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Soil loads on pipelines: the Dutch approach

Kruse, H.M.G. and H.J.A.M. Hergarden
Deltares/GeoDelft, National institute unit geo-engineering
(E-mail: henk.kruse@deltares.nl and henk.hergarden@deltares.nl)

Abstract
The pipe stress analysis is very often the most important part of the engineering of
pipelines. The different installation techniques cause different soil-pipe interaction
after pipeline installation, so that in turn the soil load for the pipe stress analysis is
different. In the Netherlands an approach for the determination of soil loads for the
different installation methods was developed throughout the years. In case of
installation of the pipe in a trench, the occurrence of settlements is an important
factor for the soil load on the pipe. Besides macro settlements due to for example
heightening at the surface, settlements in the trench cause an initial soil load
immediately after installation, which is often normative for the engineering of the pipe.
The formation of a borehole in which the pipe is installed by the horizontal directional
drilling method causes a serious reduction in soil load on the pipe. Especially in
granular soils the reduced soil load allows installation of plastic pipes at large depths.
In compressible soils, consolidation causes a less strong reduction of the soil load.
The borehole around the pipe induced by microtunnelling is caused by a slight
overcut and leads to incomplete vertical deformation of the soil volume above the
pipe, which leads to a less developed arching.The less developed arching yields a
higher vertical soil load on the pipe, than in case of horizontal directional drilling

1.

Introduction

Successful operation of a pipeline system on long term is strongly related to the quality of the
engineering works carried out before the installation of the pipeline. The pipe stress analysis
is very often the most important part of the engineering of pipelines. The pipe stress analysis
considers the combination of all loads acting on the pipeline and compares the resulting
stresses in the pipeline with the allowable strength of the pipeline. The load on the pipeline
caused by the soil-pipe interaction is called soil load or soil reaction [1].
The installation of pipelines is carried out in trenches from times immemorial. After excavation
of the trench the pipeline is installed on the bottom of the trench and is subsequently covered
by the excavated soil. Since the seventies, last century, other techniques for pipeline
installation are introduced. These so called trenchless techniques such as horizontal
directional drilling, micro tunneling and other pipe jacking methods are applied on a large
scale since the eighties. On one hand they provide a logical alternative when pipelines need
to cross roads, railways, dikes, wetlands, rivers and other structures that have to remain
intact. On the other hand these techniques minimize the impact of installation activities in
densely populated and economical sensitive areas.
With the introduction of the trenchless installation techniques the soil reaction forces, which
have to be considered in the pipe stress analysis became more complex. The different
trenchless techniques cause different soil-pipe interaction so that in turn the soil reaction for
the pipe stress analysis is different [1].

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2.

Soil-pipe interaction

The magnitude of the soil reaction force on a pipeline surrounded by soil or drilling fluid (or
other drilling or tunnelling related substances such as dmmer or grout) is determined by the
soil-pipe interaction. In case both the soil and the pipeline are at rest, the soil-pipeline
interaction is in neutral condition. The neutral soil load can be calculated for this condition.
Due to the soil pipe interaction, induced by either the pipe or the soil, soil deformations and
pipe displacement will occur. The deformations lead to increase or decrease of the soil load
on the pipe. This soil reaction behaviour is often modelled by using a spring model. By
locating springs around the pipe, the displacement and related stress changes can be
calculated (figure 1). The displacement in longitudinal direction along the axis of the pipe is
modelled by a spring too.

Figure 1 Pipe soil interaction modelled by springs

The increase or decrease of the soil reaction stress is usually calculated by linear or bilinear
springs. The stiffness of the spring is expressed as a modulus of sub grade reaction. Since
the soil which is surrounding the pipe becomes plastic at a certain stress level, this is the
maximum stress which can occur. In figure 2 is shown that the depending on the direction of
displacement the passive horizontal effective stress and the active horizontal effective stress
form the upper bounds of the springs.
The calculated soil stress on the pipe using the springs model are in general dependent on:
Sequence of soil layers above the pipeline
Soil layer in which the pipeline is installed
The water pressure distribution
Sequence of soil layers below the pipeline
Settlement of the soil layers below the pipeline
Horizontal deformation of the soil layers next to the pipe
Relative pipeline movement ( in axial or tangential direction, due to for example
temperature variations in the pipeline)
Since the soil-pipe interaction is influenced by the installation method, different calculation
methods to determine the moduli of subgrade reaction and the maximum and minimum
values of the soil loads exist.

