Res Eng CH 7

7
Fundamental Properties of Reservoir Rocks
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
1. CHARACTERISTICS OF RESERVOIR ROCKS
2. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
RESERVOIR ROCKS
3. POROSITY
3.1 Range of Values
3.2 Factors Which Affect Porosity
3.2.1 Packing and Size of Grains
3.2.2 Particle Size Distribution
3.2.3 Particle Shape
3.2.4 Cement Material
3.3 Subsurface Measurement of Porosity
3.3.1 Density Log
3.3.2 Sonic Log
3.3.3 Neutron Log
3.4 Average Porosity
4. PERMEABILITY
4.1 Darcy's Law
4.2 Factors Affecting Permeability
4.3 Generalised Form of Darcy's Law
4.4 Dimensions of Permeability
4.5 Assumptions For Use of Darcy's Law
4.6 Applications of Darcy's Law
4.7 Field Units
4.8 Klinkenberg Effect
4.9 Reactive Fluids
4.10 Average Reservoir Permeability
5. STRESS EFFECTS ON CORE MEASUREMENTS
5.1 Stress Regimes
5.2 Compressibility of Poros Rock
5.3 Types of Compressiblilty
5.4 Measurements of Pore Volume Compressiblity
5.5 Effect of Stress on Permeability
6. POROSITY - PERMEABILITY RELATIONSHIPS
7. SURFACE KINETICS
7.1 Capillary Pressure Theory
7.2 Fluid Distribution in Reservoir Rocks
7.3 Impact of Layered Reservoirs
8. EFFECTIVE PERMEABILITY
8.1 Definition
8.2 Water Displacement of Oil
8.2.1 Water - Oil Relative Permeability
8.3 Gas Displacement of Oil and Gas - Oil Relative
Permeability
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Having worked through this chapter the Student will be able to:
Define porosity and express it as an equation in terms of pore, bulk and grain
volume.
Explain the difference between total and effective porosity.
Define permeability and present an equation, Darcys Law, relating flow rate
to permeability in porous media.
List the assumptions for the applicability of Darcys Law.
Derive an equation based on Darcys Law relating flow of gas in a core plug and
the upstream and downstream pressures.
Derive an equation relating flow rate to permeability for a radial incompressible
system.
Comment on the difference between gas and liquid permeability (Klinkenberg
effect ).
Sketch a figure relating liquid permeability to gas permeabilities plotted as a
function of reciprocal mean pressure.
Briefly describe the impact of reservoir stresses on permeability and porosity
Draw a sketch demonstrating the result of interfacial tension between oil, water
and a solid, and locate the contact angle and define its values for wetting and
non-wetting phases.
Express the capillary pressure Pc as two equations, one in terms of interfacial
tension, contact angle and pore radius, and the other in terms of height and
density of fluids.
Define the free water level.
Draw the Pc or height vs. saturation capillary pressure curve and identify
significant features.
Sketch and explain the impact of saturation, history, density difference and
interfacial tension in capillary pressure curves.
|Sketch the impact of capillary pressure effects on the saturation distribution of
stratified formations
Define effective and relative permeability and plot typical shapes.
Define imbibition and drainage in the context of capillary pressure and relative
permeability curves.
Sketch the pore doublet model and use it to explain the retention of trapped oil
in large pores and briefly relate it to the principle behind some enhanced oil
recovery methods.
Define mobility ratio.
Sketch a shape for gas- oil relative permeability curves.
INTRODUCTION
The properties of reservoir rocks with respect to the fluids they contain and with
respect to the fluids which will be injected into them are important when characterising
a reservoir in terms of its reserves and the mobility of the fluids. This next section
gives a brief over view of these properties, and is followed by chapters on their
measurement and variation. In relation to the detailed description of rock characteristics
the reader is referred to the Geology module of this Petroleum Engineering course.
The reservoir engineer is concerned with the quantities of fluids contained within the
rocks, the transmissivity of fluids through the rock and other related properties.
1. CHARACTERISTICS OF RESERVOIR ROCKS

The specifications of a reservoir rock are such that there must be a large enough
capacity to store economically viable amounts of hydrocarbon and the hydrocarbon
must flow at economical rates when penetrated by a well. The factors which may affect
the capacity and the flow properties are the porosity, permeability, capillary pressure,
compressibility and fluid saturation. In the case of a reservoir rock, these are not
standard characteristics determined before formation of the rock, but are closely
linked to the geological processes that brought the sediments together and deposited
them in the sequences and under the chemical and physical changes inherent in the
system.
In order to contain enough oil or gas to make production economically viable, a
reservoir rock must exceed: a minimum porosity, a minimum thickness, a minimum
permeability, and a minimum area.
In order to extract the fluids the rock must be permeable which requires that there be
sufficiently large, interconnecting pores.
Although a permeable rock must also be porous, a porous rock is not necessarily
permeable. Certain volcanic rocks are porous but not permeable because the voids are
not interconnecting; shale may be quite porous but impermeable because the pores are
extremely small, thereby preventing free movement of the fluids contained within.
2. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF RESERVOIR ROCKS

Considering a common reservoir rock, sandstone, the grains making up this rock are
all irregular in shape. The degree of irregularity, or lack of roundness reflects the
source sediments and the physical and chemical processes to which they were
subsequently exposed. Violent crushing or grinding action between rocks causes
grains to be very irregular and sharp-edged. The tumbling action of grains along the
bottom of streams or seabeds smoothes sand grains. Wind-blown sand, as occurs in
moving dunes in deserts, results in sand grains that are even more rounded. Sand
grains that make up sandstone beds and fragments of carbonate materials that make
up limestone beds do not fit together congruently: the void space between the grains
forms the porosity.
Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University
The pore spaces (or interstices) in reservoir rock provide the container for the
accumulation of oil and gas and these give the rock its characteristic ability to absorb
and hold fluids. Most commercial reservoirs of oil and gas occur in sandstone,
limestone or dolomite rocks, however, some reservoirs occur in fractured shale and
even in basement rocks such as in Vietnam. Knowledge of the physical characteristics
of the pore space and of the rock itself (which controls the characteristics of the pore
space) is of vital importance in understanding the nature of a given reservoir.
For the reservoir engineer, porosity is one of the most important rock properties as a
measure of the space available for accumulation of hydrocarbon fluids.
3. POROSITY
The first step in forming a sandstone, for example, is to have a source of material which
is eroded and transported to low lying depressions and basins such as would be found
off the coasts of a landmass. The material would consist of a mixture of minerals, but
for a sandstone, the majority would be made of quartz in the form of grains. When these
were deposited, they would be surrounded by sea water or brine, and as the sediment
thickness increased, the weight or the pressure produced by the overlying sediments
would force the grains together. Where they contacted each other large stresses would
be produced and a phenomenon called pressure solution would occur which dissolved
the quartz at the points of contact between the grains until the stresses reduced to a level
which was sustainable by the grains. The dissolved material would be free to
precipitate in other regions of the sediment. In this way the initially loose material
would be solidified with discrete connections between the grains.
Initially, if subsea, the pore spaces would be filled with brine, and as the lithification
process occurred, some pore spaces would be isolated with the brine trapped inside.
If the vast majority were interconnected then the initial pore fluid would be free to be
swept through the rock by other fluids such as hydrocarbons. In this way the geometry
of the grains produces an assembly of solids with voids in between them. The grains
vary in diameter but may be from a few microns to several hundred microns. The
geometry of the pore spaces is such that they have narrow entrances (pore throats)
where the edges of the grains touch each other and larger internal dimensions (between
the grains). The complicated nature of these interconnected pores is illustrated in
figure 1 which is a metal cast of the pores in a sandstone rock.
Figure 1
Metallic Cast of Pore
Spaces in a Consolidated
Sand
4
One method of classifying reservoir rocks, therefore, is based on whether pore spaces
( in which the oil and gas is found) originated when the formation was laid down or
whether they were formed through subsequent earth stresses or ground water action.
The first type of porosity is termed original porosity and the latter, secondary or
induced porosity. This is illustrated in figure 2.
Cementing material
Sand grain
Effective porosity 25%
Isolated porosity 5%
Figure 2
Effective, isolated and total
porosity
Total porosity 30%
Secondary porosity in limestone beds occurred as a result of fracturing, jointing,

dissolution, recrystallisation or a combination of these processes.
Where water is present in a carbonate formation, there is a continuous process of
solution and deposition or recrystallization. If solution is greater than deposition in
any zone, porosity will be developed between the crystal grains. An important type
of porosity of this kind is found in dolomite zones which occur in conjunction with
large limestone deposits. Dolomite may be deposited originally as a sedimentary rock,
or it may be formed by replacing the calcium carbonate in limestone rock with
magnesium.
The impact of isolated pore space clearly cannot contribute to recoverable reserves of
fluid nor contribute to permeable pore space as illustrated in figure 3.
Total Pore Space
Isolated Pore Space
Effective Pore Space
Permeable Pore Space
Dead End
Pore
Figure 3
Total, effective, isolated
permeable and dead end
pore space
Porosity is defined as the ratio of the void space or pore space (Vp) in a rock to the bulk
volume (Vb) of that rock and it is normally expressed as a percentage of total rock
volume. The porosity is usually given the symbol . The matrix volume is the volume
of the solid grains, Vm.
Porosity =
Porosity =
Void volume
x 100
Bulk volume
Bulk volume Grain volume

x 100
Bulk volume
Porosity =
Bulk Volume
Representation
pore volume
100
void volume + grain volume
Grain Volume
Representation
Pore Volume
Representation
These components are illustrated in figure 4 for monosize spheres.

