PLANT DESIGN PROJECT

PRODUCTION OF ACETIC ACID AND

METHANOL

GROUP NO

18

SHEET
JOB CODE

A
MUHAMAD FAIZ BIN ISHAK
(11151)

DESIGNER

DETAILED DESIGN OF
MAJOR EQUIPMENT
METHANOL REACTOR (R-201)
And
DESIGN OF MINOR EQUIPMENT
COMPRESSOR (K-301)
PUMP (P-203)

DOC
NO
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08

PREPARED
BY

DESCRIPTION
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
PROCESS DESIGN
MECHANICAL DESIGN
SPECIFICATION SHEET AND DRAWING
COSTING
OPERATING MANUAL
MINOR EQUIPMENT DESIGN 1
MINOR EQUIPMENT DESIGN 2

MF
MF
MF
MF
MF
MF
MF
MF

REVIEWED
BY

DATE
21/4/12
21/4/12
21/4/12
21/4/12
21/4/12
21/4/12
21/4/12
21/4/12

INFORMATION CONTAINED IS OUR PROPERTY AND MUST NOT BE USED BY OR CONVEYED TO ANY PERSON WITHOUT AUTHORITY

TABLE OF CONTENT

1. GENERAL DESCRIPTION

1.1.

INTRODUCTION

1.2.

DESIGN METHODOLOGY

1.3.

FEEDSTOCK, REACTION AND RATE OF REACTION

1.4.

REACTOR SELECTION

1.5.

THERMAL AND BED ARRANGEMENT

2. PROCESS DESIGN

12
14

2.1.

OPERATING CONDITIONS

14

2.2.

REACTOR VOLUME DETERMINATION

17

2.3.

CATALYST

22

2.4.

TUBE SELECTION

22

2.5.

NUMBER OF TUBES REQUIRED

22

2.6.

PRESSURE DROP ON TUBE

23

2.7.

TUBE LENGTH SUITABILITY CHECKING

24

2.8.

TUBE THICKNESS SUITABILITY CHECKING

25

2.9.

TUBE ARRANGEMENT

26

2.10.

TUBE-SHEET LAYOUT

26

2.11.

SHELL INSIDE DIAMETER, DS

27

2.12.

BAFFLE DIAMETER

27

2.13.

HEAT REMOVAL SYSTEM OF REACTOR

28

2.14.

AMOUNT OF COOLANT NEEDED

28

2.15.

HEAT TRANSFER AREA CHECKING

29

2.16.

PRESSURE DROP ON SHELL SIDE

32

3. MECHANICAL DESIGN

35

3.1.

REACTOR DESIGN PRESSURE

35

3.2.

REACTOR DESIGN TEMPERATURE

36

3.3.

REACTOR CYLINDRICAL VESSEL THICKNESS

37

3.4.

BAFFLE CUT

38

3.5.

REACTOR CLOSURES (HEAD AND CLOSURE)

39

3.6.

HEIGHT OF REACTOR

40

3.7.

DESIGN OF BOLTED FLANGE JOINTS

41

3.8.

GASKET DESIGN

41

3.9.

BOLT SIZING

44

3.10.

DESIGN OF FLANGE

48

3.11.

REACTOR WEIGHT

51

3.12.

WEIGHT OF SHELL

52

3.13.

TOTAL WEIGHT OF BAFFLES PLATE

53

3.14.

WEIGHT OF TUBES

53

3.15.

WEIGHT OF FLUID IN REACTOR

54

3.16.

WEIGHT OF INSULATION MATERIAL

55

3.17.

WIND LOADING

55

3.18.

PRESSURE STRESSES

56

3.19.

DEAD WEIGHT STRESS

56

3.20.

BENDING STRESS

56

3.21.

ELASTIC STABILITY (BUCKLING)

58

3.22.

REACTOR SUPPORT

59

3.23.

NOZZLES SIZING

61

3.24.

FEED NOZZLE

61

3.25.

OUTLET PRODUCT NOZZLE

62

3.26.

COOLING WATER INLET NOZZLE

63

3.27.

COOLING WATER OUTLET NOZZLE

63

4. SPECIFICATION SHEET

64

5. COST ESTIMATION

68

6. OPERATING MANUAL PROCEDURE

69

6.1.

SCOPE AND OBJECTIVE

69

6.2.

STANDARD OPERATING CONDITION

69

6.3.

PROCEDURES

70

6.4.

CATALYST CHANGE OUT PROCEDURE

72

7. MINOR EQUIPMENT DESIGN 1: COMPRESSOR

79

8. MINOR EQUIPMENT DESIGN 2: PUMP

85

8.1.

INTRODUCTION

85

8.2.

SELECTION OF THE PUMP TYPE

85

8.3.

PROCESS DESIGN

86

9. REFERENCES

92

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1: Graph of Economic Potential Vs Purge Fraction

Figure 1.2: Types of Fixed-bed catalytic reactor
Figure 2.1: Temperature profiles for co-current flow
Figure 3.1: Torispherical flanged standard dished head
Figure 3.2: Full Face Flange
Figure 3.3: Gasket Width
Figure 3.4: Bolt Sizing
Figure 3.5: Bolt Spacing
Figure 3.6: Position of Gasket on Flange
Figure 3.7: Resultant Stress of Reactor
Figure 6.1: Vacuum System for Unloading Catalyst
Figure 6.2: Installation of Thermocouple
Figure 7.1: Four types of compressor, centrifugal, axial, reciprocating and rotary
compressor (clockwise) (Saeid et al. 2006)
Figure 7.2: Approximate polytrophic efficiency centrifugal and axial flow
compressor (Sinnot 2000)
Figure 8.1: Schematic diagram of basic element of a diaphragm pump

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1: Reactor Type Screening

Table 1.2: The advantages and disadvantages of FBR and MTFBR
Table 1.3: Main characteristics of Fixed-bed multi tubular reactor
Table 2.1: Feed Stream Composition
Table 2.2: Outlet Stream Composition
Table 2.3: Stoichiometric table for methanol process
Table 2.4: R-201 Coolant Information
Table 3.1: Bolt Sizing
Table 4.1: Specification Sheet for Methanol reactor, R-201
Table 5.1: Correction factor for pressure vessels
Table 7.1: Specification Sheet for compressor K-301
Table 8.1: Properties of process streams of P-203
Table 8.2: Pipe roughness
Table 8.3: Specification Sheet for pump P-203

CHAPTER 1

GENERAL DESCRIPTION

1.1

INTRODUCTION

The major equipment that will be discussed in this paper is methanol reactor. The
process design begins with the centre of the process, which is reaction conversion
and it is important criteria to have a good reaction conversion. This will determine
the economic viability of the overall design and fundamentally important to the
environment as well.
This will also give impact to the decision of choosing between one shell and multiple
contact tubes multi-tubular fixed bed reactors to be use in the methanol conversion
process. This is very important decision as this process is highly exothermic process.
This methanol reactor is basically to convert syngas into methanol by a
heterogeneous catalytic system

1.2

DESIGN METHODOLOGY

The design methodology for the methanol reactor (R-201) can be divided into 2
major sections; the process design and mechanical design. The process design give
impact to the determination of reactor volume (Levenspiel plot) and heat transfer.
The mechanical design of R-201 utilizes British Standard 5500 reference and design
values were referred to data provided in the Mechanical Design of Process
Equipment Data Hand Book.
Overall design was carried out accordingly, as per listed follows