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horizontal effective stress

passive effective stress

active effective stress

horizontal displacement
Pipe towards the soilmass

Pipe from the soilmass

Figure 2 The spring for modelling the soil pipe interaction.

3.

Installation in a trench

In case of pipeline installation in a trench the interaction between the pipe and the condition of
the soil material, which is placed back in the trench plays an important role in the
development of the soil load. Besides the condition of the soil material with which the trench is
backfilled, the following parameters determine the soil load for a pipeline in a trench:
Dimensions of the trench
Soil type in which the trench is excavated
Soil type with which the trench is backfilled
Unit weight of the soil material with which the trench is backfilled
The stiffness of the pipeline
In case there is no relative displacement, both the soil and the pipeline are at rest, the soilpipeline interaction is in neutral condition.The neutral vertical soil load is defined as (figure 3):

qv ,n

v,H

0.5

D0

where:
v,H
Vertical effective stress at depth Hl [kN/m2]
Hl
Soil cover above the top of the pipe [m]
D0
Outer diameter of the product pipe [m]
Effective unit weight at the top of the pipe [kN/m3]

Figure 3 Schematic diagram for calculation of the neutral vertical soil load

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In case of construction activities on the surface above the pipeline the soil pipeline interaction
changes. In case of very large settlements the soil layers below the pipe will deform more
than the relative stiff pipeline. The inability to follow the soil deformation leads to a so called
passive soil load on the pipe (figure 4)

Figure 4 Passive stress on top of the pipe, source: [3].

The passive vertical soil load is defined by Marstons formula [2]:

qv , p
where:
f
v,H
Hl
D0
qv,p

qv , n

v,H

D0

Hl

Factor depending on the soil type [-]

Vertical effective stress at depth Hl [kN/m2]
Soil cover above the top of the pipe [m]
Outer diameter of the product pipe [m]
Maximum passive vertical soil load [kN/m 2]

The value f depends upon the soil type, the degree of densification of the soil and the width of
the trench bottom. Under normal circumstances with normal degree of densification the factor
f is about 0.3. This value decreases when the width of the trench bottom reduces.
In case of small settlements, the increase in soil stress can be calculated using the modulus
of sub grade reaction. This modulus Ktop is determined by a semi empirical formula which is
based on field experiments. Figure 5 shows the results of a large series of upward pulling
tests in order to determine the modulus of sub grade reaction of the soil layers above the
pipe.
The regression line through the measured upward pulling force data was transformed to a
linear line in order to define the vertical modulus of sub grade reaction above the pipe:

k v , top

qp

qn

z max

For clay and peat, the displacement zmax is determined as follows:

z max

0,25 D0
E 1,5

where:
E
H
D0
zmax

H
D0
2

Youngs modulus of the soil above the pipeline [MN/m ]

Soil cover above the top of the pipe [m]
Outer diameter of the product pipe [m]
Displacement [m]

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Figure 4 Results of upward pulling tests with regression line.

For sand, the displacement zmax is determined as follows:

z max

0,20 D0
E 0 ,5

H
D0

The neutral and the passive load (in case of large displacements) and the modulus of sub
grade reaction can be used for the long term conditions. In the period directly after the
installation of the pipeline in the trench, the compaction of the fill plays an important role in the
soil pipe interaction. The compaction of the fill leads to differential settlement of the fill above
the pipe and adjacent to the pipe. The differential settlement leads to shear plane with shear
forces which are in turn transferred to the pipe.

Relative loose fill

Figure 5 Compaction leads to initial soil stress, source [3].
The initial soil load in the period after the construction can be calculated using the subsequent
formula:

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qini

K tot (q p qn )
(q p qn )
K tot
D0

qn

Where:
qini
initial soil load [kN/m 2]
displacement coefficient [-]
Ktot
combined modulus of sub grade reaction of the soil above the pipe, the pipe and the
soil below the bottom of the pipe [kN/m3]:

1
K tot

K v ,top

K pipe

K v ,bot

With:

K pipe

E Iw
ky r3

Where:
E
Iw
ky
r

Elasticity modulus of the pipeline material [kN/m 2]

Moment of inertia of the pipe wall [m 4]
Deflection coefficient [-]
radius of the pipe [m]

The higher soil load immediately after the installation is very often the normative situation for
the design of the pipeline.
The spring below the pipe and next to the pipe, which act in horizontal direction are not
described in this paper, but can be found in the Dutch guideline for pipeline installation
NEN3650 [3]. The axial springs are described in this guideline as well.