Total porosity is defined as the ratio of the volumes of all the pores to the bulk of a
material, regardless of whether or not all of the pores are interconnected. Effective
porosity is defined as the ratio of the interconnected pore volume of a material.
If the grains are represented by spheres stacked together as in figure 4, then the pore
space can be seen between the solid grains.
Total Porosity =
Total Void Space

Vb
Effective Porosity =
Interconnected Void Space

Vb
Induced or Secondary Porosity = porosity from fractures or vugs (large chambers

formed in certain carbonates and limestones caused by groundwater flow and
dissolution).
6
Figure 4
Representation of bulk,
grain and pore volumes
3.1 Range Of Values

The maximum porosity of porous media can be considered in relation to an assembly
of spheres arranged as a cubic packing of spheres. If the sides of a cube are assumed
to be formed by the lines drawn from the centre of each sphere to the adjacent spheres,
the cube in figure 5 would be produced.
Figure 5
Cube defined by the centres
of each adjacent sphere
The length of each side would be 2x radius, giving the bulk volume as:
Vb = (2r)3 = 8r3
The grain volume would be the equivalent of the volume of one sphere
Vm =
4 r 3
3
and the porosity (given the symbol ) would be
Vb Vm
=
Vb
4 r 3
3 = 1 - = 0.476
3
8r
6
8r 3
If the spheres fit in the cusps generated by the lower layer then a porosity of 26%
occurs. For a size distribution of spheres the ultimate minimum porosity would be
zero which would be the case if sufficient grains were available to completely fill the
pore spaces as shown in figure 6 for part filling of the void.
Figure 6
Minimum porosity when all
pore spaces are filled
Several factors may combine to affect the porosity of a rock, but the main distinction
to be made is as follows based on the amount of connected pore volume, and whether
the pore space has been altered by dissolution or by fracturing after deposition and
lithification.
3.2 Factors Which Affect Porosity

The porosity (and permeability) of sandstone depend upon many factors, among
which are the packing, size and shape of the grains, variations in size of grains,
arrangement in which grains were laid down and compacted, and amount of clay and
other materials which cement the sand grains together.
3.2.1 Packing And Size Of Grains

The absolute sizes of the sand grains which make up a rock do not influence the amount
of porosity occurring in the rock. However variations in the range of sand grains sizes
do influence considerably the porosity.
3.2.2 Particle Size Distribution

If spheres of varying sizes are packed together, porosity may be any amount from 48
per cent to a very small amount approaching 0 per cent as shown in figure 7.
3.2.3 Particle Shape

If the sand grains are elongated or flat and are packed with their flat surfaces together,
porosity and permeability may both be low we will discuss further in the context of
permeability.
Pore Space
3.2.4 Cement Material

Sandstones are compacted and usually cemented together with clays and minerals.
The porosity and permeability of a sandstone are both influenced to a marked degree
by the amount of cementing material present in the pore space and the way this
material occupies the pore space between the sand grains. The cementing material
may be uniformly located along the pore channels to reduce both porosity and
permeability or the cementing material may be located at the pore throats which
reduces the ability of fluid to enter the pore, but may not reduce the overall porosity
of the rock by a significant amount.
Limestone formations may have intergranular porosity. However, the pore openings
are more often inter-crystalline, that is spaces between microscopic crystals. They
also may take the form of pits or vugs caused by solution and weathering, or by
shrinkage of the matrix. These forms of porosity are called secondary porosity.
Another type of secondary porosity is that caused by fracturing and is very important
8
Figure 7
Reduction in porosity due to
a range of particle sizes
in that it permits many limestone rocks of otherwise low porosity to become excellent
reservoirs.
Porosity may range from 50% to 1.5% and actual average values are listed below:
Recent sands (loosely packed)
Sandstones (more consolidated)
Tight/well cemented sandstones
Limestones (e.g. Middle East)
Dolomites (e.g. Middle East)
Chalk (e.g. North Sea)
35 - 45%
20 - 35%
15 - 20%
5 - 20%
10 - 30%
5 - 40%
A point that needs to be emphasised is that the concept of porosity is complex and
therefore difficult to define and determine. It may refer to spaces between sand grains
or it may refer to limestone caves: it may even exclude a fraction of the free water
(water not bound chemically) present in the rock. Sometimes good estimates, (i.e.
relevant to reservoir development problems) may be obtained from laboratory studies,
or core samples, and sometimes such measurements are irrelevant.
In summary, the amount of porosity is principally determined by shape and arrangement of sand grains and the amount of cementing material present, whereas permeability depends largely on the size of the pore openings and the degree and type of
cementation between the sand grains. Although many formations show a correlation
between porosity and permeability, the factors influencing these characteristics may
differ widely in effect, producing rock having no correlation between porosity and
permeability.
3.3. Subsurface Measurement Of Porosity

Porosity is measured directly from recovered rock samples as part of core analysis and
also downhole by special tools which indirectly measure a property which can be
related to the formation porosity. These downhole measurement techniques are very
sophisticated in both their engineering and in their practice. For example, the porosity
of a formation can be logged while the hole is being drilled, giving almost real time
indications of the nature of the reservoir. Core analysis procedures will be reviewed
later.
In general the downhole porosity may be related to the acoustic and radioactive
properties of the rock.
3.3.1 Density Log

The density log is derived from the response of the atoms in the minerals in the rock
to bombardment with gamma radiation. The atoms accept energy of a specific
frequency and emit energy of a different frequency; this energy is detected. The
energy density is related to the number of atoms and therefore to the density of the rock
being bombarded. If the formation under test is known, for instance a sandstone, then
changes in the density measured within the sandstone result from a change in the
porosity of the formation rather than a change in the mineralogical nature of the
sandstone. This obviously relies on a good description of the geology of the formation.
In a porous formation, the pore fluid will also affect the response of the tool in that the
atoms of the fluid will also react to the bombardment and affect the energy detected.
With reference to calibration samples of different rock types, the effect of both
mineralogy and pore fluid content can be accounted for. Empirical relationships have
been developed to relate the porosity to the values of density which have been logged.
In the following relationship, the logged density, L, matrix density, m , and the fluid
density, f , are related to the porosity,
L = m (1- ) + f
=
L m
f m
The contribution of the matrix and the pore fluid are in relation to the relative amounts
of each, and these are related to the porosity. Typically, matrix densities and fresh
water density are as follows
Quartz
Limestone
Water
= 2.65 gcm-3
= 2.71 gcm-3
= 1.00 gcm-3
3.3.2 Sonic Log

This log is similar in concept to the density log, however, it is acoustic energy which
is radiated into the formation from sonic transducers in the logging tool. These
produce compression waves which travel along the side of the borehole in the
formation. The time taken for the wave to travel from the transmitter to the receiver
(travel time) is related to the acoustic properties of the formation. As for the case of
the density log, if the formation is known and its mineralogy is not changing, then
variations in the travel time must result from the changes in the formation acoustic
properties, the most significant of which is the density which is related to the porosity.
As with the density tool, the density of the formation fluids in the pore spaces will
affect the travel time and this must be accounted for. Calibration samples of different
rock types have lead to an empirical relationship between the logged travel time, TL ,
matrix travel time, Tm , the fluid travel time, Tf , and the porosity, .
TL = Tm (1- ) + Tf
=
TL Tm
Tf Tm
The contribution of the matrix and the pore fluid are in relation to the relative amounts
of each, and these are related to the porosity. Typically, matrix travel times and fresh
water travel time are as follows
TQuartz
TLimestone
TWater
=
=
=
55s ft-1
47s ft-1
190s ft-1
3.3.3 Neutron Log

This is another radioactive logging technique which measures the response of the
10
hydrogen atoms in the formation and can give an indication of the porosity. Neutrons
of a specific energy are fired into the formation and they disrupt the steady state
activity of hydrogen atoms. They then radiate energy which is detected by the tool: the
energy returned is related to the number of hydrogen atoms which is related to the
hydrocarbon and water in the pore spaces. By calibration, the porosity can be
determined.
3.4 Average Porosity

