long seams of some high temperature
piping. In addition to the metallurgical factors noted above, ensuring smooth welds
is a significant help in avoiding creep embrittlement.
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338 Creep
Another high-temperature degradation mechanism is creep. All metallic materials
including stainless steels, nickel alloys, titanium alloys, etc., are susceptible to
creep. As temperature rises, metals soften and lose some of their strength. This loss
of strength causes the material to stretch very slowly over long periods of time at
elevated temperature.
A typical creep curve is shown in Figure 300-10. Creep occurs in three distinct
stages. In the first stage, the amount of stretching is rather fast but does not last
long. In fact, many stainless steels undergo no Stage 1 creep at all. Most of the creep
life occurs in Stage 2 during which the material expands at a slow but steady rate. In
Stage 3, which is shorter than Stage 2, growth accelerates rapidly. If a material
enters Stage 3 creep, it can fail without warning and cause a catastrophic failure.
We use some materials at very high temperatures (especially furnace tube materials) with the knowledge that creep may occur, and that we must inspect at regular
intervals to determine if and when creep is occurring. It is then up to our best engineering judgement to determine if the tubes can continue to operate in Stage 2 creep
until the next shutdown, or if there is a risk that they will enter Stage 3 creep and
fail before the next shutdown.
The life of a tube can be reduced significantly by what might appear to be only a
small increase in temperature. Creep life is typically reduced by half for each 25F
increase in temperature, so that a furnace tube which might last 10 years under
normal operating pressure at 1000F, will last only 2 years at 1050F.
The approximate temperature at which significant creep deformation begins to
occur for some alloys is shown in Figure 300-11. Further discussion of creep is
contained in the Fired Heater and Waste Heat Recovery Manual. The Appendix of
the Fired Heater and Waste Heat Recovery Manual contains API Recommended
Practice RP 530, Calculation of Heater Tube Thickness in Petroleum Refineries,
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which can assist the engineer in choosing furnace tube metallurgy and predicting
remaining furnace tube service life as a function of stress and temperature.
Fig. 300-11 Typical Temperatures at Which Significant Creep Deformation Occurs*
Material
Carbon Steel
800F
2Cr-1 Mo
900F
9Cr-1 Mo
950F
T347SS
1100F
* Be careful - if stresses are high, significant creep can occur at lower temperatures.
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At about ambient temperature and below, carbon steel, low alloy steels, and some
stainless steels undergo a ductile-to-brittle transformation. If the material is highly
stressed while in the brittle condition, it may suffer a brittle fracture. With a ductile
fracture, the metal stretches substantially and often the equipment will leak, but not
fracture violently. However, a brittle fracture fails suddenly, without warning, and
with a large, immediate, release of energy.
This section outlines the basics of brittle fracture, then details the process Chevron
and the industry uses to avoid brittle fracture of pressure vessels, piping and tanks:
The basics:
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Briefly explains the process for establishing safe limits for new equipment
Notes the temperature maps for helping establish Critical Exposure
Temperatures
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Identifies the few specific materials and details where we believe current
industry guidelines are inappropriate or insufficient
Notes that these criteria apply to both new and existing equipment
Autorefrigeration:
Carbon steels and low alloy steels become more brittle at lower temperatures.
2.
3.
The higher the stress, the more susceptible we are to brittle fracture.
4.
The more brittle the material, the smaller the flaw size we can tolerate without
causing a brittle fracture.
5.
Some alloy steels can become embrittled in service, and require special
consideration.
In our discussion below, we shall see how each of these factors comes into play.
Helpful Definitions
It will be useful to first clarify some terminology:
Minimum Design Metal Temperature (MDMT): This is defined in the ASME
Code (Section VIII Div. 1, UG-20) as the lowest (temperature) expected in
service. Consideration shall include the lowest operating temperature, operational
upsets, autorefrigeration, atmospheric temperature, and any other sources of
cooling.
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terminology, we would say that the Minimum Pressurizing Temperature for this
piece of equipment is 70F.
Chevron and industry practice is to avoid pressurizing equipment whenever the
equipment is below the MDMT (or the MPT). The specific rules are:
For Division 1 vessels built before 1999: stay below 40% of the Maximum
Allowable Working Pressure whenever you are below the MDMT.
For Division 1 vessels built in 1999 and later: stay below 35% of the Maximum
Allowable Pressure whenever you are below the MDMT.
For Division 2 vessels: stay below 25% of the Design Pressure whenever you
are below the MDMT.
For piping (ASME/ANSI B 31.3 Code) stay below 40% of the Design Pressure
whenever you are below the MDMT.
For tanks, applied stress is a function of fill height rather than internal pressure. As explained below, the methodology for determining MDMT's is the
same, using exemption curves found in API Standard 650.
Although the wording is different, each of the guidelines above ends up requiring
you stay below about the same 8 ksi level any time you are below the Minimum
Design Metal Temperature. Some of the RP-579 wording is also a little different,
but again RP-579 leads to the same results.
Historical Perspective
The paragraphs below summarize the development of the industry brittle fracture
guidelines, to help give perspective as to where all the various Code, industry, and
Chevron standards fit in.
Prior to the 1960s, the Code did not address testing requirements for operating down
to -20F. In the 1960s, the Division 2 of Section VIII introduced the first exemption curves, in which impact testing was required of materials, unless they were
exempted by the material curves in that Code.
From 1969 to 1982, Chevron developed proprietary exemption curves for equipment constructed to Section VIII, Division 1, though this was not required by the
Code. In 1983 the Chevron curves were revised.
From 1987 to today, the Section VIII Division 1 code has included exemption
curves. These were compiled from the Division 2 curves, an API document
(API 650), the British Standard 5500 curves, the Chevron proprietary curves, and
two other major users. It is unclear as to the original basis for the Division 2 curves.
For some years the Codes were inconsistent in the curves they used for setting
MDMTs, but in recent years they have essentially standardized on the same curves.
In 1990 the API issued Recommended Practice 920, Prevention of Brittle Fracture
of Pressure Vessels. This document pertained to both new and existing vessels, and
it specifically dealt with the issue that many existing vessels successfully operate
although they would not meet the current guidelines for avoiding brittle fracture.
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In the mid-1990s the ASME Code B31.3 issued the first exemption curves for
piping. Prior to this time, all piping was considered suitable down to -20F. (Even
now, the ASME Section VIII pressure vessel code assumes all piping components of
pressure vessels to have the same properties, so there is still some inconsistency).