3.

Installation using horizontal directional drilling

In case of pipeline installation using the horizontal directional drilling method, a relative large
(compared to the pipeline diameter) borehole is created. The presence of this borehole
strongly influences the pipe soil interaction in tangential and axial direction. The tangential
spring used to model in the pipe soil interaction is modified (figure 6).
plastic
spring force F(un)
wall of bore hole
b= gap between pipe and wall
pipe line wall
k(un)

-b
b

un

centre of bore hole

un

Figure 6 Pipe soil interaction in a bore hole filled with drilling fluid.
Due to arching around the borehole the vertical soil load on the pipe is minimal. The soil load
is only in minor extent dependent on the amount of overburden soil. The arching mechanism

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of boreholes is described by Meijers and de Kock [4]. Centrifuge tests with soil load
measurements on pipes installed by horizontal directional drilling were carried out by Viehofer
et. al. [5]. Results of the centrifuge tests showed that the soil load on the pipe in the borehole
is minimal due to the mechanism of arching. The results in the centrifuge test (soil stress
measurements next to the borehole) are confirmed by finite element calculations, which in
turn show that the theory is described by Meijers and de Kock [4] is suitable for the
determination of soil loads op pipes installed by horizontal directional drilling.
Based on the arching theory the vertical soil load for a pipe in granular incompressible
material is calculated as follows:

B1
qn ,r

c
B1

'

1 e

K tan

K tan h
B1

where:

B1

1
tan
2
4

D0

Reduced neutral vertical soil load [kN/m 2]

Neutral earth pressure coefficient [-]
Average angle of internal friction [0]
Average cohesion [kN/m2]
Average effective unit weight [kN/m 3]
Height between the top of the borehole and the surface [m]

qn,r
K
c

Due to the arching effect, it is possible to install plastic pipelines at a large depth of more than
30 m in granular incompressible soils. In case of compressible soils arching is less strong
developed due to the consolidation effect. With increasing time the consolidation process
progresses and leads to higher soil loads on the pipe. In compressible soil layers, the reduced
neutral vertical soil load is defined as:

qn ,r

Fr
2 B1

where:

0.9 Fmax
B1 3H 2h ln h

Fr
1

2CH

Fmax
2 B1 v

With:

Fmax

2 B1

Qn ,r

D0

With:

c
B1

B1
Qn ,r
c

K tan

1 e

K tan h
B1

D0
2

Average cohesion between the surface and the layers above the pipe centre [kN/m ]

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C
Kv

Compression index of the hardened/consolidated drilling fluid [-]

Bedding constant of drilling fluid [kN/m 3]
Relative displacement of the soil column [m]
Thickness of the compressible layer [m]

Figure 7 calculated reduced soil load in a soil profile with a compressible clay layer on top of a
sand layer.
It should be noticed that the arching is taken into account from a safe depth of 8 B1 in case of
a compressible layer and a depth of 4 B1 in case of an incompressible layer.
In case of large differential displacements in between the pipe and the surrounding soil, a
passive soil load may develop on the pipe. For shallow depths the trench approach can be
used, but for H< 5 D0 (this limit is determined by a series of finite element calculations), the
passive vertical soil load should be determined using the cylindrical elasto-plastic expansion
theory:

q p ,max

pf

c cot

0.5D0
0.5 D0 h

sin
1 sin

c cot

where:

pf

Q
0

0
V
H

1 sin

sin

c cos

c cos
G

Effective isotrope stress [kN/m2]:

V

Effective vertical stress at the pipe centre [kN/m2]

Effective horizontal stress at the pipe centre [kN/m2]:

Shear modulus at the pipe centre [kN/m 2]

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In case of relative small differential movement in between the pipe and the surrounding soil,
the increase in soil stress can be calculated using the modulus of sub grade reaction. This
modulus Kv is based on Schleichers theory [6]:

kv

E
m 1

where:
2

Average Youngs modulus of the soil [kN/m ]

Average Poisson ratio [-]
2
Section [m ]:

D0 l

Minimum characteristic length [m]:

l
Characteristic stiffness pipeline-soil [m-1]:
4

Epipe
Ib
m

kv

D0
4 E pipe I b

Young modulus of the pipe [kN/m 2]

Moment of inertia of the pipeline [m4]:
Shape coefficient, depending on l/b [-]:

52.31 l b
51.90 3.596 l b

The results of calculated moduli of sub grade reaction using Scheichers theory are compared
with the results of finite element calculations [7]. The comparison shows that values
calculated with Schleichers formula are a reasonably well estimation for the stiffness of the
spring around the pipe in the borehole.
The spring below the pipe and next to the pipe, which act in horizontal direction are not
described in this paper, but can be found in the Dutch guideline for pipeline installation
NEN3650 [3].
In axial direction the friction is along the pipeline is reduced by the drilling fluid in the
borehole. Immediately after the installation the friction in between the pipeline and the drilling
fluid is largely determined by the gel strength of the drilling fluid. For a bentonite based drilling
fluid this gel strength is approximately 50 Pa. After some time the drilling fluid becomes stiffer
and the friction is increasing. In the Netherlands, at some locations long term frictional
stresses of about 0,50 kPa are measured.

4.

Installation using micro tunnelling

The pipe jacking techniques cause a more or less direct soil-pipe contact. The installation of a
pipeline using the micro tunneling method yields a soil-pipe interaction, which characteristics
are in between the direct soil-pipe contact of pipe jacking techniques and the relative large
borehole of the horizontal directional drilling technique. The existence of a borehole due to the
so-called overcut of about 1 or 2 cm (on the radius) in combination with the tail injection of
lubrication fluid will lead to less ability of vertical deformation, which in turn will lead to a less
developed arching. The less developed arching yields a higher vertical soil load on the pipe.
The less developed arching can be calculated using the method described in the ATV [8].
This method is based on the incomplete development of shear stresses (arching stresses)

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due to a limited vertical deformation of the soil mass above the pipe (figure 8). The limited
deformation is in the ATV estimated at about 10 % of the total deformation. The limited
deformation yields an approximately 50 % mobilized angle of internal friction. This value can
be used in the reduced soil load formulas proposed by Meijer and de Kock [4].

Figure 8 The choice of the angle of internal friction in less developed arching, source [8].
An overview of the springs required for the engineering of a pipeline installed by micro
tunnelling can be found in the Dutch guideline for pipeline installation NEN3650 [3]. In axial
direction the injected fluid or material around the pipe is of major importance for the friction
characteristics.

5.

Conclusion

The different installation techniques cause different soil-pipe interaction after pipeline
installation, so that in turn the soil load for the pipe stress analysis is different. In the
Netherlands an approach for the determination of soil loads for the different installation
methods was developed throughout the years.
In case of installation of the pipe in a trench, the occurrence of settlements is an important
factor for the soil load on the pipe. Besides macro settlements, due to for example
heightening at the surface, settlements in the trench cause an initial soil load immediately
after installation, which is often normative for the engineering of the pipe. The formation of a
borehole in which the pipe is installed by the horizontal directional drilling method causes a
serious reduction in soil load on the pipe. Especially in granular soils the reduced soil load
allows installation of plastic pipes at large depths. In compressible soils, consolidation causes
a less strong reduction of the soil load. The borehole around the pipe induced by
microtunnelling is caused by a slight overcut and leads to incomplete vertical deformation of
the soil volume above the pipe, which leads to a less developed arching.The less developed
arching yields a higher vertical soil load on the pipe, than in case of horizontal directional
drilling

6.

Literature

[1]

Hergarden, H.J.A.M. (2008) Geotechnical design factors HDD crossings. proc DCA conference, Prien,
Germany

[2]

Marston (1930), The theory of external loads on closed conduits in the light of the latest experiments,bul 96

[3]

NEN (2003), Requirements for pipeline installation Dutch Standard, ICS 23.040.10 NEN Delft, 2003

[4]

Meijers, P. and De Kock, R.A.J. (1993), A calculation method for earth pressures on directionally drilled
pipelines, Pipeline conference 1993, Belgium.

[5]

Viehofer, T., T. Linthof. and A. Bezuijen. (2005), Stability of a borehole during horizontal directional drilling,
Proc. No dig conference Rotterdam

[6]

Schleicher, F.. (1926). Zur theorie der Baugrundes, Der Bauingenieur, Heft 48/49, 1926

[7]

Teunisse, J.A.M., J.P. Pruiksma and H.M.G. Kruse.(2008) Modulus of subgrade reaction for pipelines in a
borehole installed by horizontal directional drilling, Int. No-Dig conf. Moscow

[8]

Abwassertechnischen vereinigung ATV (1990), Statische berechnung von vortriebrohren, arbeitblad 161