Porosity is normally distributed and an arithmetic mean can be used for averaging. For
unclassified data,
n
a =
(1)
i =1
where a is the mean porosity, i is the porosity of the ith core measurement and n is
the number of measurements.
4 PERMEABILITY
4.1 Darcy's Law
The permeability of a rock is the description of the ease with which fluid can pass
through the pore structure.
At one extreme, the permeability of many rocks is so low as to be considered zero even
though they may be porous. Such rocks may constitute the cap rock above a porous
and permeable reservoir and they include in their members clays, shales, chalk,
anhydrite and some highly cemented sandstones.
The permeability is a term used to link the flowrate through and pressure difference
across a section of porous rock. The problem is complicated in that the number of pore
spaces, their size and the interconnections is not standard. Thus the application of the
general energy equation, for example as in the case of flow through pipes, becomes
very difficult for flow through porous media.
In petroleum engineering the unit of permeability is the Darcy, derived from the
empirical equation known as Darcys Law named after a French scientist who
investigated the flow of water through filter beds in 1856. His work provided the basis
of the study of fluid flow through porous rock.
Q=
kP.A
L
(2)
where:
Q =
A =
P=
flow rate in cm3/sec

cross sectional area of sample in cm2
pressure different across sample, atm
11
=
L =
k =
viscosity in centipoise
length of sample in cm
permeability in Darcy
Darcys law of fluid flow states that rate of flow through a given rock varies directly
with the pressure applied, the area open to flow and varies inversely with the viscosity
of the fluid flowing and the length of the porous rock. In terms of equating the
parameters, the constant of proportionality in the equation is termed the permeability.
The unit of permeability is the Darcy which is defined as the permeability which will
permit a fluid of one centipoise viscosity (= viscosity of water at 68F) to flow at a
linear velocity of one centimetre per second under a pressure gradient of one
atmosphere per centimetre. Permeability has the units Darcys. Figure 8 illustrates the
concept and the units of permeability
p = 1 atmos
Q = 1 cm 3
sec 1cm 2
= 1 cp
Figure 8
Concept of permeable rocks
L = 1 cm
k = 1 darcy
Darcys Law experiment consisted of a sandpack through which water flowed at a

constant rate (figure 9).
Manometric
heads of water
Length, L
Sand
Flowrate, Q
h1
h2
Flowrate, Q
Area of the end of the sandpack
His results showed that the flowrate was directly proportional to the area open to flow,
the difference in pressure and inversely proportionate to the length of the sandpack,
i.e.
Q A, h,
12
1
L
Figure 9
Schematic of Darcys
experiment
or
Q=k
A ( h1 h 2 )
L
where Q is the flow rate, A is the area of the end of the core, h1 and h2 are the static
heads of water at the inlet and outlet of the core (the equivalent of the static pressure),
L is the length of the core. K is the constant of proportionality. It is constant for a
particular sand pack. When other workers replicated the experiment, the results were
different to those of Darcy. This was accounted for by inclusion of the viscosity of the
flowing fluid and the equation becomes:
Q=
kA( h1 h 2 )
L
where the original terms have the same meaning and is the viscosity of the fluid in
centipoise.
On a more theoretical basis, Poiseuille formulated the relationship between flow rate
and pressure drop for fluid flowing in a pipe. The form of the relationship is
r 4 P
Q=
8L
(3)
where Q is the flowrate, r is the radius of the tube, is the viscosity of the fluid and
L is the length of the tube. In this case the dependence of the flowrate / pressure drop
relationship can be seen to be dependent on the radius of the tube. In a similar manner,
the radius of the pores in a rock dictate the nature of the relationship, specifically, the
radius of the pore throats is of most significance, since these are the smallest radii and
therefore affect the flowrate/ pressure drop relationship most.
The practical unit is the millidarcy (mD) which is 10-3 Darcy. Formation
permeabilities vary from a fraction to more than 10000 milli-Darcies. At the low end
of the range, clays and shales have permeabilities of 10-2 to 10-6 mD. These very low
permeabilities make them act as seals between more permeable layers.
4.2 Factors Affecting Permeability

Permeability along the flat surfaces will be higher, than the permeability in a direction
perpendicular to the flat surfaces of the grains. In a reservoir, the permeability
horizontally along the bed is usually higher than the permeability vertically across the
bed because the process of sedimentation causes the grains to be laid down with their
flattest sides in a horizontal position (minimising the area exposed to the prevailing
currents during deposition). Figure 10 illustrates the concept.
If sand grains of generally flat proportions are laid down with the flat sides nonuniformly positioned and located in indiscriminate directions, both porosity and
permeability may be very high. To illustrate, if bricks are stacked properly, the space
between the bricks is very small; if the same bricks are simply dumped in a pile, the
space between the bricks might be quite large.
13
Horizontal permeability 400mD

Vertical permeability 200mD
Horizontal permeability 900mD

Vertical permeability 500mD
Porosity 16%
Porosity 32%
Figure 10
Directional Permeability
The shape and size of sand grains are important features that determine the size of the
openings between the sand grains. If the grains are elongated, large and uniformly
arranged with the longest dimension horizontal, permeability to fluid flow through the
pore channels will be quite large horizontally and medium-to-large vertically. If the
grains are more uniformly rounded, permeability will be quite large in both directions
and more nearly the same. Permeability is found generally to be lower with smaller
grain size if other factors (such as surface tension effects) are not influential. This
occurs because the pore channels become smaller as the size of the grains is reduced,
and it is more difficult for fluid to flow through the smaller channels.
This directional perspective to any property is termed anisotropy. As shown above
permeability is a directional property and gives rise to different permeabilities
depending on the shape and depositional characteristics. Very dramatic anisotropy is
generated if a rock is fractured. These anisotropic perspectives are illustrated in figure 11.
Porosity is a non directional property and therefore is isoptropic.
Sandstone
Fractured Core
4.3 Generalised Form Of Darcys Law

A three dimensional rock can be defined within the co-ordinate system illustrated in
figure 12.
14
Figure 11
Directional permeability.
-Z
Vs
+x
0
Figure 12
Co-ordinate system for
rock permeability
+y
+Z
The x and y co-ordinates increase from zero to the left and out from the page; the z coordinate increases downwards. The flow velocity in a particular direction can be
defined as the flowrate in that direction divided by the area open to flow. In any
direction, s, the flow velocity is termed Vs and is equated to the static pressure gradient
in that direction (i.e. the change in pressure, dP, over a small element of length, ds in
that particular direction) minus a contribution from the difference in head (because
of the difference in elevation) of the fluid across the section ds. Therefore,
Vs = -
dz
k dp
g
(
)
6
ds 1.0133x10 ds
(4)
and the change in elevation head is equal to the sine of the angle to the horizontal
= sine , where is in degrees.
The Darcy units are:
Vs
k
velocity along path s - cms-1

permeability - Darcys
viscosity - centipoise
density of fluid - gcm-3
acceleration due to gravity - 980 cms-2
=
=
=
=
=
p
=
ds
pressure gradient along s - atm cm-1
1.0133 x 106 converts from dynes cm2 to atmospheres
4.4 Dimensions Of Permeability

dz
k dp
g
)
From Darcys equation, Vs = - (
6
ds 1.0133x10 ds
the dimensions of
each term can be deduced in terms of length, L, mass, M and time, T
Vs =
P =
L
T
M
LT
M
L3
M
L dP
M
g = 2
= 2 2
2
LT
T ds
LT
15
Therefore, the equation in terms of the dimensions (and keeping permeability as k) is
L
kLT M
ML
=
( 2 2 3 2)
T
M LT
LT
L
K
=
T
LT
K = L2
(5)
It can be seen that the dimensions reflect the nature of the constant of proportionality
and it should not be confused with, for example, the area open to flow, A, of the end
of a core or a sand pack. In terms of metric units, since 1 atm = 14.73 psi = 1.013 bar
and 1 cp = 10-3 Pas it follows that
1D
1mD
= 9.87 x 10-13m2 ~ 1 x 10-12m2

= 9.87 x 10-16m2 ~ 1 x 10-15m2
Other units of inches2 or cm2 could be used but they are all too large for porous media
and they would also require conversion to relate to permeabilities quoted in other
units. Darcys and milliDarcys are most commonly used.
4.5 Assumptions For Use Of Darcys Law

The simple Darcy Law, as used to determine permeability, only applies when the
following conditions exist:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
Steady state flow

Laminar flow;
One phase present at 100% pore space saturation.
No reaction between fluid and rock;
Rock is homogenous
1. Steady state flow, i.e. no transient flow regimes. This becomes unrealistic in terms
of flow in a reservoir where the nature of the fluids and the dimensions of the reservoir
may produce transient flow conditions for months or even years. For laboratory based
tests, the cores are small enough that transient conditions usually last only a few
minutes.
2. Laminar flow, i.e. no turbulent flow. For most reservoir applications this is valid
however near to the well bore when velocities are high for example in gas production
turbulent flow occurs. Sometimes it is termed non- darcy flow. Figure 13
16
Laminar Flow
Turbulent Flow
Q
A
Q k . P
=
L
A
K =
Figure 13
Effect of Turbulent Flow
on Measured Permeability
Q . L .
A P
P
L
3. Rock 100% saturated with one fluid, i.e. only one fluid flowing.
In the laboratory this can be achieved by cleaning cores, however, there will be a
certain connate water saturation in the reservoir, and there may be gas, oil and mobile
water flowing through the same pore space. The concept of relative permeability can
be used to describe this more complex reservoir flow regime. Relative permeability
is discussed later.
4. Fluid does not react with the rock, i.e. it is inert and there is no change to the pore
structure through time.
There are cases when this may not happen, for example when a well is stimulated
during an hydraulic fracturing workover. The fluids used may react with the minerals
of the rock and reduce the permeability. In such cases, tests on the rock to determine
the compatibility of the treating fluids must be conducted before the workover.
5. Rock is homogeneous and isotropic, i.e. the pore structure and the material
properties should be the same in all directions and not vary. In reality, the layered
nature and large areal extent of a reservoir rock will produce variations in the vertical
and horizontal permeability.
4.6 Applications of Darcys Law

To examine the applicability of this simple relationship, approximations to the type
of flow encountered in a reservoir can be made: linear flow along a reservoir section
and radial flow into a wellbore. More complex geometries cannot be analysed using
this simple analytical equation and forms of approximating the geometry and flow are
required.
17
In the following expressions, the nomenclature is identical to that used above.