1. Select the major equipment Methanol Reactor, R-201

2. Justify the type of reactor that is suitable for the process.
3. Determine the optimum operating conditions.
4. Perform calculation based on rate of reaction to obtain the volume of the
reactor.
5. The value from calculation is used as input data in ICON simulation.
6. Size reactor accordingly.
7. Obtain the necessary parameters from reactor sizing calculation and proceed
with equipment mechanical design.
8. Costing is done on the reactor and the utilities needed.
9. Perform technical drawing of the designed reactor.
10. Perform start up and shut down procedures for the reactor.
From research and development done, it is proven that methanol conversion by using
low temperature reactor. This is due to the effect of having a catalyst operating at
high temperature will damage or shorten its lifespan, losses in form of catalyst
replacement will take place and low yield (due to hotspots) will be incurred. Thus,
having a lower temperature reactor will give a lower probability of runaway reaction
and catalyst deactivation.
The overall reactions involved in production of methanol are as follows:
CO+2H2

CH3OH

Hrxn = -9.1104 kJmol-1

CO2+3H2

CH3OH+H2O

Hrxn = -4.9104 kJmol-1

CO + H2O

CO2 + H2

Hrxn = -4.2104 kJmol-1

The operating conditions of reactor are as follows:

Catalyst

: Cu (60-70%) - ZnO (20-30%) Al2O3 (5-15%)

Temperature

: 220oC-300oC

Pressure

: 50-100Atm (5-10MPa)

Composition of the feed

: 59 -74%H2 27- 15% CO 8% C02

Conversion

: CO to methanol per pass is normally 16 40 %.

H2 : CO ratio

: 2-4

The selectivity

: Around 99.8 %

1.3

FEEDSTOCK, REACTION AND RATE OF REACTION

Feedstock of this reaction is mainly syngas. Feed impurities are in gaseous form
which is difficult to be purified. Rule of thumb stated that it is desired to recover
more than 99% of valuable reactants. Syngas cost is expected to increase every year;
losses incurred for not recovering unconverted syngas of would be significant over
minimum plant life of 15 years.
Hence, there shall be a recycle stream to recycle unconverted syngas together with
other inert gaseous. Purging is needed in order to prevent accumulation in the
system. The ratio of recycle-purge composition is to be justified economically.
Figure 2.1 exhibits the economic potential versus purge fraction, from here; it can be
deduced that the optimum purge fraction which yield the highest economic potential
is at 0.4.

Graph Of Economic Potential Versus Purge Fraction

Economic Potential (EP3) (USD/YEAR)

332000000

331000000

330000000

329000000

328000000

327000000

326000000
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

Purge Fraction, Ypg

Figure 2.1 : Graph of Economic Potential Vs Purge Fraction

Reaction will take place in gaseous phase, under continuous mode. The market for
methanol is available all the time, methanol is not a seasonal product and due to its
wide applications it is used all year long by numerous industries. Besides that, the
reaction rate involve in synthesizing methanol is very fast having short residence and
the product itself does not have short product lifetime.

1.4

REACTOR SELECTION

Following table is to screen between three types of reactor which are: Stirred Tank
Reactor, Fixed Bed Catalytic Reactor and Fluidized Bed Catalytic Reactor
Table 2.1: Reactor Type Screening
Stirred

Tank Fixed Bed Catalytic Reactor

Reactor

Fluidized

Bed

Catalytic

for

gas-solid

Reactor

Not practical for Highly suitable for gas- Suitable

gas-solid reaction

reaction

solid reaction

Could

Approximate plug flow

Not suitable for highly

by

having

approximate

plug flow behavior

reaction; Suitable

exothermic
counteracted

NOT

for

highly

exothermic reactions

shell and tube arrangement

Fluidized bed is difficult to

shell and tube arrangement

scale up; posed limitation

give

good

temperature

control, can be operated

isothermally and provide

for future expansion

Carryover of catalyst; cause
fouling in equipment
broad

mixing
Tend to have hotspot in

residence

time

distribution

is

Erosion of bed internal and

exothermic; counteract by

attrition of catalyst particles

diluting the catalyst

is possible

catalyst

if

reaction

Low operating cost

High conversion per unit
mass of catalyst
Easy to scale up

From the choices given, Fixed Bed Catalytic Reactor is chosen to be the type of
reactor used in this process. Fixed-bed reactors are used because the process is a
heterogeneous catalysis process where the catalyst and reacting species are of
different phases [Timmerhaus et al,2003].
9

The advantages using fixed bed reactor compare fluidized has been summarized in
the table below.
Table 2.2: The advantages and disadvantages of FBR and MTFBR
Fluidized Bed Reactor
Advantages

Multi- Tubular Fix Bed Reactor

1. Internal Cooling Coils For Heat 1. Efficient Contacting In The

Removal- Effective Temperature Reactor Flow In PFR Manner
Control- Avoid Hot Spot
2. Internal Or External Cyclones To 2.
Minimize Catalyst Carry Over

Gives Higher Conversion Per

Weight Of Catalyst

3. Usually Use For Liquid Phase- 3. Suitable Liquid And Gas Phase
Assure Intimate Contact Between
Feed & Product Vapors, Catalyst
And Heat Transfer Surface
4. No Catalyst Stickiness And
Highly Efficient Over Many Years
Of Operation
Disadvantages

1. Agglomeration Catalyst Carry 1. Not Effective In Temperature

Over

Copper Control- Hot Spots - Overcome

Downstream-

This Problem By Putting The

Contaminated

Cooling Medium On The Shell Side

2. Reduce Heat Transfer Capability 2. Besides, Temperature Control By
In

The

Reactor

And

Reduce Multiple Reactors In Series- But

Reaction Rates

Increase Cost

3. Inherent Back Mixing- Difficult

To Achieve Total Conversion Of
Limiting Feed (Hcl)
4. High Cost Of The Reactor And
Catalyst Regeneration Equipment

10

Generally, fixed-bed reactors operate with axial flow of fluid down the bed of solid
particles. Radial flow is not commonly used. Hence, Methanol Reactor, R-201
operates with axial flow of gas.
FBCR

Axial Flow

Radial Flow

Non-adiabatic operation
(multi tubular)

Adiabatic operation

Single-stage
Catalyst
outside tubes

Multistage

Catalyst
insides tubes
Inter stage heat
transfer

Cold-shot
cooling

Figure 2: Types of Fixed-bed catalytic reactor

The decision on reactor hest effects is done by estimating the reactor heat load and
adiabatic temperature change for both of the reactors. Correlation used is as below.

QR = H R FFP = FC p (TR , in TR , out )

Where

C p = Heat capacity

Q R = Heat load
H R = Heat of reaction
FFP = F = Flow into reactor

TR = Reactor streams temperature

The result from heat integration using ICON simulation indicates that adiabatically
operated reactor is feasible in this case. According to heuristic, less than 15%
increment in the reactor outlet temperature, adiabatic reactor is feasible. For direct
11

heating and cooling, heuristic states that the heat load should not be more than
8 10 6 BTU

hr

Thus, since the heat effects do NOT exceed the limit. The reactor is to be operated
by direct heating and cooling. In addition, for reactions with significant heat of
reaction, adiabatic reactor is a better option.

1.5

THERMAL AND BED ARRANGEMENT

For axial flow of fluid, the division for thermal considerations is between adiabatic
and non adiabatic operation. In adiabatic operation, no attempt is made to adjust the
temperature within the bed by means of heat transfer. In production of methanol, the
operation is adiabatic. Heat transfer for control of temperature is accomplished
within the bed itself. Thus the reactors are multi tubular reactors and not multistage
reactors.
Table 2: Main characteristics of Fixed-bed multi tubular reactor
Characteristics

Fixed Bed (Multi tubular)

Energy Transfer Mechanism

Shell

and

tube

heat

exchanger

configuration with tubes packed with

catalyst
Design Variable(s)

Tube surface area to volume ratio.

Conversion

Plug

flow

behavior

ensures

high

conversion per unit mass of catalyst.

