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International Journal of Crashworthiness

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Finite element simulation of the axial collapse of

thin-wall square frusta
A.G. Mamalis , D.E. Manolakos , M.B. Ioannidis , P.K. Kostazos & G. Hassiotis
Published online: 08 Jul 2010.

To cite this article: A.G. Mamalis , D.E. Manolakos , M.B. Ioannidis , P.K. Kostazos & G. Hassiotis (2001) Finite
element simulation of the axial collapse of thin-wall square frusta, International Journal of Crashworthiness, 6:2,
155-164, DOI: 10.1533/cras.2001.0169
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1533/cras.2001.0169

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Finite element simulation of the axial collapse of thin-wall square frusta

A.G. Mamalis, D.E. Manolakos, M.B. Ioannidis, P.K. Kostazos and G. Hassiotis
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, Greece

(Received 14 July2000: and in revisedform 14 December 2000)

Abstract - In vehicle crashworthiness studies special effort has been spent on experimental research and in establishing safe
theoretical design criteria on the mechanics of crumpling, providing, in this manner, to the engineers the ability to design safe
vehicle structures, so that the maximum amount of the crash energy will dissipate while the material surrounding the
passengers department is deformed. Generally, this energy absorbing capability depends upon the governing deformation
phenomena of all or part of structural components of simple geometry, such as thin-walled tubes, cones, fiames, sections etc.

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In particular, the crash analysis of plated structural components has been traditionally based on destructive prototype testing
and requires analytical and/or numerical theoretical models to incorporate in detail the main crash phenomena, i.e. local
buckling, post-buckling and maximum strength of each section and the various crumpling mechanisms expected. For this
purpose, specialized finite element codes have been developed to establish efficient design of energy absorbing systems.
The main objective of the present paper is to apply the explicit FE code LS-DYNA to the simulation of the crash behaviour
of metallic thin-walled square frusta subjected to axial compression. The results taken from the simulation, in comparison to
the actual experimental data on similar specimens, agree on many aspects and the concluding remarks pertaining to the
design of the crushing process are drawn.

INTRODUCTION
Crashworthiness studies are in high demand for designing transportation systems. Energy absorption
capability in vehicle collisions is an important parameter for the development of passive safety
systems dealing with the protection of passengers and cargo departments in the event of an accident.
Protective structures, which contribute significantly to the crashworthiness capability of automotive
structures, are composed of thin-walled structural elements of various cross-section shapes and sizes.
Exploring steady-state collapse mechanisms of these components has been the main effort for many
years. Extensive theoretical and experimental research work has been performed on axial loading of
thin-walled structures made of various materials, i.e. metals, polymers, composites. The effect of
specimen geometry on the energy absorption capability was investigated by varying the crosssectional dimensions, wall thickness and length of the shell [l-61. A detailed literature survey on the
topic may be found in Ref. [l]. In any case, the designer needs theoretical tools ranging from simple
analytical calculations to full finite element analysis using non-linear, large deformation codes.
Commercial finite element codes, e.g. the explicit finite element code LS-DYNA, have made
significant progress. They have developed and improved to the point of being able to predict the
various vehicle and crash problems, as well as to successfully simulate the collapse of tubular
elements with a reasonable amount of computer time, allowing in this manner such structural
crashworthy components to be designed and analysed without having to build and test expensive
prototypes.
The present paper is dealing with the implementation of the explicit FE code LS DYNA to the
simulation of the crash behaviour of steel thin-walled square frusta and pyramids subjected to axial
compression. The collapse procedure is successfully simulated with a reasonable amount of computer
time, allowing, in this manner, such structural crashworthy components to be designed and analysed
without having to build and test expensive prototypes. The obtained numerical results are compared
with actual experimental data from small-scale models and useful concluding remarks pertaining to
the design requirements of the crushing process are drawn.

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FINITE ELEMENT MODEL

The "explicit" FE code LS-DYNA was used to simulate the axial compression of thin-walled square
frusta. This fully vectorized, large deformation structural dynamics code has been developed for
analysing transient dynamic response of 3D solids and structures, employing, as an explicit code, the
central-difference method in order to solve the equations of motion [7] and possessing simultaneously
the following advantages that are critical for efficient and accurate analysis of crashes:
Fully non-linear solid, shell and beam elements for representing the structure;
a broad range of constitutive models for representing the materials;
sophisticated contact algorithms for the impact interactions and
0
a rigid body capability to represent bodies away from the impact zones at a greatly reduced cost
sacrificing any accuracy in the momentum calculations.