(i) Horizontal, linear, incompressible liquid system (figure 14)
A
Q
L
P2
Figure 14
Linear flow regime
P1
From the basic Darcy equation
Vs = -
K dP
dz
g
(
),
6
ds 1.0113x10 ds
dz
g
= zero
6
1.0113x10 ds
The flow rate and area open to flow is substituted for the flow velocity. The variables
are separated and integrated over the length (for the flow rate) and the pressures P1 to
P2 for the change in pressure. The pressure drop P2 minus P1 is negative and is corrected
by the negative sign on the left hand side of the equation.
Q
A
kA dP
Q = dx
Vs = Vx =
kA 2
Q dx = dP
P1
0
Q(L - 0) = Q =
kA
( P2 P1 )
kA( P1 P2 )
L
(6)
The final form is as formulated by Darcy and the permeability will have the units of
Darcys if the other units are:
flow rate, Q - cm3s-1
area open to flow, A - cm2
viscosity, - centipoise
pressure, P - atm
length, L - cm
(ii) Horizontal, linear, compressible ideal gas system

18
The flow regime is the same as for the linear liquid system and from the basic Darcy
equation:
Vs = Vx = - k (
g
g
dP
dz
dz
),
= zero
6
6
ds 1.0113x10 ds 1.0113x10 ds
Q
A
kA dP
Q = dx
Vs =
In this case, the laboratory measurement of the gas flow would usually be conducted
downstream from the core at almost atmospheric conditions (i.e. there would not be
a large pressure drop across the flow meter). It is assumed that the gas used is ideal,
however, there needs to be a correction to the volumetric flow rate measured to
account for the higher pressure in the core. Figure 15.
P1
P2
Pb
P
L
A
Figure 15
Configuration for gas
permeability measurements.
Core
Valve
Qb
Flow
measurement
The flowrate measured, Qb at ambient pressure, Pb is related to the flowrate, Q in the

core at the pressure in the core, P via the ideal gas law. If the assumption is made that
the temperature is constant, then
QP = Q b Pb
Q =
Q b Pb
P
and substituting into the equation, separating the variables and integrating produces
Q b Pb
kA dP
=P
dx
L
kA 2
Q b Pb dx = PdP
P1
0
Q b Pb (L - 0 = -
kA ( P22 P12 )
kA( P12 P22 )

Qb =
2LPb
(7)
19
k=
2QbL
A( P12 P2 2 )
(8)
Comparing the two expressions equations 6 and 7, it is seen that the gas flow rate is
proportional to the difference in the pressure squared, whereas the liquid flowrate is
proportional to the difference in the pressure. In well testing, the flow rates are
measured at the surface and for gas wells one of the diagnostic plots is the flowrate
versus difference in pressure squared plot. Neglecting the fact that the gas is real, it
gives an indication of the ability of the reservoir to produce gas.
Gas Q b =
kA( P12 P22 )

Liquid Q =
2LPb
kA( P1 P2 )
L
In certain circumstances, the mean flow rate, Q is measured at a mean pressure, P

which, in the case of a laboratory experiment on a core, is the mean of the upstream
and downstream pressure, i.e.
P=
P1 + P2
2
and
Q = Volume flow rate at P
P Q = PbQb
substituting this into the above gas equation 7.
kA( P12 P22 )

Pb Q b = PQ =
2L
and since
1
1 kA
(P1 P2 )(P1 + P2 )
(P1 + P2 )Q =
2
2 L
Q=
kA( P1 P2 )
L
(9)
The ideal gas permeability can be calculated from the liquid equation using mean
flowrate, Q measured at mean pressure.
(iii) Horizontal, radial, incompressible liquid system (figure 16)
20
Radial flow
re
Pe
rw
re
Pw
rw
Figure 16
Radial geometry with radial
flow from the outer
boundary to the wellbore
Well
Plan
re
rw
Pe
Pw
Elevation
is the outer boundary radius

is the inner boundary radius (well)
is the pressure at the external boundary
is the pressure at the inner boundary
Starting from the basic Darcy expression again,
Vs = -
k dP
dz
dz
g
g
(
),
= zero
6
6
ds 1.0113x10 ds 1.0113x10 ds
Substituting for flow velocity, Vs = Vr =
Q
A
In this case the direction of flow is in the opposite sense to the co-ordinate system,
therefore
ds = -dr
For radial geometry, the area, A, is now radius dependent therefore
A = 2rh
Substitution into the basic expression gives
Q
k dP
= 2rh
dr
(10)
separating the variables and integrating

r
Q e dr k e
=
dP
2 h rw r Pw
Q
k
(ln re ln rw ) = ( Pe Pw )
2 h
which gives the final form
21
2kh( Pe Pw )
r
ln e
rw
Q =
(11)
(iv) Horizontal, radial, compressible real gas system

In this case the geometry is identical to that of the radial flow of incompressible fluid
with the modifications for the compressibility of a gas as per the linear gas flow
system.
Vs = -
k dP
g
dz
g
dz
(
),
= zero
6
6
ds 1.0113x10 ds 1.0113x10 ds
Q
k dP
= 2 rh
dr
If the assumption is made that the temperature is constant, then
QP = Q b Pb
Q =
Q b Pb
P
and substituting into the equation, 10
Q b Pb
k dP
= 2 rh
P
dr
separating the variables
re
dr 2 kh e
Q b Pb
=
PdP
r
Pw
rw
and integrating produces
r 2 kh Pe 2 Pw 2
Q bPb ln e =
rw
Qb =
22
kh
Pe 2 Pw 2 )
(
r
Pb ln e
rw
(10)
4.7 Field Units

Measurements made in the field are often quoted in field units and to ensure
compatibility with the Darcy equation, a conversion is required. The field units are
usually as follows:
Flow rate, Q - bbl/day or ft3/day
Permeability, k - Darcy
Thickness or height of reservoir, h - feet
Pressure, P - psia
Viscosity, - centipoise
Radius, r - feet
Length, L - feet
I oder to convert the Darcy equation for liquid flow, Q =
KA( P1 P2 ) to oil field

L
units, the following conversion factors are used:
hr
bbl 5.615ft 3 1728in 3 16.39cm 3 day
)(
)(
)(
)(
)
(
3
3
bbl
ft
in
24 hr 3600s
day
929cm 2
atm
(K )( Aft )(
)( Ppsia )(
)
2
ft
14.696 psia
=
30.48cm
( )( Lft )(
)
ft
2
and these produce the following version of Darcys equation in field units:
bbl
KA( P1 P2 )
= 1.1271
day
L
(11)
4.8 Klinkenberg Effect

Darcys Law would indicate that the permeability should be the same irrespective of
the fluid transmitted, since viscosity is included in the equation. Measurements made
on gas as against liquid for some conditions give higher permeabilities than the liquid.
This phenomenon is attributed to Klinkenberg, who attributed the behaviour to the
effect of the slippage of gas molecules along the solid grain surfaces. This occurs when
the diameter of the capillary opening (pore throat diameter) approaches the mean free
path of the gas (i.e. there is in effect only one gas molecule per capillary). Darcys Law
assumes laminar flow and viscous theory specifies zero velocity at the boundary of the
flow channel. This is not valid when the mean free path of the gas approaches the
diameter of the capillary and the result is that low pressure permeability measurements
are unrealistically high because there is insufficient gas molecules to form a zero
velocity boundary layer at the edges of the pores and to form a mass of flowing gas
within the pores. In this case, too many gas molecules flow through the pores and the
permeability appears to be higher than it actually is: the effect reported by Klinkenberg.
23
Since the mean free path is a function of the size of the molecule, the permeability is
a function of the type of gas used in the permeability measurement. This gas
permeability is corrected for the Klinkenberg effect by plotting the gas permeability
at each reciprocal mean pressure. This is illustrated for hydrogen, nitrogen and carbon
dioxide in figure 17:
100
Gas Permeability: Millidarcies
80
60
40
Hydrogen
Liquid permeability
Nitrogen
20
Carbon Dioxide
Figure 17
Variation in gas
permeability with reciprocal
mean pressure
0
0
Reciprocal Mean Pressure: (Atm.)
Pm is the mean pressure of the gas (the mean of the upstream and downstream pressures
either end of the core orp in figure 15). In effect, if the gas pressure is raised infinitely
high, the gas will perform as an incompressible liquid would, therefore if several
measurements of permeability are made at different mean pressures, the relationship
between mean pressure and permeability can be extrapolated to the equivalent
pressure conditions of a liquid. In reality, extrapolation to infinity is impossible, so the
reciprocal mean pressure is used and the results are extrapolated to zero reciprocal
mean pressure (i.e. 1/infinitely high mean pressure). This point corresponds to the
liquid permeability. The different gasses have different slopes, but they all extrapolate
to the same equivalent liquid permeability.
The form of the equation developed by Klinkenberg is of the form
kL =
24
kG
b
l+
Pm
(12)
where
kL = equivalent liquid permeability
kG = permeability to gas
Pm = mean flowing pressure
b = Klinkenberg constant for a particular gas and rock (slope of the gas permeability,
inverse mean pressure relationship).
The Klinkenberg effect is greatest for low permeability rocks and low mean pressures.
4.9 Reactive Fluids

Darcys Law assumes that the fluid does not react with the formation. Many formation
waters react with clays in the rock to produce a lower permeability to liquid than
would be obtained with gas. Therefore the permeability to water in the formation may
be much lower than would be determined to gas in the laboratory. Any water injected
into the formation may severely reduce the permeability due to clay swelling. The
change in permeability may be substantial, for example from several hundred
millidarcys to less than one millidarcy.
4.10 Average Reservoir Permeability