Operation

Continuous operation

Maintenances

Fixed-bed device will have to be taken

offline to regenerate the catalyst by
means of shutting down the plant or using
standby reactor. Not suitable for frequent
catalyst regeneration.

12

Temperature Control

Temperature control with liquid, gaseous

or boiling heat transfer agent in shell side
space.

Suitability for heterogeneous

Catalyst attrition negligible.

catalytic gas phase reaction

Catalyst Lifetime

For catalyst that is deactivated slowly

13

CHAPTER 2

PROCESS DESIGN

2.1

OPERATING CONDITIONS

The operating conditions of reactor R-201 are as follows:

Methanol Reactor Operating Conditions (R-201)
Operating Temperature

: 250 C

Operating Pressure

: 68.28 Bar

Based on the simulation on iCON, the following stream tables properties are obtain.
There are two main streams considered here which are the inlet stream of R-201 and
the outlet stream of R-201. The conditions of the streams are as follows:
Feed Stream into R-201:
Operating Temperature

: 250 C

Operating Pressure

: 70 Bar

Outlet Stream from R-201

Operating Temperature

: 250 C

Operating Pressure

: 68.28 Bar

14

The following table shows the Feed Stream Composition:

Table 2.1: Feed Stream Composition

No.

Component

1 Methane

Flowrate
(kmol/hr)
27.60

2 Ethane

0.00

3 Oxygen

0.00

4 Carbon monoxide

13221.39

5 Hydrogen

53776.42

6 Carbon dioxide

6725.35

7 Water

8526.30

8 Methanol

41.61

9 Propane

0.00

10 Acetic acid

0.00

11 Nitrogen

107.60

12 Hydrogen sulfide

0.00

13 Methyl acetate

0.00

14 Argon

12.08
TOTAL

82438.36

15

The following table shows the Outlet Stream Composition:

Table 2.2: Outlet Stream Composition

NO.

Flowrate
(kmol/hr)

Component

1 Methane

27.60

2 Ethane

0.00

3 Oxygen

0.00

4 Carbon monoxide

13221.39

5 Hydrogen

53776.42

6 Carbon dioxide

6725.35

7 Water

8526.30

8 Methanol

41.61

9 Propane

0.00

10 Acetic acid

0.00

11 Nitrogen

107.60

12 Hydrogen sulfide

0.00

13 Methyl acetate

0.00

14 Argon

12.08
TOTAL

82438.36

16

2.2

REACTOR VOLUME DETERMINATION

kA

CO+2H2

CH3OH

k-A

Or, symbolically,
CO+2H2

CH3OH
k-A

The forward and reverse specific reaction rate constant , kA and k-A, respectively, will
be defined with respect to carbon monoxide. Carbon monoxide (A) is being depleted
by forward reaction
CO+2H2

CH3OH
k-A

In which the rate of disappearance of carbon monoxide is

A, forward

= k AC ACb

For reverse reaction

CO+2H2

CH3OH
k-A

The rate of formation of carbon monoxide is given as

A, reverse

= k ACc

The net rate of formation of methanol is the sum of the rates of formation from the
forward and reverse reaction

r
r

= r A, forward + r A,reverse

= k AC AC b + k AC c
2

17

Multiplying both sides of the rate law equation by -1, we obtain rate law for the rate
of disappearance of nitrogen, -rA:

2
2
2
k A 2

=
+
=

C
k
C
C
k
C
k
C
C
A
A
A
A
b
c
A
A
b
k A c

2
=
r A k A C A C b

Where

k
k

C
K

2
c

The Stoichiometric table for the gas phase-reaction is given in table below
Table 2.3: Stoichiometric table for methanol process
Species

Symbol

CO

Concentration

C
H2

CH3OH

1 X
= C AO
1 X

T O P O

T P

b
X
B
a
= C AO
1 X

T O P O
T P

c
X
C
a
= C AO
1 X

T O PO
T P

18

 =

 =

  

=
=
  

 =  

1 2
  
 =  + 1 =  1
1 1
  

53776.42
= 4.067
13221.39

 = 2

12705.12
= 0.961
 =
13221.35

 =

 !
=
"#

 = 0.16038 2 =  0.32076

0.16038 68$%

%()
= 0.2543

'
$%%
%'
&0.082
+ 523*
%()*

Neglecting pressure drop in the reaction, P = PO and the reaction is isothermal T =

TO, we obtain as follows

Therefore,

1 X
= C AO

1 X

b
X
B
a
= C AO
1 X

c
X
C
a
= C AO
1 X

1,
 =  
1 0.32076,

4.067 2,
+
 =  &
1 0.32076,
0.961 + ,
 =  &
+
1 0.32076,

19

Since Ammonia reaction is an equilibrium reaction, therefore the equilibrium

constant can be dictated as follows:
* =
. =
- -

1 

0.961 + ,
 /1 0.32076, 0

1,
4.067 2, .
2 1 /
02
1 0.32076,
1 0.32076,

From literature review and previous calculation

* = 14.5& = 0.2543

Thus,

%()

%'

0.961 + ,02
1 0.32076,14.5 =
1 ,4.067 2,- .
0.06467 11 0.32076,
2 1/1 0.32076,
02
1/

0.961 + ,02
1 0.32076,0.9377 =
1 ,4.067 2,- .
1
1 0.32076,- 2 1/1 0.32076,- 02
1/

The equilibrium conversion, is computed using scientific calculator fx-570ES,

,- = 0.9515
According to Fogler (2006), the design equation for a fixed-bed reactor is analogous
to those for a plug-flow reactor. Thus, to obtain the volume of the reactor for a
specified conversion, the following equation will be used for the volume
determination
4 =  5

4 =  5

6
7
6


: /  . * 0

20

The rate constant, is obtained from the Arrhenius Equation (D.C. Dyson et al.,1968)

.8

4 =  5

: = 0.1080

6

1,
4.067 2, .
:; < 1 0.32076,
1 /1 0.32076,02

 /

0.961 + ,0
1 0.32076,=
14.5

Where X = Xe = 0.9515
.8

4=
5
:  9

4=

6

0.961 + ,
4.067 2, . /1 0.32076,0
1,
/
02
?
>
1 0.32076, 10.2543 1 0.32076,
14.5

.8
14.5 1 0.32076, ' 6

5
:  9 14.50.2543 1 , 4.067 2, . 0.961 + , 1 0.32076,

@ = ABC. DEF (Reactant Fluid Volume)

(Compute using scientific calculator fx-570ES)

Thus, the space time for R-201 can be calculated as follows:
G=

4
275.8%'
=
= 8.093 10K' 7 = 29.14L
H 34075.12 %'J
7

R-6 has a contact time of 29.14 s. The space velocity is then the reciprocal of space
time = 123.557 KM

LNOHO)(P$ =

1
H
=
= 123.557 KM = 0.03432L KM
G
4

For a plug flow reactor, the calculated V is only the volume of reactant fluid (not
including catalyst surface). The void fraction in a packed bed is defined as the
volume of voids in the bed divided by the total volume of the bed (Geankoplis,
1993). Assume the void fraction of the catalyst bed as 50% of the total volume of
reactor, = 0.5. Therefore, actual reactor volume:
21

4Q-RSTUQ = 

2.3

4 275.8
=
= 413.7%'

0.5

CATALYST

The volume of catalyst in the transalkylation reactor is assumed to be half of the

whole reactor volume of 413.7%' . For reactor R-201, the catalyst mainly composed

of CuO, ZnO and Al2O3 is used. From the literature, the catalyst has a shape of
cylinder and diameter of 2.2 mm with density of 1300-1500 kg/m3. Thus
VLL(W$)L$ =

2.4

1300:X
275.8%' = 358540:X
'
%

TUBE SELECTION

Suitable material for tubes in the reactor must be chosen. Stainless steel type 304
material (18Cr/8Ni) is selected because of its good corrosion resistance and
mechanical properties, and is usually used for heat exchanger tubing. This multi tube
reactor can be designed with close approximation to a shell and tube heat exchanger.
In a multi tube reactor with catalyst inside the tubes, the reactor volume must equal
the inside volume of the tubes. By selecting a tube diameter and length, the volume
per tube is calculated.