In the late 1990s, a major industry-wide Fitness For Service effort was started to
give a more rigorous, formal, and industry-standardized basis for how to deal with
equipment which is in service, with defects. The (very large) resource document for
this effort is API Recommended Practice 579, which is expected to be issued in
2000. API RP 579 will supersede the previous API RP 920 document. RP 579 uses
and extends current Code methodology, and in turn the ASME will adopt the
RP 579 methodology when it issues its Post Construction Code (coming some
years in the future).
The terminology Critical Exposure Temperature and Minimum Allowable
Temperature comes from RP 579. RP 579 does not use the traditional Chevron
wording of Minimum Pressurizing Temperature. We are adopting the RP 579
methodology, which is consistent with our past practice. We are also adopting the
RP 579 terminology, but for those who are used to thinking in terms of Minimum
Pressurizing Temperatures we will also use that term.
As noted below, it is our position that when the Minimum Design Metal Temperature (or MPs) have been calculated using the older Chevron guidelines, those calculations are still valid today, even when in some cases the current curves may be
somewhat more conservative. Any new MDMTs (or MPTs) should be calculated
using the current Code curves, except for the few cases where our guidelines are
more conservative.
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For Div. 1 vessels, ASME Section VIII Div. 1 Figure UCS-66 and its notes
For Div. 2 vessels, ASME Section VIII Div. 2 Figure AM-218.1 and its notes
For process plant piping, ASME/ANSI 31.3 Figure 323.2.2 and its notes
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Actually, in the latest editions of the Codes, these curves are almost identical.
Figure 300-14 on page 300-45 can also be used for existing equipment.
The basic methodology for determining the MDMT is rather simple:
1.
From the appropriate exemption curve, note the Minimum Design Metal
Temperature for that particular material and thickness.
2.
Repeat step (1) separately for every component of the vessel (heads, shell,
nozzles, etc.).
3.
Take the highest (most conservative) MDMT of all the components as the
MDMT for the entire vessel.
For any alloy (non-carbon steel) vessel, always consult a materials engineer in setting the MDMT. Alloy materials can embrittle in some services,
and the MDMT set by the fabricator may not be adequate for the long term. See
also the discussion below in Section 345.
For Division 1 vessels, the MDMT for all B16.5 flanges is set at -20F, while
the nuts are set at -50F.
The Division 1 exemption curves extend all the way to six inches; but even
when the base metal is exempt, the welds of that material must be impact tested
if the material is thicker than 4 inches.
For Division 2 vessels, there are special rules for some alloy materials (paragraph AM-213), but just follow the advice above to always consult a materials engineer when dealing with an alloy vessel.
Tanks
The methodology for tanks is much the same. Refer to the set of tank exemption
curves in API Standard 650, Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage and also to
Chevrons Tank Manual.
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Fig. 300-13 Isothermal Lines of Lowest One-Day Mean Temperatures (API Standard 650, Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage)
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If the MDMT of the suppliers standard material is greater than what we want for
our particular location, our options are:
1.
Upgrade the material to one which will meet our desired MDMTs
2.
Charpy impact test the material at the desired MDMTs. The test requirements
are spelled out in the relevant Code. Note that while the testing itself (Charpy
impact testing) is inexpensive, the supplier may increase the cost of the material for fear of not passing the test.
3.
Accept the higher MDMT and put in engineering controls, such as establishing
Minimum Pressuring Temperature limits to ensure that the material is not
significantly stressed whenever it is colder than the MDMT (see example on
page 300-35.
The Chevron representative must advise the supplier where Chevron requires more
conservative treatment in selecting MDMTs for a few specific materials. This is
explained in Section 344.
Chevron Exceptions
All grades of SA-285 and SA-515 steels thicker than " should go on Curve A,
not Curve B. The Codes assign the higher strength Grade C of SA-285, and Grades
65 and 70 of SA-515, to the most conservative Curve A. Chevron agrees, but
lacking any additional data we assign all grades of these materials to Curve A, while
the Code allows SA-285 Grades A and B, and SA-515 Grade 60 to be on curve B.
Specifically, we say SA-285 and SA-515 steels thicker than " should be assigned
to Curve A. Our logic is that since the SA-285 may be a semi-killed steel, and SA515 is a coarse-grained material, the toughness characteristics do not warrant the
more conservative curve (at least for relatively thick sections) unless we can see
supporting data.
SA-106 and SA-53 pipe thicker than " should go on Curve A, not Curve B,
unless normalized. SA-106 and SA-53 pipe can have coarse grain and quite poor
toughness properties, particularly if they are thick. Often this thick pipe is used in
high pressure and critical services. Therefore, we assign the material to the more
conservative curve (at least for relatively thick sections) unless we can see
supporting data.
For obsolete materials, refer to Section 346. Because the Codes address only
new equipment, they do not refer to some older materials that are no longer
specified, but which we still have in our plants. Section 346 assigns these older
materials to the appropriate curves.
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High Alloys
Under special circumstances 300-series and 400-series stainless steel can suffer very
severe in-service embrittlement (so called sigmatization and 885 embrittlement
respectively). For Chevron, these materials rarely limit Minimum Design Metal
Temperatures, because the sigmatization embrittlement does not occur until above
1100F; and we avoid using the 400-series stainless steels in pressure-containing
applications precisely because of the embrittlement problems. Other high alloys,
such as the Incoloys, can also experience various embrittlement mechanisms.
Low Alloys
Low alloys (1Cr, 1.25Cr, 2.25Cr, and 5Cr) are subject to temper embrittlement if
they are exposed to temperatures above about (conservatively) 650F. This subject
is discussed in more detail in Section 333, but the net effect is that the ductile-tobrittle transition temperature increases. That is, the equipment will be brittle at
higher temperatures than when it was new.
An outline of how we deal with the 1Cr, 1.25Cr, and 2.25Cr materials is given
below. The 5Cr material is not used for vessels, and we have not encountered any
practical embrittlement problems of 5Cr piping (there are rare instances of 5Cr
furnace tube embrittlement).
1Cr and 1.25 Cr-0.5Mo Pressure Vessels. In-service embrittlement of these
vessels is covered in more detail in a 1990 memorandum3. Our guidelines for establishing MDMTs for these vessels are:
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For normalized and tempered 1Cr or 1.25Cr steels operating above 750F, use
Curve A of the Code exemption curves (Division 1 or 2).