Permeability is not normally distributed but has an exponential distribution, therefore
a geometric mean is used to obtain an average reservoir permeability.
The Geometric Mean of n numbers is the nth root of their product:
5 STRESS EFFECTS ON CORE MEASUREMENTS

5.1 Stress Regimes
In reservoir engineering the impact of reservoir stresses on reservoir flow and capacity
parameters has been considered for a number of years but, increasingly, the interest
in stress related measurement has grown. The effect of removing a core from the
formation is to remove all the confining forces on the sample, allowing the rock matrix
to expand in all directions, partially changing the shapes of the fluid-flow paths inside
the core.
It is worth considering the stresses associated with reservoir rock parameters. Figure
18 illustrates the likely configuration of a core extracted from a vertical well, and the
orientation of the core plug extracted for permeability and porosity measurements.
25
Core plug
for horizontal
k measurement
Core plug
for vertical
k measurement
Whole core
4 Inch
Figure 18
Trends in Reservoir Rock
Characterisation
Formation
Within a reservoir the stresses in the formation can be expressed in three directions,
the major and two minor principal stresses. Figure 19a. The major principal stress
acting mainly in the vertical direction. Clearly the depositional environment and
formation structure will result in slight changes to these orientations.
Major Principal Stress
Minor Principal Stress
(a)
Minor Principal Stress
Equal Stresses
Kh
(b)
(c)
Equal Stresses
Figure 19
Stress States in Reservoirs
and Cores
26
In core analysis, service companies have been asked to measure porosity and
permeability under reservoir stress conditions. They have done this by applying
different stresses for the axial and radial stresses. As can be seen in Figure 19b for a
conventional plug the radial stress would be a combination of the major and a minor
principal stress. To enable the true stress field to be represented, a varying radial stress
distribution would be required. If a vertical plug was used, Figure 19c, then a constant
radial stress could be an acceptable value for the average minor stresses. In this case,
however, the permeability value would be Kv, the vertical permeability.
The effect of the overburden and the pore pressure on the matrix is to produce a net
force between the grains of the matrix (which, when the area over which the force acts
is accounted for produces a net stress). If the matrix is considered to be elastic, that
is, there is a unique relationship between the stress and the strain within the matrix,
then the matrix will strain as the stress is altered. If the stress increases, the strain
reduces the radius of the pore throats and reduces the volume of the pore space. This
effect may be different for different rock types and even within the same rock type if
the amount of cementing material is altered. The significant aspects of this phenomenon are when cores are removed from subsurface to the laboratory (since the
overburden and pore pressure will change) and when the pore pressure in the reservoir
changes due to local pressure conditions around the wells (drawdown) and within the
reservoir as a whole as it is depressurised, for example. The impact of the net
overburden stress which increases as the reservoir pressure ( pore pressure ) decreases
is illustrated in figure 20.
1.0
Well Cemented
Permeability: Fraction of Original
.8
.6
Friable
Unconsolidated
.4
.2
Figure 20
Permeability Reduction
with Net Overburden
Pressure
0
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
Net Overburden Pressure: PSI
In general, the stress regime subsurface is considered to be hydrostatic (as in the case
of the pore fluid) and that the stresses can be resolved into one vertical stress, and two
27
horizontal stresses. For hydrostatic conditions, all of these are the same. In core
analysis, therefore, the porosity at equivalent subsurface conditions may be determined by applying an external pressure to the core. This is usually done by inserting
the core into a cell rated for pressures up to 10000 psi (68.9MPa) and applying a stress
to the ends of the core and to the sides. The nature of these tests are such that usually
the stress applied to the sides of the core represents the horizontal stress and the stress
applied to the ends represents the vertical stress. Once trapped inside the cell, the pore
pressure may be increased to a representative level and measurements of pore volume
and permeability made under these stress conditions.
More recently, the effect of non-hydrostatic stress conditions has been shown to be
important in certain reservoir conditions, such as in tectonically active areas (Columbia,
South America where the formation of the Andes mountains is associated with large
horizontal stresses) or in areas associated with faults or very compressible reservoir
rocks such as some chalks. In this case the conventional test cells are not appropriate
and special true triaxial cells are required. In these cells the ends of the core are
subjected to the vertical stress as per the conventional cells, but the sides of the core
are wrapped in a cage of individual tubes which can be pressurised in banks around
the core to represent the different horizontal stresses.
In summary, when the properties of the cores are measured in the laboratory, they can
be subjected to
Zero stresses
No effect of the stress on the property
Hydrostatic stresses
The effect of the magnitude of the stresses are measured
Triaxial stresses
The effect of stresses resolved in the three principal directions

are measured
Real stress beheviour
The effect of the magnitude and direction of the stresses are

measured
This topic is covered in more detail in the subsequent chapter.
5.2 Compressibility Of Porous Rock

As the rock matrix is subjected to a stress, it will deform and alter the pore space
volume as the rock is compressed. For simplicity, the overburden will be considered
to produce hydrostatic stress (called the compacting stress) on the reservoir, i.e. a
grain-to-grain stress in the rock. Within the pores, fluid pressure acts on the surface
of the grains and reduces the grain-to-grain (or compacting) stress. Therefore in a real
reservoir there is a balance between the effect of the overburden stress and the pore
pressure. This can be described by the relationship
Pcompacting = Poverburden - Ppore pressure
where Pcompacting is the grain-to-grain stress, Poverburden is the stress produced by the weight
of the overburden at a particular depth and Ppore pressure is the pressure of the fluids in the
pores. The expression shows the balance between the overburden and the pore
pressure in compacting the rock matrix: if the pore pressure declines, the compacting
28
stress increases and the pore volume declines. This assumes that the overburden
remains constant which is logical over the time period of a producing reservoir. The
balance can be represented by figure 21:
Surface
Po
Cap Rock
Depth
Pf and Pc
Reservoir
Pc
Pc
Pc
Pf
Pc
Pc
Figure 21
The balance between
overburden & rock stress
and fluid pressure
Enlarged view of the pore space
Grains
Pc
Pore space filled with fluid
Po = Pf + Pc
Po = overburden pressure
Pf = fluid pressure
Pc = compacting stress
The effect of the change in the balance between the overburden stress and the pore
pressure is to change the compacting stress. If there is an increase in pore pressure,
then the pore volume will increase, however, this is rare and in the main, pore pressure
declines during production and the pore spaces compact under the increasing compact
stress. Two issues are significant: the initial porosity in the reservoir (i.e. to correctly
define the volume of oil in place) and the reduction in that porosity (or pore volume)
as the pressure declines (for material balance and simulation studies).Figure 22 shows
the relationship between porosity and depth (or stress). As the depth (and stress)
increases, the porosity declines. Care needs to be taken when assessing porosity
values: were they measured under overburden or at ambient conditions? The shale
sample shows a large change in porosity as the plate-like clay minerals are compacted
and fit together in a more congruent manner.
29
50
Porosity,
40
Sandstone
30
20
10
0
Shale
0
Figure 22
Alteration in porosity with
depth of burial (or stress)
3000
6000
Depth of burial (ft) or stress (psi)
The rate of change of pore volume with pressure change can be represented by an
isothermal compressibility (assuming temperature is constant):
Cf = -
1 dv
v dP
(15)
where Cf is the isothermal compressibility, v is the volume, dv is the change in volume

and dP is the change in pressure (the negative sign accounts for the co-ordinate system:
as the pressure increases, the volume decreases).
5.3. Types Of Compressibility

An issue with regard to the compressibility is: which part of the reservoir is being
compressed and which part is significant in calculating the response of the reservoir.
Three types of compressibility can be considered:
(i) Matrix volume compressibility - the change in volume of the rock grains. This is
very small and usually not of interest in sandstones since it is a purely mechanical
change in volume of the very stiff grains.
(ii) Bulk volume compressibility - the change in the unit volume of the rock. This is
of interest in reservoirs near the surface because of the problem of subsidence;
Changes in volume of the reservoir around faults which may cause the fault to slip
and alter the conductivity both through the fault and across it;
Reservoirs composed of unconsolidated or very weakly consolidated material where
the changes in porosity can be significant. The changes in the volume of the reservoir
both in a vertical sense leading to subsidence and in a horizontal sense leading to
shearing of the wellbore and the associated loss in integrity.
(iii) Pore volume compressibility - change in pore volume. This is of greatest interest
since the pore volume affects the porosity which affects reservoir performance.
For completeness, all aspects of the reservoir compressibility should be considered,
however, in many problems only specific aspects of the compressibility may be
required such as in a well cemented sandstone reservoir where the bulk volume change
30
is very small and the subsidence is negligible, but the pore compressibility is an
important feature of the drive mechanism.
5.4 Measurement Of Pore Volume Compressibility