2.5

NUMBER OF TUBES REQUIRED

Through literature review, a few tube dimensions have been recommended.

Ullmanns (1975) recommended tubes of 3 to 5 m long, 2.5 cm in diameter. Rohm
Haas (2003) suggested tubes of the same length as Ullmanns but 1.9 to 3.0 cm in
diameter. Each reactor would have approximately 15,000 to 35,000 tubes. McKetta
(1975) recommended 0.75 to 2 in diameter tubes of 10 to 20 feet length. Each reactor
will house 5000 to 10,000 tubes.

22

Preliminarily, tubes of 2 in. stainless steel 304 pipe, with 20 ft (6.096 m) length are
selected. This is a large size for heat exchanger tubing but a large size is desirable for
good catalyst distribution and minimal wall effects. The properties of the pipe are
stated as below (Values obtained from Timmerhaus (2003) Table D-13):
Outside diameter

: 0.0605 m

Inside diameter

: 0.0525 m

Wall thinkness

: 0.00792 m

Cross sectional area

: 0.00423 m2

Therefore,

4Z
413.7%'
Y =
=
= 15674.8$]OL
;S [ 0.00216m. 6.096m

Thus, 15 675 tubes are required.

2.6

PRESSURE DROP ON TUBE

The reactor is to be operated at 68.28 bar or 6828kPa of pressure. An initial of 1.72

bar or 1720 kPa pressured drop is assumed. From Fogler (2001)

^9 =

!
2^ [
= 1
!9
!9

9._

`1 1501 d
c
+ 1.75`e
XS a b'
b

Where G = superficial mass velocity

= porosity = volume of void/total bed volume = 0.8

gc = 1.0 for metric system

Dp = diameter of particle in bed = 2mm

d = viscosity of gas passing through the bed = 0.00002044Pa.s

a = gas density = 27.398 kg/m3

23

From iCON, mass velocity = 933595.35 kg/hr = 259.33 kg/s

`=

^9 =

259.33kg/s
:X
VLLHO)(P$
=
= 3.911 .
.
0.00423m 15675
m .L
#($)7O(W$]OL
^9 =

`1 1501 d
c
+ 1.75`e
XS a b'
b

3.9111 0.8
1501 0.8 0.00002044
c
+ 1.753.911 e
1.0 27.398 0.002 0.8'
0.002
^9 = 199.37

!
:!
= 0.199
%
%

2^ [
!
= 1
!9
!9

!
20.199 6.096
= 1
!9
6828

9._

! = 6826:!

9._

= 0.9998

Thus, pressure drop = 6828-6826 = 2 kPa < the initial assumption

2.7

TUBE LENGTH SUITABILITY CHECKING

Average volumetric flow rate per tube:

4Rj-QRk- =

H
=
Y

Superficial velocity through tube

lm =

Calculated space time, 

34075.12 % J7
'

15675$]OL

= 2.173 % J7

2.173 % J7
'

'

4Rj-QRk'
=
= 513.9 % J7
.
;S
0.00423m
G = 8.093 10K' 7 = 29.14L
24

Therefore, for the period of space time specified, the distance passed by the liquid is
[ = lm G = 513.9 % J7 8.093 10K' 7 = 4.159%< 6.096%
'

Therefore the selected length is long enough for the gas to react before leaving the
reactor.

2.8

TUBE THICKNESS SUITABILITY CHECKING

The minimum pipe thickness (given in British Standard, BS 5500) :

$=
where

!o bo
2W !o

Di = internal diameter

t = minimum thickness required

f = design stress

Pi = internal pressure, 200 kPa

The value of design stress of stainless steel 304 at 250 oC is given in Table 13.2,
Chemical Engineering, Vol. 6. By interpolation:

W._9 = 95Y/%%.

!o = 10.97 = 1090:! 1.05 = 911.45:!

The above pressure is calculated after considering 5% safety factor for internal
pressure. Therefore,
$P:qOLLros =

911.45:! 0.0525%

= 0.00025%
2 95000:! 911.45:!

$P:qOLLros = 0.00025% < 0.00792m

Since the thickness of the tube selected is greater than the minimum required
thickness, it is capable to withstand the operating pressure of the reactor.

25

2.9

TUBE ARRANGEMENT

Since the reactor operates at high temperature, thus higher heat transfer rate is
required. The tubes arrangement need to be adjusted so that the heat transfer rate
between the shell side and tube side is efficient considering the distance between the
tubes. Therefore equivalent triangular pattern is selected. The recommended tube
pitch (distance between tube centre) is 1.25 time the outside diameter of the tube.
 = 0.0605%

!T = 1.250.0605% = 0.075625%

2.10

TUBE-SHEET LAYOUT

Estimation of Bundle diameter:

M

bt su
YT su
YT = *M & + (7bt =  & +

*M
where

Nt = number of tubes
Db = bundle diameter, m
do = tube outside diameter, m

The value of K1 and n1 is available in Table 12.4, Chemical Engineering, Volume 6,

by R.K. Sinnot.
The triangular pattern is chosen because of the higher heat-transfer rate, but at the
expense of higher pressure drop. For triangular pattern and one pass flow:
K1 = 0.319
n1 = 2.142
Therefore:

15675 ..Mv.
bt = 0.0605 &
+
= w. FBCE
0.319

26

2.11

SHELL INSIDE DIAMETER, DS

Practically, the shell diameter must be selected to give as close a fit to the tube
bundle and also to reduce bypassing round the outside of the bundle. Typical values
of clearance required between the outermost tubes in the bundle and the shell inside
diameter can be obtained from Figure 12.10 (Sinnot, 2000). Extrapolation on the
fixed and U-tube line is performed.
xO))PqLPOP%O$O7 ]q)OP%O$O7 = 10y]q)OP%O$O7 + 10
= )O7qO

= 109.375% + 10 = 103.75%
xO))PqLPOP%O$O7 = 0.10375% + y]q)OP%O$O7

= 0.10375% + 9.375% = w. zBDBCE

2.12

BAFFLE DIAMETER

Baffle type: single segmental baffle

From Table 12.5, Chemical Engineering, Vol. 6, the recommended baffle diameter
is:
Dbf

= Ds - 4.8 mm
= (9.47875 - 0.0048) m
= 9.47395 m

The optimum baffle spacing is usually between 0.3 to 0.5 times the shell diameter.
Value of 0.3 is chosen.
lbf = 0.3 (9.47395) = 2.842185 m
Number of baffle required

= Total tube length/baffle spacing

27

= 6.069 / 2.842185
= 2.14 3 baffles
3 baffles were chosen to ensure fluid stream across the tubes.
Baffle spacing = Tube length/(No. baffles+1) = 6.096/4 = 1.524 m

2.13

HEAT REMOVAL SYSTEM OF REACTOR

Since the reaction is exothermic, heat must be removed so that the temperature will
not increase too high which will affect the reaction. Heat is removed from the reactor
by generating steam on the shell sides of the tubes. Water flows to the reactor from a
steam drum, to which make-up water (BFW) is supplied.
The steam leaves the drum as saturated vapour. Cooling water with high pressure is
chosen well to ensure good heat transfer. Water is usually the first fluid consider,
since it is cheap, easy available, nonflammable, and compatible with many effluent
vapor. Its counter-currently circulated with respect to the gas inside the tube due to
nature of liquid and gas flow.