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For the numerical simulation of a typical progressive collapse of a shell in the form of a thin-walled
frustum, the following calculation steps were conducted; see details on shell geometry and impact
conditions in Table 1.
1. The shell was modelled using 4-node "shell" elements from the element library of LS-DYNA
code, which present macroscopic mesh distortion in a better way. The number of elements used to
model the shell geometry are also given in Table 1, whilst representative finite element meshes
used to shell modelling are shown in Figures 2-4, respectively.
2. The shell material was modelled as an isotropic elastic-plastic material, characterized by a bilinear elastoplastic behaviour with strain hardening. Discrete values were inserted in the code in
order to fit properly to the real material properties; see Figure 1.
3 . The base plate on which the specimen was initially rested as well as the dropped mass (moving
with specified initial velocity) was both modelled as "rigid bodies". Each mass was modelled by
one 8-node "solid" element "with no discretization", whilst for the moving mass only one degree
of freedom was considered, corresponding to movement in the direction of impact.
4. To simulate the interface phenomena at the shell edge nodes/moving mass and shell edge
nodeshase regions, the "discrete nodes to surface" type of sliding interface was selected from the
LS-DYNA library for both of them. This "sliding interface" is a penalty formulation that allows
separate definition for the "slave" nodes of the shell and the master contacting surfaces of the base
and moving mass parts. The target surface, (i.e. the contact surface on the moving mass), is
specified as the "master" surface, and the shell edge nodes are defined as the "slave" nodes.
Relative motion at the interfaces was permitted considering Coulomb friction coefficients equal to
0.3 (static friction coefficient) and 0.2 (dynamic friction coefficient), respectively.
5. The "single surface" type of interface was selected from the LS-DYNA library, to simulate the
situation during the collapse, when elements of the tube wall contact each other creating a new
interface. This contact definition requires thickness to be taken into account for a shell that is
modelled by using shell elements. The "single surface" contact type uses nodal normal projections
and, therefore, it prevents the elements from penetrating the specimen surface during the collapse.
It also permits relative motion considering Coulomb friction with the same static and dynamic
coefficients as above. In this type the whole specimen was defined as "slave" surface.

EXPERIMENTAL VALIDATION
The axial collapse of steel thin-walled square frusta was experimentally investigated by axially
compressing them between the parallel steel platens on an MTS universal testing. All tests were
carried out at a crosshead speed of 10 m d m i n that corresponds to an overall quasi-static compression
strain rate of 10" s-'.
The specimens were fabricated from sheets that were cut and bent properly and then axially welded in
the middle of one face using oxy-acetylene to form square frusta with constant initial axial length and

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semi-apical angle ranging between 5'-14'; see Table 1 for details. All specimens were freely and
axially compressed in a "dry" condition. The shell material was low-carbon steel in its annealed state
with a strain-stress curve, as obtained from a quasi-static tension test, as shown in Figure 1.
A series of photographs were taken showing characteristic stages of the compressive crumpling for
some frusta and the modes of deformation observed; see Figures 2(a)-5(a). Load-deflection curves
were also taken by an automatic recorder and shown in Figures 2(c)-S(c), respectively, along with
those obtained by the simulation process.

Table 1. Material, specimen and simulation characteristics

~

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Material, specimen and simulation

characteristics

~~~~

~~~~

Specimen 1

Specimen 2

Specimen 3

Specimen 4

Base dimensions (mm) face x seam

34.5 x 35.6
Top dimensions (mm) face x seam
50.0 x 5 1.9
Height (mm)
127
Wall thickness (mm)
0.97
Semi apical angle ( ')
5O
Density (kg/m3)
7830
Yield stress ( MPa )
207000
Young modulus ( MPa )
210
Poisson's ratio
0.28
Drop mass (kg)
60
Impact velocity ( d s )
6.05
Number of shell elements
3300
Total shortening (experimental) (mm)
89
Total shortening (simulation) (mm)
89.5
Energy dissipated (experimental)@.I) 0.950
Energy dissipated (simulation) (kJ)
1.036

35.7 x 36.4
58.5 x 59.1
127
1.47
7.5O
7830
207000
210
.028
60
9.1
3300
89
83.5
2.623
2.667

26.5 x 27.5
55.8 x 57.2
127
1.6

11.7~
11.6
56.8 x 56.5
127
1.52
14'
7830
207000
210
0.28
60
8.7
4400
89
90.5
2.090
2.073

002

004

0.06

10'