For annealed 1Cr or 1.25Cr steels operating at any temperature, also use
Curve A (Division 1 or 2).
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1Cr, 1.25Cr, and 2.25Cr Piping. For temperatures above about 750F for low
alloy piping (1Cr, 1.25Cr, 2.25Cr), we must consider the potential effects of temper
embrittlement, as we do for the vessels. The ASME VIII Code allows essentially all
pipe material to be on Curve B, while the ASME/ANSI B31.3 assigns a blanket 20F to such low alloy materials (such as SA-335 Gr P22, 2.25Cr-1Mo). Please
contact CRTC Materials and Equipment Engineering for guidance in setting
MDMTs of alloy piping operating above 750F.
In truth, we have not made special precautions for such alloy piping in the past. The
reasons we have not had problems are most likely because:
1.
The piping is unlikely to see low temperatures while under stress-for example,
the process of heating the reactors to meet the MDMT requirements for a
hydroprocessing vessel would be more than adequate to protect the piping in
the same circuit, and
2.
The piping alloys should not temper embrittle to nearly the same degree as the
high strength (especially quench and tempered) vessel materials.
Nevertheless, for 1Cr, 1.25Cr and 2.25Cr piping operating above 750F we should
follow the same guidelines as outlined for pressure vessels above.
3.
4.
Minimum Pressurizing Temperatures for Vessels Made of 1Cr-0.5Mo and 1.25Cr-0.5Mo Steels, 1/16/1990,
MEE file 47.50.01, 45.70.04
Two useful summaries are: Minimum Pressurizing Temperature for 2.25Cr-1Mo Hydrotreater Reactors,
September 9, 1983, MEE file 45.70.04; and Minimum Pressurizing Temperature Class I 2.25Cr-1Mo Steels,
December 15, 1988, MEE file 45.70.04.
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heat treatment history (was the material specially heat treated, such as normalized? Were the welds postweld heat treated)?
Type of process fluid (e.g., can the fluid induce autorefrigeration of the vessel?
See Section 347.
For vessels, much of this information can be found on the U-1 Form Manufacturers Data Report.
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Level 1 Analysis
Step 1.
The first step is to find out if the equipment manufacturer has already specified the
MDMT. This information should be on the Chevron Safety Instruction Sheetif it
is not, be sure to add it when you complete work! The information may (should)
also be found on the U-1 Form (Manufacturers data sheet), on the vessel nameplate, or on the manufacturer's fabrication drawings. If you are uncertain how a
MDMT was determined, you should recalculate it, or ask MEE for help.
Step 2. Use Charpy Impact Test Exemption Curves to Determine an MAT
Based on Material and Thickness.
If no MDMT was found in Step 1, you can determine the MAT using the ASME
Code exemption curves. The intent of the curves is to provide a temperature above
which we can have confidence that all heats of a particular grade and thickness of
steel will have enough toughness that the steel can be used at full pressure (100% of
MAWP) without risk of brittle fracture. Very roughly, we can expect the curves to
represent about 15 ft-lbs or better of charpy impact toughness, although this may not
be strictly true in all cases.
The curves found in the various pressure vessel and piping codes are essentially the
same. The draft API RP 579 uses one set of curves for all vessels and piping, and
we will adopt the same approach here. Figure 300-14 gives the exemption curves.
Note that this set of curves may be used for both Division 1 and 2 pressure vessels.
By tweaking Curve B a bit, it is also used for piping (see note 5 in Figure 300-14).
As explained below, tanks use somewhat different curves.
Figure 300-15 tells which materials go on the different curves. In almost all cases,
the Chevron assignment of materials is the same as the Codes/RP 579. However, as
explained in Section 353, in a few cases we are more conservative than the
Codes/RP 579. Also, the Codes/RP 579 do not reference some of the obsolete
materials still found in our plants. In Figure 300-15 we have assigned these old
materials to the appropriate curves.
For welded assemblies comprised of more than two components (such as a nozzleto-shell joint with a reinforcing pad), determine the governing thickness and permissible MDMT for each of the individual joints of the welded assembly, and use the
warmest (most conservative) of the MDMTs as the permissible MDMT of the
entire assembly.
How to Determine the Governing Thickness.. In using the exemption curves,
we need to know the thickness of the component. The governing thickness (tg) is
defined in API RP 579 and the Code as follows:
February 2000
for butt joints, except those in flat heads and tubesheets, the nominal thickness
of the welded joint. See Figure 300-16(A).
for corner, fillet, or lap welded joints, including attachments, the thinner of the
two parts joined. See Figure 300-16 (B) and Figure 300-17 (C).
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Fig. 300-14 Minimum Allowable Metal Temperature for Pressurization of Equipment Without Impact Testing (Courtesy of ASME and Courtesy of American Petroleum Institute)
Notes:
1. Curves A through D define material specification classes in accordance with Table 3.313.4.
2. Equipment whose CET is above the appropriate material curve is exempt from further brittle fracture assessment.
3. This figure is from paragraph UCS-66 of the ASME Code Section VIII, Division 1, and API RP-579.
4. Curve A intersects the y-axis at -8C (18F), Curve B intersects the y-axis at -29 (-20F), and Curves C and D intersect the y-axis at -48C (53F).
5. These curves can also be used to evaluate piping components designed to ASME 1331.3. In this case, Curve B should be shifted to the
right so that 1.27 mm (0.5 in.) corresponds to a temperature of -29C (-20F). To account for this shift in an assessment, an effective
governing thickness equal to the actual governing thickness minus 2.69 mm (0.106 in.) can be used to determine the MAT.
for flat heads or tubesheets, the thinner of the two parts joined or the component thickness divided by four, whichever is larger. See Figure 300-17 (D and E)
and Figure 300-18 (F).
The governing thickness of a casting shall be its largest nominal thickness, and the
governing thickness of nonwelded parts, such as bolted flanges, tubesheets, and flat
heads, is the component thickness divided by four. See Figure 300-17 (D).
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Material (1, 2, 6)
1. All carbon and all low alloy steel plates, structural shapes and bars not listed in Curves B, C, and D below.
2. SA-216 Grades WCB and WCC if normalized and tempered or water-quenched and tempered
SA-217 Grade WC6 if normalized and tempered or water-quenched and tempered.
3. The following specifications for obsolete materials are also included in Curve A: A7, A10, A30, A70, A113, A149, A150 (3).