2.14

AMOUNT OF COOLANT NEEDED

It has been decided that the pressure for the closed loop recirculated cooling water
will be supplied at 400 kPa so as to ensure that there is not much difference of
pressure between the tube side and the shell side. At 400 kPa, the boiling point of
water is 144 C. The properties of water at 144 C, 400 kPa are as shown as below.
Table 2.4: R-201 Coolant Information
Closed loop recirculated cooling
water at 400 kPa

Coolant Type
Density at Tav= 144oC

922.20 kg/m3

Heat Capacity at Tav= 144oC

4.255 kJ/kg.C

Viscosity at Tav= 144oC

0.000190 kg/m.s

28

From iCON simulation results, 1.6859 x106 kJ/hr of heat has to be removed. The
water in the tube side will be supplied at 110C at the inlet and will exit at the
temperature of 135 C which is before the point of boiling of water (400 kPa). The
amount of water needed for the heat transfer was calculated as below.
q

mCpT

q
C p T

1.6859 x10 6 kj / hr
4.255(135 110)

15, 848.65 kg/hr = 4.40 kg/s

Flow rate of coolant required:

2.15

HEAT TRANSFER AREA CHECKING

The general equation for heat transfer across a surface is

Q = UATm

(12)

Where Q = heat transferred per unit time

U = the overall heat transfer coefficient, W/m2C
A = heat transfer area in unit m2
Tm = the mean temperature difference, the temperature driving force in C

The objective here is to determine the surface area required for the specified heat
transfer duty. This is done through the calculation of mean temperature difference
Tm. Tm

can be calculated by calculating logarithmic mean temperature

difference which can only be applied when there is no change in the specific heats,
the overall heat-transfer coefficient is constant and there are no heat losses. For co29

current flows, single pass tube, following figure shows the temperature profiles
whilst the formula prior to calculate the logarithmic mean temperature difference is
stated as follow
Tm = Tlm
Tlm =

Where Tlm

(T1 t1 ) (T2 t 2 )
(T t )
ln 1 1
(T2 t 2 )

=log mean temperature difference

T1, T2 = inlet and outlet temperature of shell side fluid

= water (400 kPa) temperature,
inlet

= 110C, outlet = 135C

t1, t2

= inlet and outlet temperature of tube side fluid

= process fluid temperature,

inlet

= 145C, outlet = 155C

T1 = 145

T2 = 155

tube

T1=110

Shell

T2 = 135

Figure 2.1: Temperature profiles for co-current flow

30

Tlm =

[(145 110 ) (155 135)]

(145 110)
ln

(155 135)

= 5.54 C
Assuming overall heat transfer coefficient, U = 50 W/m2.C
Therefore, the required heat transfers area:
A

Q
UTlm

1.6859 10 9 J / hr
=
50(5.54C )(3600hr / s )
= 1690.63 m2

As for heat transfer area checking purpose,

The number of tube in reactor = 15 675 tubes
Length of tube = 6.096 m
Heat transfer area per tube

= d0L
= (3.142) x (0.0605 m) x (6.096 m)
= 1.1586 m2

Therefore,
Total surface area of tubes

= 1.1586 m2 x 15 675 tubes

= 18161.7 m2 (> 1690.63 m2)

Hence, heat transfer area given by total number of tubes of the designed reactor is
sufficient to extract the heat required for the exothermic reaction to occur.

31

2.16

PRESSURE DROP ON SHELL SIDE

The flow pattern in the shell of a segmentally baffled multitubular reactor is complex
and this makes the prediction of the shell side heat transfer coefficient and pressure
drop much more difficult if compared to the tube side. Although the baffles are
installed to direct the flow across the tubes, the actual flow of the main stream of
fluid will be a mixture of cross flow between the baffles, coupled with axial (parallel)
flow in the baffle windows. There are 2 main methods in determining the pressure
drop at the shell side namely; Kerns and Bells method. As for this reactor design,
Kerns method has been applied.

Basically, Kerns method does not take into account of the bypass and leakage
streams, however it is simple to apply and can be consider accurate enough for the
preliminary design calculations. On the other hands, in Bells method the heat
transfer coefficient and pressure drop are estimated from the correlations for flow
over ideal tube-banks, and the effect of leakage, bypassing and flow in the window
zone are taken into consideration by applying the correction factors for each terms
respectively. [10] From Sinnott (1999), the shell side pressure drop is given by
L D
Ps = 8 j f s
l B d e

Where L

u s 2

0.14

(16)

= tube length = 6.096m

lB

= baffle spacing = 2.842185 m

Ds

= shell diameter = 9.47875 m

= water density = 922.20 kg/m3 at 144 C

= viscosity of water = 0.000190 kg/m.s

= 0.19 cP = 1.9 x 10-4 Pa.s at 144C

us

= molten salt linear velocity, m/s

jf

= friction factor, (can be determined after obtaining Reynolds number,

Re = u s de/)

pt

= Tube pitch = 0.075625% m (obtained from previous calculation)

32

de

= equivalent diameter ( equilateral triangular pitch arrangement)

1.10 2
2
p t 0.917 d o
do

1.10
0.0756252 0.917 0.06052
0.0605

= 0.043 m
us = water linear velocity = Gs/ and Gs =

Ws
As

where Ws = fluid flowrate on the shell side in unit kg/s

From 2.14
The desired water flowrate, Ws = 4.40 kg/s
Cross-flow area, As

( pt d o ) Ds l B
pt

(0.075625 0.0605)9.47875 2.842185

0.075625

= 5.388 m2

Thus Gs =

4.40kg / s
5.388m 2

= 0.8166 kg/s.m2

Water velocity, us

= 0.8166 / 922.20 (density)

= 0.0009 m/s

33

Using this value, Reynolds number, Re is calculated:

Re =

922.20 0.0009 0.043

= 1878.4
0.00019

The Reynolds number falls in the region of laminar flow (Re 2100). Thus, Hagen
Poiseuille equation can be used. By referring to Equation 12-4 (Timmerhaus, 2003),

jf

16
d 0V

1
Re
= 0.008517
= 16 x

To find the shell side pressure drop, viscosity correction term is neglected. Thus,

L D u 2
Ps = 8 j f s s
l B d e 2
2
6.096 9.47875 922.20 0.0009
= 8(0.00851)

2
2.842185 0.0605
= 0.01 Pa
= 0.00001 kPa

34

CHAPTER 3

MECHANICAL DESIGN

3.1

REACTOR DESIGN PRESSURE

In mechanical designs, the basic method or concept is to make the particular piece or
part of the equipment safe irrespective of the forces acting on it. Some examples of
the forces acting on a member are the forces due to the internal or external pressure
acting on the system, the gravitational force due to the weight of the vessel and
piping, force due to the wind acting on the vessel especially for the tall column and
finally the seismic forces cause by earth quakes.
For the mechanical design of the process equipment, the pressure is the most
important of all the forces acting on the equipment. The design pressure, Pd is the
maximum (worst case) pressure which the equipment has to withstand. Pd can be
calculated by modifying process design (i.e pressure acting on the system), Po
considering the noise in the control system and the effect of any safety relief valve
which may be present to arrive at the maximum working pressure, MWP.
In this reactor design, operating pressure of R-201 is Po = 68.28 Bar
Thus design pressure,

!{ = 68.287 1.10 = BC. |}D~ = BC|}. D

The above pressure is calculated after considering 10% safety factor for internal
pressure.