The measurement of pore compressibility is usually conducted in a coreholder which
applies an equal compacting pressure around the core. An inner liner ensures the
power fluid (usually hydraulic oil) does not contaminate the pores of the sample. The
pore pressure is usually kept at ambient, i.e. the compacting pressure mimics the net
effect of the overburden and the pore pressure in the reservoir. This makes the test
simpler, however, there may be conditions where the compressibility of the grains
themselves plays a significant role in the system and the test may require to be
conducted at true overburden and pore pressure conditions. For the test at ambient
pore pressure conditions, an outlet is connected to the core holder and this is lead to
a pipette or a balance to measure the amount of pore fluid expelled. The pressure of
the hydraulic oil is increased in stages and for each stage the amount of fluid expelled
is measured after the rock has come to equilibrium. The data can then be analysed to
indicate the change in porosity or pore compressibility. Figure 23 shows the concept.
Pipette
Sealed core
Figure 23
Measurement of the
reduction inpore volume as
the external stress (or
compacting pressure) is
increased
Pump
Pressure vessel
The results show the change in pore volume relative to the original pore volume, for
a given change in the compacting pressure (this assumes that changes in the
compacting pressure have the same effects as changes in the pore pressure) which can
be substituted in to the isothermal compressibility as
Cp = -
1 dv p
v p dPc
where:
Cp
vp
dvp
dPc
= pore volume compressibility

= initial pore volume
= change in pore volume (amount of fluid expelled)
= change in compacting pressure
Typical values of pore compressibility are in the range 3 x10-6 psi-1 to 10 x10-6 psi-1,
however, soft sediments can have compressibilities in the range 10 x10-6 psi-1 to 20x10-6
psi-1 or 30 *10-6psi-1. Figure 24 illustrates the values determined for some limestones
and sandstones.
31
Pore compressibility 10-6 psi-1
10
9
Sandstone
Limestone
8
7
6
5
4
3
0
10
Porosity %
Figure 24
Compressibility of
Sandstones and Limestones
20
5.5 Effect of stress on permeability

As the effect of a stress on the rock matrix affects the pore volume, it also affects the
pore throat radii and the permeability of the rock. In general, an increase in stress
reduces the pore throat radii and the permeability declines. For most rocks subjected
to an hydrostatic stress, this is the case as the stress is equal in all directions. Figure
25 shows typical permeability declines for increase in stress for sandstone.
Permeability stress sensitivity for various sandstones
1000
Permeability (mD)
100
10
1
0
20
40
60
Hydrostatic stress (MPa)
80
Unconsolidated material has larger absolute changes in permeability as the total strain
is greater.
32
Figure 25
The reduction in
permeability for a range of
sandstone samples (the
porosity is in the range 15%
to 22%)
In true triaxial stress regimes, the stresses are not identical and the strain (and therefore
pore throat radii) may cause the sample to dilate in one direction and increase the pore
throat radii therefore enhancing the permeability. This can be illustrated better by
considering a fractured core (figure 26).
v
Fracture
Permeability
h maximum
Fracture closing under stress
Core
h minimum
h maximum
h maximum perpendicular to fracture
v
Fracture
Permeability
Core
Figure 26
Triaxial stresses applied to
a fractured core
h minimum
h maximum
Fracture opening under stress
h maximum
h maximum parallel to fracture
If the largest horizontal stress acts across the fracture (i.e. perpendicular to the faces
of the fracture) then it will be clamped shut; if the largest horizontal stress acts parallel
to the fracture, then it may split open. In this way the anisotropy (or difference in the
properties) may lead to different permeabilities and porosities from the same sample
if the stresses are applied in different ways around the core.
6. POROSITY-PERMEABILITY RELATIONSHIPS
Whereas for porosity there are a number of downhole indirect measurement methods,
the same is not the case for permeability. The downhole determination of permeability
is more illusive. Down hole permeability is mainly obtained by flow and pressure
determination and requires other characteristics for example the flowing interval.
There has been a continued interest in porosity-permeability correlations, on the basis
if one has a good correlation of laboratory measured porosity and permeability then
down hole measurements of porosity could unlock permeability values for those
formations where recovered core has not been practical. Although porosity is an
absolute property and dimensionless, permeability is not and is an expression of flow
which is influenced by a range of properties of the porous media, including the shape
and dimensions of the grains and the porosity. Since porosity is an important
parameter in permeability it is not surprising for those rocks which have similar
33
particle characteristics that a relationship exists between porosity and permeability.

Figure 27 below gives examples of permeability correlations for different rock types.
1000
Oolitic Limestone
Sucrosic Dolomite
Reef Limestone
Well Cemented
Hard Sand
Permeability: Millidarcies
100
Chalky
Limestone
10
Intercrystalline
Limestone and
Dolomite
Fine Grained
Friable Sand
1.0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
Porosity: Percent
7 SURFACE KINETICS
If core for a particular section cannot be recovered, or for example is formed as a pile
of sand on the rig floor, then correlations like these in figure 27 are used. Porosity
measurements obtained indirectly from wireline methods can be used to obtain the
laboratory porosity vs down hole porosity cross plot. Using this laboration porosity
value the associated permeability value can be determined from an appropriate
correlation as in figure 27.
The simultaneous existence of two or more phases in a porous medium needs terms
such as the capillary pressure, relative permeability and wettability to be defined. With
one fluid only one set of forces needs to be considered: the attraction between the fluid
and the rock. When more than one fluid is present there are three sets of active forces
affecting capillary pressure and wettability.
Surface free energy exists on all surfaces between states of matter and between
immiscible liquids. This energy is the result of electrical forces. These forces cause
molecular attraction between molecules of the same substance (cohesion) and
between molecules of unlike substances (adhesion).
34
Figure 27
Permeability and Porosity
Trends for Various Rock
Types
(Core Laboratories Inc)
Surface tension (or interfacial tension) results from molecular forces that cause the
surface of a liquid to assume the smallest possible size and to act like a membrane
under tension.
7.1 Capillary pressure theory

The rise or depression of fluids in fine bore tubes is a result of the surface tension and
wetting preference and is called capillarity. Capillary pressure exists whenever two
immiscible phases are present, for example, in a fine bore tube and is defined as the
pressure drop across the curved liquid interface. The equilibrium in force between the
molecules of a single phase is disrupted at an interface between two dissimilar fluids.
The difference in masses and the difference in the distances between the molecules of
the different phases produces an initially unbalanced force across the interface. Figure 28
shows the interface between oil and water molecules.
W
W
O
Figure 28
Representation of an oil
water boundary
Different mass.
Different space
between molecules.
W: water molecule
O: oil molecule
distance between molecules
Interfacial tension deforms the outer surface of immiscible liquids to produce

droplets. If the two liquids are present on a surface, the interfacial tension deforms the
liquids to produce a characteristic contact angle as shown in Figure 29.
A wetting phase is one which spreads over the solid surface and preferentially wets
the solid. The contact angle approaches zero (and will always be less than 90).
A non-wetting phase has little or no affinity for a solid and the contact angle will be
greater than 90
wo
Oil
Water
sw
Contact angle,
so
Solid
Figure 29
Interfacial tension between
oil, water and a solid
wo Interfacial tension between the water and oil
sw Interfacial tension between the solid and water
so
Interfacial tension between the solid and oil
35
The contact angle describes the nature of the interaction of the fluids on the surface:
for the oil-water system shown above: an angle less than 90 indicates that the surface
is water wet. If the angle were greater than 90 then the surface would be oil wet.
The composition of the surface also affects the interfacial tension. Figure 30 shows the
effect of octane and napthenic acid on a water droplet on silica and calcite surfaces.
The water is not affected by the change in surface in the water/octane system, however,
the napthenic acid causes the water to wet the silica surface, but to be non-wetting on
the calcite surface.
Octane
Napthenic acid
35
30
Silica
Octane
Napthenic acid
Figure 30
The effect of a change in
the surface on wetting
properties
106
30
Calcite
The Adhesion tension, At is defined as the difference between the solid water and solid
oil interfacial tension. This is equal to the interfacial tension between the water and oil
multiplied by the cosine of the contact angle,
At = sw - so = wo Cos wo
If a container of oil and water is considered as in figure 31, the denser water lies below
the oil.
cos
OIL
h
radius, r
.c
Water
If a glass capillary tube of radius, r is inserted such that it pierces the interface between
the oil and water, the geometry of the tube and the imbalance in forces produced
between the glass, oil and water cause the interface to be pulled upwards into the tube.
If non wetting fluids were used, the interface in the tube may be pushed downwards.
36
Figure 31
Capillary rise in an oil/
water system
Under equilibrium conditions, i.e. after the tube has pierced the original interface, the
adhesion tension around the periphery (2r) of the tube can be summed to give the total
force upwards. Since the interface is static, this force must be balanced by the forces
in the column of water drawn up the tube and the equivalent column of oil outside the
tube, i.e. at point C, the force (or pressure) must be the same in the tube as outside,
therefore the excess force produced by the column of water is balanced by the
adhesion tension.
net force upwards = 2r woCos
net force downwards = (wgh - ogh)r2 = gh(w - o)r2
(16)
(17)
the interface is at equilibrium, therefore

2r woCos=gh(w - o)r2
(18)
The capillary pressure is the difference in pressure across an interface, therefore in

terms of pressure (the Pc, force acting on area pr2)
gh( w o )r 2 2r wo Cos
=
= Pc
r 2
r 2
2 wo Cos
gh( w o ) =
r
It can be seen from the equations, capillary pressure can be defined both in terms of
curvature and in terms of interfacial tension, as expressed by the hydrostatic head.
Pc =
where
Pc
rc
h
w
o
2Cos
= gh( w o )
rc
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
(19)
capillary pressure
surface tension
contact angle
radius of the tube
height of interface
the density of water
the density of oil.
For a distribution of capillaries, therefore, the capillary pressure will give rise to a
distribution of ingress of wetting fluid into the capillaries. The relative position of the
capillary rise is given with respect to the free water level, FWL, i.e. the point of zero
capillary pressure. Figure 32 illustrates the effect of three different capillary radii on
the rise of water. Figure 33 shows the behaviour for a full assembly of capillaries and
alongside the associated capillary pressure curve. In this figure it is important to note
five aspects.
37
The free water level-the position of zero capillary pressure