4. The following specifications for obsolete materials are also included in Curve A: S1, S2, S25, S26, S27 (4)
5. A201 and A212 unless it can be established that the steel was produced by a fine-grain practice (5).
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Material (1, 2, 6)
SA-203
SA-442 if to fine grain practice and normalized
SA-508 Class 1
SA-516 if normalized
SA-524 Classes 1 and 2
SA-537 Classes 1 and 2
SA-612 if normalized
SA-662 if normalized
SA-738 Grade A
Code Case 1256 (equivalent to SA-442) if normalized
Code Case 1280 (equivalent to SA-442) if normalized
Notes:
1. When a material class or grade is not shown, all classes or grades are included.
2. The following apply to all material assignment notes
Cooling rates faster than those obtained in air, followed by tempering, as permitted by the material specification, are considered to be
equivalent to normalizing and tempering heat treatments.
Fine grain practice is defined as the procedures necessary to obtain a fine austenitic grain size as described in SA-20.
3. The first edition of the API Code for Unfired Pressure Vessels (discontinued in 1956) included these ASTM carbon steel plate specifications. These specifications were variously designated for structural steel for bridges, locomotives, and rail cars or for boilers and firebox
steel for locomotives and stationary service. ASTM A 149 and A 150 were applicable to high-tensile-strength carbon steel plates for pressure vessels.
4. The 1934 edition of Section VIII of the ASME Code listed a series of ASME steel specifications, including S1 and S2 for forge welding; S26
and S27 for carbon steel plates; and S25 for open-hearth iron. The titles of some of these specifications are similar to the ASTM specifications listed in the 1934 edition of the API Code for Unfired Pressure Vessels.
5. These two steels were replaced in strength grades by the four grades specified in ASTM A 515 and the four grades specified in ASTM
A 516. Steel in accordance with ASTM A 212 was made only in strength grades the same as Grades 65 and 70 and has accounted for
several known brittle failures. Steels in conformance with ASTM A 201 and A 212 should be assigned to Curve A unless it can be established that the steel was produced by fine-grain practice, which may have enhanced the toughness properties.
6. No attempt has been made to make a list of obsolete specifications for tubes, pipes, forgings, bars and castings. Unless specific information to the contrary is available, all of these product forms should be assigned to Curve A.
7. These assignments are from the draft of API Recommended Practice 579, except the items in italics are Chevron modifications.
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For thicknesses less than " we generally have not made an effort to go back
and establish MDMTs for existing systems. This decision is based upon the
excellent experience we have had with piping systems. However, operating
facilities in cold climates (which can see temperatures significantly below
freezing), or those that operate systems which can see process temperatures
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well below freezing, should consider reviewing their systems. Contact MEE for
help.
2.
For temperatures above about 750F for low alloy piping (1Cr, 1.25Cr, 2.25Cr)
we must consider the effects of temper embrittlement. See the comments above
in Section 345.
3.
For pump cases, valves, and other cast components, Chevron has historically
not been concerned with determining an MDMT/MAT. Because these components are typically highly over-designed, stress levels are not high enough to
lead to brittle fracture. At this time, we would recommend against determining
MDMTs for such components. We will revisit this issue if the industry should
take another approach in the future.
Some Comments for Tanks. Use API Standard 650 and the Tank Manual (along
with API RP 579) for guidance in establishing MDMTs for tanks. The methodology
is the same, but the curves and some of the materials employed are different. If the
tank material is unknown, then API RP 579 provides some help in that we can
consider the tank safe to use at any temperature for metal thicknesses less than 0.5".
Also, metal temperatures above 60F are safe regardless of the thickness. For tanks
with metal temperatures less than 60F, and thicknesses greater than 0.5", contact
MEE for help. Also contact MEE for help with atmospheric or low pressure tanks
dealing with a refrigerated product.
Level 2 Assessments (These are from RP 579, Contact MEE for help)
Pressure Vessels, Method A: This method takes advantage of the fact that if the
operating pressures/stresses are well below the design values, then the risk of brittle
fracture is much less. The method in effect involves calculating the ratio of the
actual vs. the design stresses, then going to a curve to gain reductions of as much as
100F or even more in the MDMT/MAT. The ASME Code Divisions 1 and 2 use the
same methodology for new construction.
Chevron Corporation
300-49
February 2000
300 Metallurgy
347 Autorefrigeration
One must consider the potential for autorefrigeration occurring either during operation or as a result of equipment failure. The effect of autorefrigeration depends upon
the state of the process fluid; for example, the vessel contains all gas (typically little
effect), all liquid (typically large effect), or a mixture. The effect also depends upon
how the vessel may be vented. Autorefrigeration, caused by depressurization, may
also occur in a flowing system with a flashing liquid. As the pressure decreases, the
temperature will follow the vapor pressure curve.
In recent years, at least one catastrophic failure occurred when a unit processing
LPG suddenly depressured, causing the equipment to cool. The equipment did not
fail upon the initial event, because the pressure was low as the contents vented.
However, the unit was repressurized while the equipment was still coldat that
point the equipment failed.
Autorefrigeration is not considered as stressful to the equipment as is continuous
operation at cold temperatures. This is due to the principle explained above: if you
are below 8 ksi stress, you will not have brittle fracture. Therefore, it is not realistic
(nor often economic) to select the materials based upon the coldest temperature the
equipment could possibly reach under autorefrigeration (at near zero pressure).
Instead, for ASME Section VIII Division I vessels we would typically consider the
February 2000
300-50
Chevron Corporation
300 Metallurgy
temperature of the vessel contents when the vessel is at 40% of the Maximum
Allowable Working Pressure.
When dealing with autorefrigeration, as with brittle fracture in general, it is the
metal temperature that is important. In some cases this can help give us an extra
margin of safety, but a more careful thermal analysis of the cooling effects would be
required.
If a review of operating facilities determines that some equipment may be subject to
temperatures below the MDMT while above 40% of the MAWP, we urge that CRTC
be contacted for a closer review. In some cases a Level 3 analysis may be
neededthis analysis determines what flaw sizes could be tolerated under autorefrigeration conditions. The final step of such an analysis would be to assure (typically by thorough nondestructive examination) that no such flaws exist, nor could
they reasonably occur before the next inspection interval.