35

3.2

REACTOR DESIGN TEMPERATURE

Determination of appropriate design temperature is vital prior to find the value of

allowable stress for the material of construction which is temperature dependent.
Design temperature is determined from the process design temperature. The
following heuristics are generally applied to determine design temperature:
i. For unheated part consider the highest temperature of the stored material.
ii. For part that is heated by means of steam, hot water, oil etc consider the highest
temperature of the heating media, or 10C higher than the maximum temperature that
any part of body is likely to attain during course of operation.
iii. For vessel where direct internal or external heating is employed by means of fire,
flue gas or electricity or for severe exothermic reactions that takes place
a) Consider the highest temperature of the inside material plus minimum of 20C if
vessel is shielded.
b) Consider the highest temperature of the inside material plus minimum of 50C if
vessel is not shielded.
c) For highly exothermic reactions, same condition as above applies.
For this reactor design, operating temperature of R-201 is To = 250 C, which is the
temperature at the outlet of the tube.
Thus design temperature,

#{ = 250 1.10 = ABC = CzD

The above temperature is calculated after considering 10% safety factor for internal
pressure.

36

3.3

REACTOR CYLINDRICAL VESSEL THICKNESS

On the shell side, cooling water at an average temperature of 160C will be

circulating. As cooling water is not corrosive, carbon steel (Grade 2B IS : 20021962) is chosen as material of fabrication for reactor shell as it is also can sustain
wide temperature condition from -40oC to 500oC.
The minimum shell thickness:

$=
Where

!o bo
+
2W !o

Di = internal diameter
f = design stress
t = minimum thickness required
Pi = internal pressure
J = Welding efficiency = 0.9 (Class 1)
c = corrosion allowance

37

Design stress of carbon steel (Grade 2B IS: 2002-1962)

W T-r._9 = 1.18 10

Inside diameter of shell, DS = Di = 9.47875%

Therefore:

$=

Y
%%.

7510.8 10' 9.47875

+
21.18 10 0.9 7510.8 10'
$ = 0.3475% +  = 347.5%% + 

2mm corrosion allowance will be used. Therefore

$ = 347.5%% + 2%% = 349.5%%

The above equation is only valid if and only if it satisfy the equation below,
$
b
1.5q 0.25
bo
bo

b = bo + 2 $ = 10.17%
b 10.17
=
= 1.07 1.5
9.48
bo

0.3475
$
=
= 0.0366 0.25
9.48
bo

3.4

BAFFLE CUT

Optimum baffle cut of 25% of baffle diameter is used. Therefore:

Baffle cut

= 0.25 Dbf
= 0.25(9.47395 m)
= 2.368 m
38

3.5

REACTOR CLOSURES (HEAD AND CLOSURE)

A torispherical flanged standard dished head is chosen for this design. The advantages of
using this head are that it can be used for application of higher pressure and it has less
stress concentration as compared to flat plate. The minimum thickness required is:
$=

!" 
2W ! 0.2

1
"
 = 3 +
"
4

Where

J = joint factor = 0.9

f = design stress = 100 N/mm2
Rc = crown radius = should be greater than D0
Rk = knuckle radius = 0.06Rc

Rk/Rc should not be less than 0.06

b = bo + 2 $ = 10.17% < "

1
"
 = >3 +
? = 1.77
0.06"
4

Therefore,
$=

7510.8 10' 10.17 1.77

21.0 10 0.9 7510.8 10' 1.77 0.2

= 0.803% = 803%%

Adding allowance, t = 803 mm + corrosion allowance + thinning of torus during

fabrication
$ = 803%% + 4%% + 0.06 7.28%% = 807%%

39

Volume of dish, V

= 0.0847 Di3
= 0.0847 x 9.483
= 72.16 m3

807 mm

Figure 3.1 : Torispherical flanged standard dished head

3.6

HEIGHT OF REACTOR

Height of the closure is also assumed, ho + Sf = 0.5 m. Thus,

the total height of the reactor

= height of closures + tube length

= 2(0.5) + 6.096
= 7.096 m

40

3.7

DESIGN OF BOLTED FLANGE JOINTS

Gasket and bolts are designed for both top and bottom closure flanges. Flanges are also
designed accordingly. Welding neck flanges are used here because it is suitable for
extreme service conditions such as high temperature. It has long tapered hub between
flange ring and weld joint. This helps reduce discontinuity stress between flange and
joint. It is commonly used for removable vessel heads for ease of access.

3.8

GASKET DESIGN

The function of gasket is to make a leak-tight joint between two surfaces. Gaskets are
produces from materials, which will deform and flow under load to fill the surface
irregularities between the flange faces, yet, at the same time retain sufficient elasticity to
take up the changes in the flange alignment that occur under load.
Selection of material of a gasket heavily depends on the process conditions, corrosive
nature of process fluid, the gasket location and type of gasket construction. For reactor
temperatures between 250 to 450C, metal reinforced gasket is recommended. Gasket
specification is obtained from Table 13 of Data Hand Book of Mechanical Design of
Process Equipment (ECB 5233).
Gasket material

= Corrugated metal (Stainless steel, asbestos)

Gasket factor, m

= 3.75

Min design seating stress, y = 52.5 MN/m2

Min actual gasket width

= 10 mm

Design pressure, PD

= 73.474 bar

Shell outside diameter, B

= 10.17 m

Shell thickness, go

= 0.3495 m

Meanwhile, full faced flange is used to hold the gasket in place. Following figure shows
that the face contact area extends beyond the bolt circle. It has a large bearing area, tight

41

enough to prevent leaks and suitable for low pressure operations. High bolt tension is
required to achieve sufficient gasket pressure to maintain a good seal at high pressures.

Figure 3.2: Full Face Flange

Selection of material depends on the corrosive action of chemicals that may contact the
gasket, the gasket location and type of gasket construction. It also depends on gasket
width. If the gasket is made too narrow, the unit stress on it will be excessive. If the
gasket is too wide, the bolt load will unnecessarily increased.
Determine the blank diameter, DB, and height of dish, ho for the toripherical closure.

D B = Do +

Do 2
+ R K + 2S f
42 3

D
D

ho = RC RC o RC + o 2 RK + S f
2
2

Calculate ratio of inner diameter to outer diameter of the gasket, do/di.

do
=
di

y PD m
y PD (m + 1)

Where do = gasket outer diameter

di = gasket inner diameter
y = minimum design seating stress

42

PD= Design Pressure

m = gasket factor

52.5 10 7510.8 10' 3.75
=
= 1.0001
o
52.5 10 7510.8 10' 3.75 + 1

Rule of thumb states that inner gasket diameter is 10mm larger than vessel outer
diameter.
Thus, gasket inner diameter, di

= Do, reactor + 10mm

= 9.48 m + 0.01 m =9.49 m

Determine the inner and outer diameter of the gasket.

 = 9.49 1.0001 = 9.491%

Calculate the gasket width, W, where result will be round off to the nearest even number
for convenience purposes.

do
di

Figure 3.3: Gasket Width

W=
=

do di
2

9.491 9.49
= 0.00005%
2

43

3.9

BOLT SIZING

To estimate bolt loads

Figure 3.4: Bolt Sizing

Under internal pressure, G

= di + N
= 9.491 m + 0.00005 m = 9.4915 m

Allowable stress of bolting material

So

= 144 MN/m2 (Table 11)

Sg

= 212 MN/m2

Wo

= force due to pressure + load to achieve minimum sealing

= H + Hp

H=
Where

G 2 PD

= Diameter of gasket load Reaction

PD

= Design Pressure

= 9.4915. 7510.8 10' = 531VY

4

Assume raised-faced flanges are used,

Basic gasket seating width,

bo

= N/2
= 0.5 mm /2
= 0.25 mm > 6.3 mm
44

Thus, effective gasket seating width, b = bo = 0.25 mm

Load to keep gasket in compression,
Hp

= G 2bmP
= 2(9.4915)(0.00025)(3.75)(7510.8x103)
= 0.4199 MN

Therefore, Wo

= 531 MN +0.4199 MN
= 531.4 MN

Under bolting condition,

Wg

= Gby
= (9.4915)( 0.00025)(52.5)
= 0.391 MN

Since Wo > Wg
Therefore, controlling load = Wo = 531.45 MN
Minimum bolt area, A

= Wo/allowable stress
= 531.4 MN/83x106
= 6.402 m2

To estimate optimum bolt size, bolt of various sizes chosen from Table 10 (Mechanical
Design of Process Equipment Data Hand Book).
45