7830
207000
210
0.28
60
9.25
2000
89
89
2.1 16
2.504

008

Nat ura 1 t e n t i l e rt r a i n

Figure 1. True stress-strain curve of material tested

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

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Deformation modes
Successive stages of a typical progressive plastic collapse encountered to the axial compression of
square frusta are shown in Figures 2(a)-5(a) for various semi-apical angles, whilst their respective
terminal collapse patterns may be seen in Figure 6 . The main failure mode was of the "symmetrical"
type [I] and some similar deformation characteristics during the crumpling process were observed:
Collapse started at the narrow end of the shell with the developed deformation mode consisting of
fixed horizontal and inclined travelling hinges.
For the majority of frusta tested, the first axial lobe developed according to the "inextensional"
type of failure, consisting of two similar lobes per opposite sides, one pair moving outwards and
the other inwards. The subsequent groups of similar lobes but of greater size were arranged at a
direction 90' to the previous one.
Square pyramids, i.e. frusta with 14" semi-apical angle, formed the first convolution according to
"extensible" type of deformation the consisting of all four sides moving outwards in the form of
an axisymmetric ring, with a corresponding increase of the initial dimensions.
As the semi-apical angle increases, some of the wider lobes formed gradually cover the shorter
ones and often touch the lower platen of the testing machine.
The above-described failure mechanism seems to be verified with good accuracy by FE simulation
process. A sequence of deformations plots, as predicted by the FE analysis, is presented for each case
in Figures 2(b)-5(b), respectively, giving failure mode configurations quite similar to those
experimentally investigated; see also terminal views in Figure 6 . It must be noted that an axisymmetric
first lobe was also predicted theoretically in the case of 10' semi-apical angle.

Energy absorption characteristics

From the typical load-deflection curves shown in Figures 2(c)-5(c), it is observed that initially the
shell behaves elastically and the load increases at a steady state, with the load-deflection curves
showing the initial peak load followed by a rapid decrease in load. Thereafter, the post-buckling phase
is developed with secondary peaks and troughs directly related to the formation of subsequent
buckling during the crumpling process. The secondary peak loads are significantly lower in magnitude
compared to the initial one, but of increasing magnitude as the compression proceeds.
For estimating the theoretical load-deflection curves, the exerted load by the moving mass has been
derived from its deceleration curve estimated by the FE code. Figures 2(c)-5(c) show the relevant
curves for each case, respectively, comparing the experimental curve to the FE code results. From
their comparison it is apparent that LS-DYNA estimates with good accuracy the peak loads, however a
slight delay to the arrangement of fluctuations is apparent, probably due to the selection of "shell"
elements.
It must be noted that the amount of energy dissipated compares reasonably well, and, although the
simulated quasi-static problem was treated by the FE code as dynamically conducted, the values
obtained were found close to those experimentally obtained; compare the related magnitudes as
tabulated in Table 1 and Figures 2(c)-5(c).

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3
(a)

~~

40

35 !
30
25

10

51

Figure 2. Progressive collapse of specimen 1 (5' semi-apical angle). (a) Experimental; (b) FE
simulation; (c) load-deflection curves (------experimental; -theoretical).

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80
70

60
50

-%

40

-1

30
20

10
~-

0.8

Figure 3 . Progressive collapse of specimen 2 (7.5" semi-apical angle). (a) Experimental; (b) FE
simulation; (c) load-deflection curves (------experimental; -theoretical).

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3
D

301

21
J

2o

10

Figure 4. Progressive collapse of specimen 3 (10" semi-apical angle). (a) Experimental; (b) FE
simulation; (c) load-deflection curves (------experimental; - theoretical).

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(b)
40

DisplacemenffLength

Figure 5 . Progressive collapse of specimen 4 (14' semi-apical angle). (a) Experimental; (b) FE
simulation; (c) load-deflection curves (------experimental; - theoretical).

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Experimental

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FE Simulation

Figure 6. Terminal bottom views of collapsed specimens. (a) Specimen 1; (b) specimen 2; (c)
specimen 3; (d) specimen 4.

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CONCLUSIONS
The progressive axial collapse of thin-walled steel square fivsta was investigated experimentally and
analysed numerically by using the LS-DYNA FE code.
The characteristic "symmetrical" deformation mechanism was obtained throughout the whole test
series and verified successfully by the simulation process.
Loading, energy absorbed and crash response were predicted by the FE code with good accuracy and a
reasonable amount of computer amount, enabling, in this manner, the designer of crashworthy
structures with an efficient and credible design tool.

REFERENCES

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I A G Mamalis, D E Manolakos and G L Viegelahn, Deformation Characteristics of Crashworthy Components, FortschrittBerichte der VDI-Zeitschriften, Reihe 18, Nr. 62, Diisseldorf, 1989.

2 W Abramowicz and N Jones, "Dynamic axial crushing of circular tubes", Int JImpact Engng, 1984 2 263-28 1.
3 W Abramowicz and N Jones, "Dynamic axial crushing of square tubes", Int J Impact Engng, 1984 2 179-208.
4 A G Mamalis, D E Manolakos, G L Viegelahn, N M Vaxevanidis and W Johnson, "On the inextensional axial collapse
of thin PVC conical shells", Int JMech Sci, 1986 28 323-335.
5 A G Mamalis, D E Manolakos and G L Viegelahn, "The axial crushing of thin PVC tubes and frusta of square crosssection", Int J Impact Engng, 1989 8 241-264.

6 S R Reid and T Y Reddy, "Static and dynamic crushing of tapered sheet metal tubes of rectangular cross-section", Int J
Mech Sci, 1986 28 623-637.
7 J 0 Hallquist, "LS-DYNA 3D: Theoretical Manual", Livermore Software Technology Corporation, Livermore, 1993.

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