Chevron Corporation
300-51
February 2000
300 Metallurgy
Fig. 300-19 Hydrotest Pressures for ASME Carbon Steel and Low-Alloy Pipe Classes
Pipe Class
By Flange Rating
150 psig
425 psig
350 psig
300
1100
750
600
2175
1000
900
3250
2200
1500
5400
3600
2500
9000
6000
Note CAUTION! Often high pressure flanges do not limit the hydrotest. Be sure
the pipe wall is sufficient.
Hydrotesting of Tanks. Hydrotesting of existing tanks is covered by API Standard
653 Tank Inspection, Repair, Alteration, and Reconstruction. Tanks which have
undergone major repairs or alterations, such as cutting, adding, removal or replacement of a major portion of the shell, the annular plate ring, the concrete ring wall,
the shell plates below the design liquid level, or the shell-to-bottom weld, may be
subject to hydrotesting before being placed back in service. Refer to API 653 for
more information.
Although the Standard does not suggest that the hydrotest temperature exceed the
MDMT, wherever possible the hydrotest water should be warmed above the MDMT
to avoid brittle fracture. Warming above MDMT is not as critical for tanks as for
pressure vessels, since tanks are not typically pressured any higher during hydrotest
than during normal operation. As with the pressure vessel testing, hydrotest water
would be kept to a maximum of 120F, if possible, to avoid danger to personnel
from leaking water.
February 2000
300-52
Chevron Corporation
300 Metallurgy
Curve A.) Using Figure 300-15, for a 9/16" (0.5625") thick section on Curve A, we
can read on the Y-axis of the plot an MDMT for this vessel of 40F.
The curves thus allow us to assume that there are no heats of A285 Grade C steel
which would be at risk of brittle fracture above 40F as long as the wall thickness is
only 9/16". If the wall thickness of the same vessel was 2", the MDMT would rise
to nearly 100F. At that thickness, the vessel would be susceptible to brittle fracture
up to 100F.
If this drum was located at Hawaii Refinery, where the critical exposure temperature (CET) exceeds 40F, this exercise would show that no risk of brittle fracture
exists with the vessel, and that no special start-up and shutdown precautions are
warranted at that location. On the other hand, if the drum was located in El Paso,
where the lowest one-day mean temperature is about 10F, (see Figure 300-13), a
risk of brittle fracture would exist. In the El Paso location, when the ambient
temperature during start-up or shutdown was less than 40F, the internal drum pressure should be kept below 65 psig, which is 40% of the MAWP of 163 psig.
For overseas locations where historical weather information is not available, care
will be required to keep pressure below 40% of MAWP (or 25% for Division 2
vessels) whenever ambient temperatures are near MDMT. For locations shown on
the map in Figure 300-13, the same care is required, but the map can serve as a
guide to alert the operator when a problem with brittle fracture may exist.
Example 2: Assume the Same Vessel was Fabricated from Different Material
Suppose the same vessel as in Example 1 was fabricated from grade A516 Grade 60
steel. In that case, Curve C would be used for the MDMT determination. For the
9/16" thick drum fabricated from SA516 Grade 60, the MDMT is -30F. With this
material, even the El Paso location would have no concern about brittle fracture
with this drum.
This example shows that for some locations, use of a tougher steel allows a vessel to
be run immediately at 100% of MAWP on cold start-up, rather than at 40% of
MAWP, which can save valuable time. Conversely, if during fabrication of the
vessel, the steel had been Charpy Impact tested at 10F, and passed the tests in accordance with UG-84 of ASME Section VIII, Division 1 (or AM0211 of Section VIII,
Division 2 for Div. 2 vessels), then the vessel could be assumed to be immune to
brittle fracture under all weather conditions at the El Paso location.
Typically, for a colder location, either a tougher steel will be used or Charpy impact
testing will be done at the lowest one-day mean temperature for the location, so that
start-up and shutdown schedules are not affected by the concern for MDMT.
Example 3: A Heat Exchanger
Assume that the shell material is SA516, Grade 70 carbon steel. The nominal thickness, and assumed governing thickness, of the shell is ". It has double butt longitudinal and girth weld seams. The channel forging is SA105, Grade II carbon steel.
The governing thickness of the channel is 4". The nonwelded tubesheet is 6" thick
SA105, Grade II carbon steel. The governing thickness of this nonwelded tubesheet
is 1" (6" divided by four).
Chevron Corporation
300-53
February 2000
300 Metallurgy
Baffle and partition plate materials and thicknesses are not considered. It is
Chevrons philosophy that non-pressure containing components and welds should
not enter into MDMT determinations.
For the channel forging and tubesheet, it is possible that the materials were
purchased in the normalized condition; however, there is no proof of such on the
U-1 Form. Unless proof of normalizing can be found on available mill certificates
for this exchanger, the channel and tubesheet must be assumed to be not normalized. In that case, the channel forging (SA105, Grade II steel) goes on Curve A.
With a weld thickness of 4", the MDMT for the channel forging (using
Figure 300-14 is 118F.
The SA516, Grade 70 carbon steel (non-normalized) shell goes on Curve B. With a
thickness of " governing thickness, the MDMT for the shell is -5F.
The tubesheet is SA105, Grade II with governing thickness of 1". The MDMT for
the tubesheet is 85F.
The MDMT for the exchanger is chosen to match the highest MDMT for any one
component. In this case, it is 118F. The internal pressure in the exchanger should
be kept at 440 psig or below (40% of the 1100 psig MAWP) when the metal temperature is below 118F.
February 2000
300-54
Chevron Corporation
300 Metallurgy
is more conservative. From Figure 300-14, for 0.937" thick material on Curve A,
the MDMT is 65F.
The piping in question should not be allowed to operate at a pressure higher than
40% of MAWP (or design pressure) at a temperature below 65F.
Chevron Corporation
300-55
February 2000
300 Metallurgy
You can use a material that does not have an endurance limit under cyclic loading
conditions only if the number of cycles is limited to test data indications of what it
can withstand without fracture. This is called the fatigue limit. Figure 300-21 is a
schematic illustration of fatigue curves on a plot of stress versus number of cycles,
showing both fatigue limits and endurance limits.
Fig. 300-21 Schematic Illustration of the Fatigue Behavior of Ferrous and Non Ferrous Alloys
February 2000
300-56
Chevron Corporation
300 Metallurgy
Stress relieving a structure does not usually affect fatigue life; however, shot
peening a part to put residual compressive stresses on the surface increases fatigue
life.