Table 3.1: Bolt Sizing

Bolt

Bolt

diameter

Ar,Root

(Table

Area (m2)

R(mm)

spacing,

No of bolts,

No of bolts,

Am/Ar
Bs(mm)

10)

(factor of
4)

C=
C=
nBs/

B
+2(g1+R)

M14 x 1.5

0.000153958

22

75

447.5246496

448

10.700637

3.9492

M16 x 1.5

0.000201088

25

75

342.6360598

344

8.211330

3.9552

M18 x 2

0.000254502

27

75

270.724788

272

6.492680

3.9592

M20 x 2

0.0003142

30

75

219.2870783

220

5.251432

3.9652

M22 x 2

0.000380182

33

75

181.2289903

184

4.392107

3.9712

M24 x 2

0.000452448

35

75

152.2826933

152

3.635010

3.9752

M27 x 2

0.00057263

38

75

120.322128

120

2.872107

3.9812

M30 x 2

0.00070695

44

75

97.46092369

100

2.387015

3.9932

Inner shell diameter, Di

= 9.491 m

Bolt circle diameter, C

= nBs/ or = Di +2(g1+R)

Shell Thickness go

= 0.807m

Hub thickness, g1

= 1.415 go (thickness of shell)

= 1.142 m

Chosen bolt diameter

= M14 x 1.5 (suitability)

Number of bolts, n

= 448
46

Bolt spacing, Bs

= 75 mm

Bolt circle diameter, C

= 3.9492 m

Actual bolt area, Ab

= n*Ar =448*0.000153958= 0.069 m2 Am

Flange outside diameter, A = C + bolt diameter + 0.02 (minimum)

= 3.9492 + 0.014 +0.807
= 4.7702 m

Ab S g

In order to check the suitability of the gasket width,

GN

< 2y

Gasket width = 66.36< 105 (valid)

Thus, gasket selected is acceptable for design application.

Recalculating the actual bolt spacing, Bs = C/n

= (3.9492) (1000)/100 = 389.77 mm

389.77 mm

75 mm

3.9752 m

Figure 3.5: Bolt Spacing

47

3.10

DSEIGN OF FLANGE

For operating condition,

Moment about flange, Wo = W1 +W2 +W3

W1 = hydrostatic end force on area outside flange (B= Ds, Shell side outer diameter)
W2 = H-W1
W3 = Gasket load

B 2
xP
4
W1 = 10.2631MN
W1 =

W 2 = H W1 = 0.2047 MN
W3 = H p = 0.6059 MN

Thus, W0 = W1 + W2 + W3 = 10.2631 + 0.2047 + 0.6059 = 11.0737 MN

Moment arms on flange,

CB
= 63 . 3 mm
2
a1 + a 3
a2 =
= 53 .8 mm
2
C G
a3 =
= 44 .3 mm
2
a1 =

48

Moment of force,
Moment of force about BCD under operating condition,
Mo = (W1xa1) + (W2xa2) + (W3xa3)
Mo = 0.6875 MJ
Moment of force under bolting up condition, Mg = Wg x a3

Wg =

Am + Ab
xS g
2

= 14.628 MN
Mg = 0.6480 MJ
Mg > Mo. Thus Mg is used for further calculation.

t=

Flange thickness,

M .C F y
BS t

Initially, assume bolt pitch correction factor, CF = 1.00

y = correction coefficient = 18.55
St = Allowable stress of flange material = 100 MN/m2

From the calculations, t

(0.6480 )(1)(18.55)
(3.8486 )(100)

= 0.1767 m
= 176.6mm

49

Recalculated Cf

Bs actual
2d + t

0.1249
2(0.024 ) + 0.1767

= 0.5559
Cf

Thus, actual flange thickness, t

= 0.7456

= 0.1767 m (0.7456)
= 0.13175m
= 131.75 mm

From Table 8, the nearest standard steel sheet has a thickness of 180 mm.
Thus, flange thickness, t = 180 mm

50

A = 4.092 m
C = 3.9752m
do = 3.9038 m
di = 3.8686 m
t = 0.13175m

R = 0.035 m

g1=0.0283 m
Di = 3.8086 m

g0=0.02mm

Figure 3.6: Position of Gasket on Flange

3.11

REACTOR WEIGHT

Pressure vessels are subjected to other loads besides pressure. The main sources of loads
to consider are: [10]
i.

Pressure

ii.

Dead weight of vessel and contents

iii.

Wind

iv.

Earthquake (seismic)

v.

External loads imposed by piping and attached equipment.

51

Here the major sources of dead weight loads are: [10]

vi.

The vessel shell

vii.

The vessel fittings such as manway, nozzles etc

viii.

Internal fittings- plates (plus the fluid on the plates), heating and
cooling coils

ix.

External fittings ladders, platforms, piping

x.

Auxiliary equipment which is not self-supported; condensers,

agitators.

xi.

3.12

Insulation materials

WEIGHT OF SHELL

For cylindrical vessel with domed ends and uniform wall thickness, the total weights of
the shell is
Wv = 240CvDm (Hv + 0.8Dm) t

Where

(21)

Cv = factor, 1.15 for vessel with several manways, internal support, etc.
Dm = mean diameter of vessel = (Di + tx10-3) in unit m
Hv = height or length between tangent lines, m
t = wall thickness, mm

From the calculations,

t

= 807 mm

Dm

= 9.375 + (0.807) m = 10.182 m

Hv

= Closure Height + length of tube = 7.096 m

52

Weight of vessel,
= 240 (1.15) (10.182) [7.096 + 0.8(10.182)] x (807)

Wv

= 34565.77 kN

3.13

TOTAL WEIGHT OF BAFFLES PLATE

Number of plates = 3

Plate diameter = Db = 9.47875 m

Baffle cut = 25%

b = angle subtended by the baffle chord, rads = 2.1 rads

Baffle area

D
= b
4

(2 x b )
2 x

1D

+ 2 x b 25% Db tan b
2 2
2

= 56.77 m2
Weight of plate = 1.2 kN/m2 (Table 34, Mechanical Design Handbook)
Total weight of baffle = 56.77 x 1.2 kN/m2 x 3
= 204.4 kN

3.14

WEIGHT OF TUBES

Number of tubes = 15675

Weight per feet of tube= 5.8 lb/ft= 81.4 N/m

(Refer: Table D-13, Timmerhaus (2003))
Length of tube
Total weight of tubes

= 6.096 m
= 15675 (6.096) (81.4)
= 7778.16 kN
53

3.15

WEIGHT OF FLUID IN REACTOR

Total weight of fluid in reactor comprises of the weight of fluid, catalyst and coolant. On
the tube side, the volume of fluid and catalyst are calculated.
Volume of fluid

= 275.8 m3

Density of fluid

= 27.3982 kg/m3

Weight of fluid

= 275.8 x 27.3982 x 9.81

= 74128.5N = 74.1285 kN

Volume of catalyst

= 275.8 m3

Density of catalyst

= 1300 kg/m3

Weight of catalyst

= 275.8 x 1300 x 9.81

= 3517277 N = 3517.277kN

Maximum Volume of Cooling water = volume of shell - volume occupied by tubes

= /4 (9.47875)2 (7.1) 15675[/4 (0.0605)2 (6.096)]
= 226.31m3
cooling water

922.2 kg/m3

Weight of cooling water

226.31 (922.2) (9.81)