The oil -water contact
The 100% water saturation at a distance above the free-water level due to the
capillary action of the largest tube.
The irreducible level representing the limit if mobile water saturation
The different radii segregate the capillary pressure and therefore the height to which
the water is drawn into the oil zone.
The zone of varying water saturation with height above the 100% free water oil contact
is called the transition zone.
The formation containing irreducible water will produce only hydrocarbons whereas
the transition zone of varying water saturation will produce water and hydrocarbons.
The shape of the capillary pressure curves in the transition zone will depend on the
nature of the rock.
oil
oil
oil
oil
Figure 32
Capillary Rise in
Distribution of Capillaries
FREE WATER
LEVEL
WATER
WATER
Oil water contact
Transition Zone
Irreducible Water
Pc
Oil
Water
OWC
0
FWL
Water
0%
100%
Free water level
38
Sw
So
100%
0%
Figure 33
Capillary Pressure Curve
It must be remembered that although concepts of capillary pressure were formulated

in terms of fine bore tubes, application in practice deals with a complex network of
interconnected pores in a matrix carrying surface chemical properties as illustrated in
figure 1 of the pore cast of the pore space.
The height at which a wetting liquid will stand above a free level is directly
proportional to capillary pressure which is related to the size and size distribution of
the pores. It is also proportional to interfacial tension and the cosine of the contact
angle and inversely proportional to the tube radius and difference in fluid density. The
smaller the pores ie. the lower the permeability, the higher the capillary pressure.
7.2 Fluid distribution in reservoir rocks

Water is retained by capillary forces as hydrocarbons accumulate in productive
reservoirs. The water is referred to as connate or interstitial water and in water wet
rocks it coats the rock surfaces and occupies the smallest pores, whereas hydrocarbons
occupy the centre of the larger pores. The magnitude of the water saturation retained
is proportional to the capillary pressure which is controlled by the rock fluid system.
Rock Fluid
Property
Wettability
Rock / Fluid Property
2Cos
Sw _
~ Pc =
re
Rock Property
(Permeability and Porosity)
Water wet, coarse grained sand and oolitic and vuggy carbonates with large pores have
low capillary pressure and low interstitial water contents. Silty, fine grained sands
have high capillary pressures and high water contents.
Reservoir saturation reduces with increased height above the hydrocarbon-water
contact. At the base of the reservoir there will usually be a zone of 100% water
saturated rock. The upper limit of this is referred to as the water table or water oil
contact (WOC). However, there is a non identifiable level, the free water level
representing the position of zero capillary pressure.
Figure 34 shows the capillary pressure curve for a reservoir where the water saturation
reduces above the aquifer. The 100% water saturation continues some distance above
the free water level corresponding to the largest pores of the rock, hD. Above this level
both the oil and water are present and the reservoir water saturation decreases with
increased height above the hydrocarbon water contact, since the larger pores can no
longer support the water by capillary action and the water saturation falls. Between
the 100% WOC and the irreducible saturation level is termed the transition zone.
39
Oil
Sand
Grain
Pc
h
Transition Zone
WOC
hp
FWL
0%
Water Saturation
100%
Water
Figure 34
Capillary Pressure Curve
for Porous media
Pc = (Pw - Po) gh
Consider the capillary pressure curves for the two rocks in figure 35. The first sample
(case 1) has a small range of connecting pore sizes. The second sample (case 2) has
a much larger range of connecting pore sizes, although the largest pores are of similar
size in both cases. Also, in the first case, the irreducible water saturation is reached at
low capillary pressure, but with the graded system, a much larger capillary pressure
is needed.
High Pc needed to reach limiting

water saturation.
Case 1
Case 2
Irreducible (or non - communicating)

water approach at low Pc
hI
Largest connecting pores

about the same size.
Therefore simular hD
X
hD
Irreducible
water saturation
Water saturation
100%
In addition to water transition zones, there can also be an oil/gas transition zone, but
this is usually less well defined.
Rock wettability influences the capillary pressure and hence the retentive properties
of the formation. Oil wet rocks have a reduced or negligible transition zone, and may
contain lower irreducible saturations. Low fluid interfacial tension reduces the
transition zone, while high interfacial tension extends it. Figure 36 illustrates this
effect.
40
Figure 35
Capillary Pressure Curves
for Different Rocks
Height Above Water Level
Figure 36
Interfacial Tension Effect
Interfacial Tension Effect
High Interfacial Tension
A
Low Interfacial Tension
0
100
Water Saturation: Percent Pore Space
Saturation history influences the capillary pressure water saturation relationship and
therefore the size of the transition zone. Drainage saturation results from the drainage
of the wetting phase (water) from the rock as the hydrocarbons accumulate. It
represents the saturation distribution which exists before fluid production. The level
of saturation is dictated by the capillary pressure associated with the narrow pore and
is able to maintain water saturation in the large pore below. Imbibition saturation
results from the increase in the wetting phase (water) and the expulsion of the
hydrocarbons. In this case the saturation is determined by the large pore reducing the
capillary pressure effect and preventing water entering the larger pore. This is the
situation which occurs both when natural water drive imbibes into the formation
raising the water table level and in water injection processes. Clearly the two
saturation histories generate differnet saturation height profiles. Figure 37 shows the
drainage and imbibition effects on capillary rise.
Figure 37
Saturation History Effect
Drainage
Drainage
Imbibition
0
100
Imbibition
A large density difference between water and hydrocarbons (water-gas) suppresses

the transition zone. Conversely, a small density difference (water-heavy oil) increases
the transition zone. Figure 38 shows the differences in density for water/heavy oil and
water/gas on capillary rise. Transition zones between oil and gas are not significant
because of the large density difference between oil and gas.
Figure 38
Fluid Density Effect
Fluid Density Difference Effect
Small Density Difference

(Water-Heavy Oil)
Large Density Difference

(Water Gas)
0
100
41
7.3. Impact of Layered Reservoirs

A characteristic of reservoirs is the various rock types making up the reservoir section.
Each rock type has its own capillary pressure characteristics. Wells penetrating such
formations will show a water saturation distribution reflecting the specific capillary
effects of each formation type. In some cases a 100% water saturation will be above
a lower water saturation associated with a lower elevation material with a higher
permeability, Figure 39.
For example well A would only indicate 100% water. Well B would penetrate the
transition zone of the top layer then a region of 100% water saturation. The saturation
profiles for well B and C are illustrated in figure 39. The transition zone of the next
layer 2, followed by an interfacial of 100% saturation associated with layers 2, 3 and
4 then into 100% for the next two layers. Well D penetrates through the top and next
layer at the irreducible saturation level, into the transition zone for layer three, then
into irreducible saturation for the 4th layer.
SHALE
Water saturation
profile
Well B only
Transition
zone
15
0=
25
0=
0=
0=
FWL
0
30
Free Water Level
100%
SHALE
FWL
0%
1
2
3
4
42
10
d
40 m
K=
d
m
0
19
K=
d
5m
K=
md
200
K=
Water saturation
profile well C only
S.
E RE
TON
S
D
SAN
Height
100% Water Level
Sw
100%
Figure 39
Capillary Effects in
Stratified Formations
8 EFFECTIVE PERMEABILITY
8.1Definition
The idea of relative permeability provides an extension to Darcys Law to the presence
and flow of more than a single fluid within the pore space. When two or more
immiscible fluids are present in the pore space their flows interfere. Specific or
absolute permeability refers to permeability when one fluid is present at 100%
saturation. Effective permeability reflects the ability of a porous medium to permit the
passage of a fluid under a potential gradient when two or three fluids are present in the
pore space. The effective permeability for each fluid is less than the absolute
permeability. For a given rock the effective permeability is the conductivity of each
phase at a specific saturation. As well as the individual effective permeabilities being
less than the specific permeability, their sum is also lower.
If measurements are made on two cores having different absolute permeabilities k1
and k2, there is no direct way of comparing the effective permeability kw and ko curves
since for the two cores they start at different points k1 and k2. This difficulty is resolved
by plotting the relative permeability krw and kro where
Relative Permeability =
permeability to one phase when one or more phases are present

permeability to one phase alone
kr =
ke
k
Relative permeability is dimensionless and is reported as a fraction or percentage. On

relative permeability plots the curves start from unity in each case, so direct
comparisons can be made.
A typical set of effective permeability curves for an oil water system is shown in figure
40 and for a gas oil system in figure 41.
43
1.0
0.9
Relative Permeability
0.8
0.7
k ro
0.6
k rw
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
S , Water Saturation, Fraction
1.0
Connate Water plus Residual Oil Saturation
Relative Permeability, Fraction of Absolute
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
k rg
k ro
0
0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Liquid Saturation = SO + SWO, %
The following points are to be noted:

The introduction of a second phase decreases the relative permeability of the first
phase: for example, kor drops as Sw increases from zero. Secondly, at the point where
the relative permeability of a phase becomes zero there is still a considerable
saturation of the phase remaining in the rock. The value of So at kro = 0 is called the
residual oil saturation and the value of Sw at krw = 0 is called the irreducible water
saturation.
44
Figure 40
Relative permeability
curves for water-oil sysrem
Figure 41
Relative permeability
curves for gas-oil sysrem
The shapes of the relative permeability curves are also characteristic of the wetting
qualities of the two fluids (figure 42). When a water and oil are considered together,
water is almost always the wetting phase. This means that the water, or wetting phase,
would occupy the smallest pores while the non-wetting phase, or oil phase, would
occupy the largest pores. This causes the shape of the relative permeability curves for
the wetting and non-wetting phase to be different.
100
90
Water-Wet Drainage
80
Water-Wet Imbibition
70
Oil-Wet Drainage
Relative Permeability, %
(Decreasing S w )
Figure 42
Oil and Water Relative
Permeability Curves for
Water-Wet and Oil-Wet
Systems
(Core Laboratories Inc)
(Increasing S w )
(Increasing S w )
K ro
60
50
40
Krw
30
20
10
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90 100
Water Saturation, S W
This is illustrated by looking at the relative permeability to one phase at the irreducible
saturation of the other phase. The relative permeability to water at an irreducible oil
saturation of 10% (90% water) is about 0.6, figure 40, whereas the relative permeability to the non-wetting phase, oil, at the irreducible water saturation of 0.3 approaches
1.0. In this case it is 0.95. One practical effect of this observation is that it is normally
assumed that the effective permeability of the non-wetting phase in the presence of an
irreducible saturation of the wetting phase is equal to the absolute permeability.
Consequently, oil flowing in the presence of connate water or an irreducible water
saturation is assumed to have a permeability equal to the absolute permeability.
Similarly, gas flowing in a reservoir in the presence of irreducible water saturation
is assumed to have a permeability equal to the absolute permeability.
Relative permeability characteristics are important in the displacement of hydrocarbons by water, and in the displacement of oil and water by gas. Such displacements
occur during primary and secondary recovery operations, as well as during coring and
core recovery.
Relative permeability data when presented in graphical form are often referred to as
drainage or imbibition curves. (figure 42)
45
Imbibition relative permeability is displacement where the wetting phase saturation

is increasing. For example, in a water flood of a water wet rock, or coring with a water
base mud.
Drainage relative permeability is where the non-wetting phase saturation is increasing.
For example, gas expulsion of oil during primary depletion or gas expansion of fluids
during core recovery, and the condition existing in the transition zone at discovery.
Water displacement of oil differs from gas displacement of oil since water normally
wets the rock and gas does not. The wetting difference results in different relative
permeability curves for the two displacements.
8.2 Water displacement of oil

Prior to water displacement from an oil productive sand interstitial water exists as a
thin film around each sand grain with oil filling the remaining pore space. The
presence of water as previously stated has little effect on the flow of oil, and oil relative
permeability approaches 100%. Water relative permeability is zero.
Water invasion results in water flow through both large and small pores as the water
saturation increases. Imbibition relative permeability characteristics influence the
displacement. Oil saturation decreases with a corresponding decrease in oil relative
permeability. Water relative permeability increases as water saturation increases.
Oil remaining after flood-out exists as trapped globules and is referred to as residual
oil. This residual oil is immobile and the relative permeability to oil is zero. Relative
permeability to water reaches a maximum value, but is less than the specific
permeability because the residual oil is in the centre of the pores and impedes water
flow.
8.2.1 Water-oil relative permeability

Accumulation of hydrocarbons is represented by drainage relative permeability
curves as the water saturation decreases from 100% to irreducible. Water relative
permeability reduces likewise from 100% to zero while oil relative permeability
increases.
Subsequent introduction of water during coring or water flooding results in a different
set of relative permeability curves - these are the imbibition curves. The water curve
is essentially the same in strongly water wet rock for both drainage and imbibition. The
oil phase relative permeability is less during imbibition than during drainage.
The oil remaining immobile after a waterflood is influenced significantly by the
capillary pressure and interfacial tension effects of the system. It is of note that a high
residual oil saturation is a result of the oil ganglia being retained in the large pores as
a result of capillary forces. Figure 43 illustrates the pore doublet model illustrating
how oil can be trapped in a large pore. The forces to displace this droplet have to
overcome capillary forces and are too great to use pressure through pumping. The
force required can be reduced by reducing the interfacial tension which is the basis for
many enhanced oil recovery methods; for example, surfactant and miscible flooding.
46
Water In
Oil
Advancing water
Water In
Water penetrating
smaller pores due to
capillary forces
Oil
Trapped oil
Water
Water In
Figure 43
Pore Doublet Model
An important perspective in a displacement process is the concept of mobility ratio.

This relates the mobility of the displacing fluid relative to that of the displaced fluid.
It is therefore a ratio of Darcys Law for each respective fluid at the residual saturation
of the other fluid. In the context of water displacing oil.
M = mobility ratio =
where
krw
kro
krw ' / w
kro ' / o
(20)
is the relative permeability at residual oil saturation

is the relative permeability at the irreducible water saturation.
These relative permeabilities are sometimes referred to as end point relative

permeabilities. When M is less than 1 this gives a stable displacement whereas when
M is greater then 1 unstable displacement occurs.
This topic is covered extensively in the chapter on immiscible displacement
8.3 Gas displacement of oil and gas-oil relative permeability

Gas is a non-wetting phase and it initially follows the path of least resistance through
the largest pores. Gas permeability is zero until a critical or equilibrium saturation
is reached (figure 41).
47
20
40
60
80
100
Gas
Relative Permeability: Percent
Characteristic Sand During Oil Displacement

by Gas @ 5% Gas saturation
250 md.
183 md.
0.0md.
183/250 = 0.73
0.0/250 = 0.0
Gas Saturation: Percent Pore Space
Krg
Kro
Gas Saturation: 5% of Pore Space

Specific Permeability
(Ks):
Effective Permeability to Oil (Ko):
Effective Permeability to Gas (Kg):
Relative Permeability to Oil (Kro) =
Relative Permeability to Gas (Krg) =
20
40
60
80
Water
20
40
Krg
60
80
100

250 md.
52 md.
10md.
52/250 = 0.21
10/250 = 0.04
Kro

(Ks):
20
40
60
80
100
48
20
40
60
Krg
80
100

250 md.
6.2 md.
70md.
6.2/250 = 0.025
70/250 = 0.28
Kro

(Ks):
20
40
60
80
100
100
Oil
Gas saturation less than the critical value is not mobile but it impedes the flow of oil
and reduces oil relative permeability. Successively smaller pore channels are invaded
by gas and joined to form other continuous channels. The preference of gas for larger
pores causes a more rapid decrease of oil relative permeability than when water
displaces oil from a water wet system. Figure 44 shows the alteration of relative
permeability as gas comes out of solution and flows at increasing saturation through
the oil reservoir. These gas/oil relative permeability curves are very significant in
relation to the drive mechanism of solution gas drive, which we will discuss in a
subsequent chapter.
Figure 44
Gas Oil Relative
Permeabilities ( Core Lab)

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7

Fundamental Properties of Reservoir Rocks

Fundamental Properties of Reservoir Rocks

1. CHARACTERISTICS OF RESERVOIR ROCKS

2. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF RESERVOIR ROCKS

Fundamental Properties of Reservoir Rocks

Total porosity 30%

Secondary porosity in limestone beds occurred as a result of fracturing, jointing,

Isolated Pore Space

Effective Pore Space

Permeable Pore Space

Bulk volume Grain volume

These components are illustrated in figure 4 for monosize spheres.

Total Void Space

Interconnected Void Space

Induced or Secondary Porosity = porosity from fractures or vugs (large chambers

Fundamental Properties of Reservoir Rocks

3.1 Range Of Values

and the porosity (given the symbol ) would be

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

3.2 Factors Which Affect Porosity

3.2.1 Packing And Size Of Grains

3.2.2 Particle Size Distribution

3.2.3 Particle Shape

3.2.4 Cement Material

Fundamental Properties of Reservoir Rocks

3.3. Subsurface Measurement Of Porosity

3.3.1 Density Log

3.3.2 Sonic Log

3.3.3 Neutron Log

Fundamental Properties of Reservoir Rocks

3.4 Average Porosity

flow rate in cm3/sec

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

Darcys Law experiment consisted of a sandpack through which water flowed at a

Fundamental Properties of Reservoir Rocks

4.2 Factors Affecting Permeability

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

Horizontal permeability 400mD

Horizontal permeability 900mD

4.3 Generalised Form Of Darcys Law

Fundamental Properties of Reservoir Rocks

velocity along path s - cms-1

pressure gradient along s - atm cm-1

1.0133 x 106 converts from dynes cm2 to atmospheres

4.4 Dimensions Of Permeability

each term can be deduced in terms of length, L, mass, M and time, T

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

Therefore, the equation in terms of the dimensions (and keeping permeability as k) is

= 9.87 x 10-13m2 ~ 1 x 10-12m2

4.5 Assumptions For Use Of Darcys Law

Steady state flow

Fundamental Properties of Reservoir Rocks

4.6 Applications of Darcys Law

In the following expressions, the nomenclature is identical to that used above.

From the basic Darcy equation

(ii) Horizontal, linear, compressible ideal gas system

Fundamental Properties of Reservoir Rocks

The flowrate measured, Qb at ambient pressure, Pb is related to the flowrate, Q in the

kA( P12 P22 )

kA( P12 P22 )

In certain circumstances, the mean flow rate, Q is measured at a mean pressure, P

kA( P12 P22 )