Following are some common locations where fatigue failures occur in our facilities:
Heat Exchangers
Tube vibration as a result of flow patterns is a common cause of fatigue failures. Many such failures have occurred on alloy tubes, which are usually
purchased with thinner wall thickness. Failures typically initiate at tube-to-tube
sheet joints or baffles. Fatigue failures, although rare, can be found in the
middle between two baffles. There are also typical patterns on the tube sheet
layout, depending on the baffle location and other factors, where fatigue failures occur.
Chevron Corporation
300-57
February 2000
Fig. 300-22 Common Chevron Refinery Alloy Material Specifications and Applications (Adapted from the Richmond Refinery Materials Engineering Web Site)
(1 of 8)
Alloy Type
Gray Cast Iron
Process Environments
Fresh Water,
Cooling
Water, BFW,
Richmond
Pipe Class
Common UNS
Equivalent
Depends on
grade
Plate
Pipe
Forgings
& Fittings
(Includes
Bars)
Tubes
(Heat Exchgr)
Castings
A48
A126
A278
A351, A352 Code
Ductile Cast
Iron
300-58
Ni Resist
Depends on
grade
Sour Water,
Caustic
Chevron Corporation
A395
A536 Gr. 6040-18
A436
300 Metallurgy
February 2000
Alloy Type
Code Carbon
Steel
Richmond
Pipe Class
Common UNS
Equivalent
General
Hydrocarbon,
steam and
water service,
to 800F, w/ H2,
w/H2S, cyclic,
MEA, Caustic,
Sulfuric >85%
AA6,AA7,
AA9, ABO,
AB1, AB2,
AB4, AB6,
AB7, AB8,
AF1, AF2, AF3,
AF4, AF5, AF6,
AF7, AF8, AF9,
AF10, AF11,
AG2, AJ1,
AJ2, AJ4,
AK1, AL1,
BB1, BF1,
BJ2, BL1, DK1,
DK2, DK4,
DL1, DL4, DP1,
DP2, DP4,
DP5, DR1, DR4
Depends on
grade and
product form.
300-59
Process Environments
A53
A234-WPB
A106
A181
A515
A333
A516
A671
A691
A105
Tubes
(Heat Exchgr)
A161-LC, C-1/2
Mo
A179 (Smls,
Cold Drawn) acidic svc.,
UNS K03503
Castings
A27
A216-WCB
(UNS J03002)
- WCA, -WCC
A352
A192 (Smls, Hi
Press) Boiler, UNS
K01201
A214 (ERW) non-acidic
svc., UNS
K01807
A36 (UNS
K02600)
A120
A131
A134 EFW
A283
A135 ERW
Depends on
grade.
A537, A737
Depends on
grade.
A36, A131,
A283, A285,
A516, A573
A27
API 5L
300 Metallurgy
February 2000
Tank
A285 Gr. C
(UNS K0281
Pipe
A672
Depends on
grade and
product form.
Non-Code
Carbon Steel
(Structural)
Plate
Forgings
& Fittings
(Includes
Bars)
Chevron Corporation
Fig. 300-22 Common Chevron Refinery Alloy Material Specifications and Applications (Adapted from the Richmond Refinery Materials Engineering Web Site)
(2 of 8)
Alloy Type
C-1/2 Mo
Steel
Process Environments
Richmond
Pipe Class
Formerly used
in High
temperature
H2
Common UNS
Equivalent
Plate
Pipe
Forgings
& Fittings
(Includes
Bars)
Tubes
(Heat Exchgr)
Castings
A204 Gr. A - C
A335-P1
A182-F1
A161-T1
A217-WCI
A302
A672 Gr. C
A234-WP1
A209-T1 (UNS
K11522)
A356 Gr. 2
A336 Gr. F1
A250
A692
1 CR-1/2 Mo
300-60
1 Cr - Mo
A387-12
RG1, RG4,
RK1, RK2, RK3,
RK4, RL1, RL2,
RP3, RP4, RR4
A387-11
A335-P11
A182-F11
A234-WP11
A336-F11
A541 Cl 11c
Steam
2 Cr - 1 Mo
SP4, SR4
A387-22
A335-P22
A199-T11
(UNS K11597)
A217-WC6
A213-T11
(UNS K11597)
Chevron Corporation
Fig. 300-22 Common Chevron Refinery Alloy Material Specifications and Applications (Adapted from the Richmond Refinery Materials Engineering Web Site)
(3 of 8)
A356 Gr. 6
A200-T11
A182-F22
A199-T22
A217-WC9
A234WP22A336F22
A213-T22
A200-T22
A356 Gr. 10
A182-F5
A199-T5
A217-C5, C-12
A234-WP5
A213-T5 (UNS
K21590)
A541 Cl 22b
5 Cr - Mo
TF1, TF2
A387-5
A335-P5
A200-T5
300 Metallurgy
February 2000
Alloy Type
7 Cr 1 Mo
9 Cr - 1 Mo
12 Cr
Process Environments
Richmond
Pipe Class
Common UNS
Equivalent
Plate
A387-9
A387-9
Sulfidation
Pipe
A335-P7
Forgings
& Fittings
(Includes
Bars)
Tubes
(Heat Exchgr)
A182-F7
A199-T7
A234-WP7
A213-T7
Castings
A217-C
A200-T7
A335-P9
A182-F9
A199-T9
A234-WP9
A213-T9
A217-C12
A200-T9
UNS S04100
300-61
A240-405, 410,
410S
A176-410
(Commonly
manufactured from
sheet or plate)
A182-F6
A479-405,
410S (bars)
A268-TP406,
410 (UNS
41500)
Chevron Corporation
Fig. 300-22 Common Chevron Refinery Alloy Material Specifications and Applications (Adapted from the Richmond Refinery Materials Engineering Web Site)
(4 of 8)
A487-Gr CA15
type B-D
A487-CA6NM
A217-CA15
A743-CA15
A743-CA6MM
300 Metallurgy
February 2000
Alloy Type
18 Cr - 8 Ni
(3XX Series
Stainless)
300-62
Process Environments
Richmond
Pipe Class
Common UNS
Equivalent
Demineralized Water,
Lean/Rich
(flashing)
DEA, H2 w/
HC,
Napthenic,
Acid, Dilute
Phosphoric
Acid Weak to
strong acids,
Dilute Sulfuric
acid, BFW
Chemicals,
low temperature sulfur,
sulfidation,
ammonium
bisulfide, high
temperature.
GB!, GB6,
GB7, GF1, GF6,
GJ1, GJ6,
GM1, GP6,
GQ6, JB3, JF1,
JF2, JK3, KF1,
KF2, KK4, KL4,
KL5, KP4, KP5,
KR4, KR5, KR6,
Depends on
alloy (and
product form)
Forgings
& Fittings
(Includes
Bars)
Tubes
(Heat Exchgr)
Plate
Pipe
A240-3XX
A312-3XX
A182-F3XX
A213-TP3XX
A167-3XX
A358-3XX
A403-WP3XX
A271-TP3XX
Castings
A351 CF3,
CF3A, CF3M,
CF8
A743 CF3,
CF3A
A744 CF3,
CF3A
Chloride, H2S
environments
UNS S32205
2507 Duplex
Stainless
Steel
Chloride, H2S
environments
UNS S32750
A240
A790
A182, A815
A789
UNS S31803
(preferred),
UNS S32205
(acceptable)
A240
A790
A182, A815
A789
UNS S32750
300 Metallurgy
February 2000
2205 Duplex
Stainless
Steel
Chevron Corporation
Fig. 300-22 Common Chevron Refinery Alloy Material Specifications and Applications (Adapted from the Richmond Refinery Materials Engineering Web Site)
(5 of 8)
Alloy Type
Process Environments
Richmond
Pipe Class
Dilute Sulfuric
acid
MB2
Common UNS
Equivalent
Plate
Pipe
UNS N08367
B688
B675
(UNS N08020)
B-463
B464
Forgings
& Fittings
(Includes
Bars)
Tubes
(Heat Exchgr)
Castings
B676
A744 CN3MN,
UNS J94651
B468 (Welded
Tube)
A351-CN7M,
UNS N08007
B164
B163-
A494 Gr M . . .
B564 (Forgings)
B165
B517 (welded)
B166 (bars)
B167 (Seamless)
B366
B163, B167
(seamless)
B564 (Forgings)
B516 (Welded
Tube)
B446
B444 (seamless)
B705 (Welded)
B564 (Forgings)
B474 (EFW)
B462 (forgings)
B472, B473
(bars)
Monel 400
300-63
Alloy 600
Alloy 625
UB2, UB6
UNS04400
UNS N06600
UNS N06625
B127
B168
B168
B443
B165
B626
Chevron Corporation
Fig. 300-22 Common Chevron Refinery Alloy Material Specifications and Applications (Adapted from the Richmond Refinery Materials Engineering Web Site)
(6 of 8)
B494
B622 (tubing)
B574 (Rod)
High temperature hydrogen
UNS N08800,
N08810,
N08811
B409
B407 (Seamless)
B366
B514 (Welded)
B464 (Forgings)
B408
B163, B407
(seamless)
B515 (welded)
300 Metallurgy
February 2000
Alloy
800/H/HT (Fe32Ni-21Cr)
Alloy Type
Alloy 825
Process Environments
High velocity,
high pressure, high
temperature
ammonium
bisulfide, Sour
Water.
300-64
HP Modified,
HK-40
Hydrogen
furnace tubes,
furnace tube
hangers
Hastelloy C276
Acid
Richmond
Pipe Class
XP6, XR6
Common UNS
Equivalent
UNS NO8825
Plate
B424
Pipe
Forgings
& Fittings
(Includes
Bars)
Tubes
(Heat Exchgr)
B423 (Seamless)
B366
B163
B425
B-468
B564 (Forgings)
B423 (Seamless)
B705 (welded)
Castings
B-468
B704
A297
UNS N10002
UNS N10276
(UNS N06022)
General
steam and
cooling water
service, to
140F
UNS C44300
(Arsenic),
C44400 (Antimony),C44500
(Phosphorus)
B171 (A. B, C)
70-30 Cu-Ni
Slightly higher
temp steam
and cooling
water service,
>140F.
(UNS C71500)
B171
90-10 Cu-Ni
Seawater,
steam
UNS 70600
B366
B622 (Seamless)
B574 (Rod)
B564 (Forgings)
B626B622
(Seamless)
Gr.Cw-12MW
B619 (Welded)
B111 (A. B, C)
B466
A494
B584
B111
300 Metallurgy
February 2000
Admiralty
Brass (Inhibited)
B619 (Welded)
Chevron Corporation
Fig. 300-22 Common Chevron Refinery Alloy Material Specifications and Applications (Adapted from the Richmond Refinery Materials Engineering Web Site)
(7 of 8)
Alloy Type
Titanium
Alloys
Process Environments
H2S, waste
water treater
HEX <180F
Richmond
Pipe Class
Common UNS
Equivalent
Gr. 2 UNS
R50400
Plate
B265 Gr. 1, 2,
12
Pipe
B337 Gr. 1, 2,
12
Forgings
& Fittings
(Includes
Bars)
B381 F-1, 2
Tubes
(Heat Exchgr)
B338 Gr. 1, 2,
12
Castings
B367
Gr. 12 UNS
R53400
AISI 4130
AISI 4140
Chevron Corporation
Fig. 300-22 Common Chevron Refinery Alloy Material Specifications and Applications (Adapted from the Richmond Refinery Materials Engineering Web Site)
(8 of 8)
AISI 4340
300-65
Note that Section 315 further discusses the most common ASTM grades of carbon steel, including obsolete grades still
commonly found in our facilities.
300 Metallurgy
February 2000
300 Metallurgy
Fig. 300-23 Corrosion Resistance and Mechanical Properties for Common Steel Product Forms (1)
Ambient Temp. Yield &
Typical Alloy Typical Chemistry
Tensile Strengths
Comments
Low and
Fe-1Mn-0.2C
Y = 25-40 ksi
Adequate strength and corrosion resistance for many
Medium Carbon
applications.
UTS = 50-80 ksi
Steels
Low-Alloys
1Cr-Mo;
Y = 25-60 ksi
Strength and creep resistance > 900F.
2Cr-1Mo;
UTS = 60-110 ksi
Hydrogen attack resistance > 450F.
9Cr-1Mo
H2S resistance to 650F for the higher Cr alloys.
5Cr-Mo
12-Chrome 12-13Cr
Y = 40-100 ksi
Very high hardness and strength.
(e.g., 410) and 17Cr-4Ni
UTS = 60-200 ksi
H2S resistance to 800F.
Susceptible to sulfide stress cracking.
17-4PH
304SS, 304L,
18Cr-8Ni
Y = 25-40 ksi
Good high temperature corrosion resistance. Weld
304H
UTS = 65-80 ksi
with L grade.
H2S resistance > 800F; H2/H2S > 550F.
304H has creep resistance to 1500F.
All sensitize after long-term service above 700F.
316SS, 316L,
18Cr-12Ni-2Mo
Y = 25-40 ksi
Better aqueous corrosion resistance than 18-8SS.,
317SS, 317L
(317/L: 3%Mo)
UTS = 70-90 ksi
Type 317 resists naphthenic acid corrosion.
All will sensitize after long-term service above 700F.
321SS, 347SS 18Cr-10Ni
Y = 25-40 ksi
Stabilized grades can be welded without
UTS = 70-90 ksi
sensitization.
Type 321 will not sensitize below about 850F.
Type 347 will not sensitize below about 900F.
Alloy 20
20Cr-33Ni-2Mo-3.5Cu Y = 35-50 ksi
Acid corrosion resistance especially sulfuric. May
(Cb3 adds <1% Nb) UTS = 80-95 ksi
contain Cb for sensitization resistance (Alloy 20Cb3).
Cast pump cases in sulfuric acid plants.
Incoloy 825
21Cr-42Ni-3Mo-2.3Cu- Y = 35-45 ksi
Corrosion and SCC resistant.
1Ti
UTS = 85-95 ksi
Will not sensitize on welding or in operation.
For effluent air coolers in aqueous NH4Cl.
Inconel 625
21Cr-61Ni-9Mo-4Nb- Y = 60-80 ksi
Excellent in strong acids.
4Fe
UTS = 120-140 ksi
High temp. strength and oxidation resistance.
Hastelloy
15Cr-57Ni-15Mo-4V- Y = 40-190 ksi
Excellent in strong acids (esp. hydrochloric, nitric,
C-276
5.5Fe
UTS = 100-200 ksi
and sulfuric) and in acids contaminated with
chlorides.
Resists SCC and pitting in severe environments.
Monel
66Ni-31Cu
Y = 25-35 ksi
Best for hydrofluoric acid.
UTS = 60-80 ksi
Titanium
Grades 2, 7, 12
Y = 40-60 ksi
Seawater exchangers and aqueous streams
UTS = 50-70 ksi
containing H2S and chlorides.
(1) Also see Appendix A of the Welding Manual.
February 2000
300-66
Chevron Corporation
300 Metallurgy
Fig. 300-24 Conversion Table for Hardness Numbers for Steel (Non-austenitic)Approximate (1 of 2)
Conversion To Rockwell C
Conversion To Rockwell B
Vickers
Hardness(1)
Brinell
Hardness(1),(2)
Tensile
Strength
(approx.)
1000 psi(3)
100
240
240
116
99
234
234
114
865
98
228
228
111
65
832
97
222
222
107
64
800
96
216
216
105
63
772
95
210
210
101
62
746
94
205
205
100
61
720
93
200
200
98
60
697
92
195
195
95
59
674
91
190
190
92
58
653
90
185
185
90
57
633
89
180
180
88
56
613
88
176
176
84
55
595
87
172
172
83
54
577
86
169
169
82
53
560
85
165
165
80
52
544
500
84
162
162
79
51
528
487
83
159
159
78
50
513
475
252
82
156
156
76
49
498
464
245
81
153
153
75
48
484
451
236
80
150
150
73
47
471
442
229
79
147
147
72
46
458
432
225
78
144
144
71
45
446
421
216
77
141
141
44
434
409
76
139
139
43
423
400
201
75
137
137
42
412
390
192
74
135
135
41
402
381
73
132
132
40
392
371
72
130
130
39
382
362
71
127
127
Rockwell
C
Hardness(1)
Vickers
Hardness(1)
Brinell
Hardness(1),(2)
68
940
67
Tensile
Strength
(approx.)
1000 psi(3)
Rockwell
B
Hardness(1)
900
66
Chevron Corporation
265
177
300-67
67
65
February 2000
300 Metallurgy
Fig. 300-24 Conversion Table for Hardness Numbers for Steel (Non-austenitic)Approximate (2 of 2)
Conversion To Rockwell C
Conversion To Rockwell B
Vickers
Hardness(1)
Brinell
Hardness(1),(2)
Tensile
Strength
(approx.)
1000 psi(3)
Rockwell
B
Hardness(1)
Vickers
Hardness(1)
Brinell
Hardness(1),(2)
Tensile
Strength
(approx.)
1000 psi(3)
38
372
353
172
70
125
125
63
37
363
344
166
69
123
123
36
354
336
68
121
121
35
345
327
67
119
119
34
336
319
66
117
117
33
327
311
149
65
116
116
32
318
301
146
64
114
114
31
310
294
142
63
112
112
30
302
286
138
62
110
110
29
294
279
135
61
108
108
28
286
271
131
60
107
107
27
279
264
127
26
272
258
25
266
253
24
260
247
120
23
254
243
116
22
248
237
114
21
243
231
110
20
238
226
108
Rockwell
C
Hardness(1)
157
60
58
56
February 2000
300-68
Chevron Corporation
300 Metallurgy
Fig. 300-25 Temperature Color Scale Courtesy of Tempil Division, Air Liquide America Corp.
(This Scale is in color (and easier to read) on the website: http://chevron.com/MEE/Metallurgy/)
Chevron Corporation
300-69
February 2000
300 Metallurgy
370 References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
W. T. Lankford, et.al, The Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel, ed. U.S. Steel
Company with Association of Iron and Steel Engineers (AISE), 10th edition,
1985.
7.
8.
9.
10. Source Book on Copper and Copper Alloys, American Society for Metals
(ASM), Metals Park, OH, first printing 1979.
11. API Recommended Practice 941, Steels for Hydrogen Service at Elevated
Temperatures and Pressures in Petroleum Refineries and Petrochemical Plants,
fifth edition, 1997.
12. Pressure Vessel Manual, Section 500 Materials, Volume 1, Engineering Guidelines, Chevron.
13. Welding Manual, Section 100 Welding Fundamentals, Chevron.
14. Welding Manual, Section 300 Welding Practices, Chevron.
15. Fired Heater and Waste Heat Boiler Manual, Section 700 Materials, Chevron.
16. API RP 579, Recommended Practice for Fitness-For-Service, Section 3,
Assessment of Equipment for Brittle Fracture (Final Draft - Revision 33).
February 2000
300-70
Chevron Corporation