2047.4 kN

Total weight of fluid

= 74.1285 kN + 3517.277 kN + 2047.4 kN

= 5638.8 kN

54

3.16

WEIGHT OF INSULATION MATERIAL

Insulating material = mineral wool

Density

= 130 kg/m3

Thickness

= 100 mm

Approximate volume of insulation = (Do) (tinsulation) (L)

= (9.375) (0.100)(7.1)
= 20.91 m3
Weight of insulation

= 20.91 x 130 x 9.81

= 26.668 kN

Total Weight of Reactor

= 21474.1285 + 3517.277 + 2047.4 +26.668

= 5665.5 kN

3.17

WIND LOADING

Wind pressure Pw

= kUw2
= 0.05 x 1602
= 1280 N/m2

Loading per unit length, Fw = PwDeff

Deff = Do + 2tinsulation + 0.4
= 9.375 + 2(0.1) + 0.4
= 9.975 m
55

Fw

= 1280 x 9.975
= 12.768 kN/m

Bending moment at the bottom, M = Fw X2/2

= 12.768 x 7.12/2
= 321.81 kNm
3.18

PRESSURE STRESSES

The longitudinal and circumferential stresses due to pressure given by:

PDi 0.882232N / mm 2 9.3753 103 mm
L =
=
= 2.5623 N/mm2
4t
4 807

h =

3.19

DEAD WEIGHT STRESS

w =

3.20

PDi 0.882232N / mm 2 9.3753 103

=
= 5.1247 N/mm2
2t
2 807

Wv
1401.3971 x1000
=
= 0.0543 N/mm2
( Di + t )t (9.3753 10 3 + 807) 807

BENDING STRESS

The longitudinal bending stress at the mid-span of the vessel is given by:

b =
Iv =

M Di

+ t

Iv 2

(Do
64

Di 4 56

Where,
M = Longitudinal bending stress at the mid-span
Iv = Second moment of area of the shell
Iv =

64

(3848 .6 4 3808 .6 4 )

= 4.4078x 1011 mm4

b =

1.4352 x10 8 Nmm 3808.6

+ 20
11
4
4.4078 x10 mm 2

= 0.6266N/mm2

Resultant longitudinal stress, z = L + w b

w is compressive, thus the value will be a negative value.
z (upwind)= (42.0001 - 5.8256 + 0.6266) N/mm2 = 36.8011 N/mm2
z (downwind)= (42.0001 - 5.8256 - 0.6266) N/mm2 = 35.5479 N/mm2
As assume that there is no torsional shear stress, the principal stresses will be z and h.
The radial stress is negligible,

Pi 0.882232
=
= 0.4411 N / mm 2
2
2

57

36.8011

35.8011

84.0017

84.0017

Up-wind

Down-wind

Figure 3.7: Resultant Stress of Reactor

To determine the maximum stress;

1 - radial = 84.0017 0.4411 = 83.5606 N/mm2
The value obtained is well below the maximum allowable design stress, f250C
(161N/mm2). Thus, the design is satisfactory.

3.21

ELASTIC STABILITY (BUCKLING)

If the resultant axial stress, z due to the combined loading is negative, the reactor may
fail due to elastic instability (buckling). The condition for this not to take place is the
maximum compression stress, c must be more than the critical buckling stress, c,max.

c,max = w + b (-ve)
= - 5.8256 - 0.6266
= -6.4522 N/mm2

58

= 2 x 104 (t/Do)
= 2 x 104 (20/3848.6)
= 103.9338 N/mm2

The maximum compression stress is 6.4522 N/mm2< 103.9338 N/mm2, well below the
critical buckling stress. So design is satisfactory.

3.22

REACTOR SUPPORT

Reactor will be placed vertically. Cylindrical skirt support is used. The skirt thickness
must be sufficient to withstand the dead weight loads and bending moments imposed on
it by the vessel; it will not be under the vessel pressure. From Sinnot (2000) the resultant
stresses in the skirt will be:

s (tensile) = bs ws

And

s (compressive) = bs + ws

Where bs = bending stress in the skirt

4M s
( Ds + t s )t s Ds

ws = the dead weight stress in the skirt,

=

W
( Ds + t s )t s

Where Ms = maximum bending moment, evaluated at the base of the skirt (due to wind,
seismic and eccentric loads,

59

W = total weight of the vessel and contents,

Ds = inside diameter of the skirt at the base,
ts = skirt thickness.

As first trial take the skirt thickness as the same as the shell thickness, 20 mm
ts = 20mm
Ds = 3.8086m (=Di shell)
W = 1401.3971 kN
Wind loading = Fw = 5.6942 kN/m
Bending moment at the base of the skirt
Ms = (5694.2 x (3.8086+0.020)2)/2 = 41.7333 kNm

bs =

4M s
( Ds + t s )t s Ds

= 4(41733.3)/((3.8086+0.020)(0.020)(3.8086))

bs = 0.1822 N/mm2

ws =

W
( D s + t s )t s

= 1401397.1/((3.8086+0.020)(0.020))

ws = 5.8256 N/mm2

s (tensile) = bs ws = -5.6434 N/mm2

s (compressive) = bs + ws = 6.0078 N/mm2

60

The skirt thickness should be such that under the worst combination of wind and deadweight loading the following design criteria are satisfied:

s (tensile) f s J sin s
ts
Ds

s (compressive) 0.125E

sin s

where fs = maximum allowable design stress for the skirt material at ambient
temperature,
J = weld joint factor

s = base angle of a conical skirt, normally 80o to 90 o

E = Young modulus of the material = 200,000 N/mm2 for plain carbon steel

s (tensile) = -5.6434 N/mm2< 83.7 N/mm2
satisfied

22
sin 90
4245

s (compressive) 0.125 * 200,000

= 6.0078 N/mm2 < 131 N/mm2
satisfied

3.23

NOZZLES SIZING

Four nozzles are designed according to each stream specifications: Feed stream nozzle,
reactor product outlet nozzle, cooling water (coolant) inlet, and cooling water outlet.

3.24

FEED NOZZLE

Optimum duct diameter, dopt = 226G0.5-0.35

Flow rate, G is obtained from HYSYS

= 36.3945 kg/s

Density, also from HSYSY

= 11.8126 kg/m3
dopt

= 574.52 mm
= 0.5745 m
61

e =

Nozzle thickness,

PiD i
(2f P i )

Design pressure

= 7510.8 kPa

Material of construction

= Stainless Steel 04 Cr 29 Ni 9

Design stress (250 )C

= 0.98x108 N/m2

Nozzle thickness, e

= 0.01466 m
= 14.66 mm

Adding corrosion allowance of 2mm, thickness of feed nozzle = 16.66 mm

3.25

OUTLET PRODUCT NOZZLE

Optimum duct diameter,

dopt

= 226G0.5-0.35

Flow rate, G is obtained from HYSYS

= 36.3945 kg/s

Density, also from HSYSY

= 8.7225 kg/m3
dopt

= 638.85 mm
= 0.639 m

e =

Nozzle thickness,

PiD i
(2f P i )

Design pressure

= 7510.8 kPa

Material of construction

= Stainless Steel 04 Cr 29 Ni 9

Design stress

= 0.98x108 N/m2

Nozzle thickness, e

= 0.01466 m
= 14.66 mm

Adding corrosion allowance of 2mm, thickness of feed nozzle = 16.66 mm

62

3.26

COOLING WATER INLET NOZZLE

Optimum duct diameter, dopt = 226G0.5-0.35

Flow rate, G decided

= 4.40 kg/s

Density of water

= 922.2 kg/m3
dopt

= 43.6136 mm
= 0.04361 m

e =

Nozzle thickness,

PiD i
(2f P i )

Design pressure

= 7510.8 kPa

Material of construction

= Carbon Steel

Design stress

= 1.18x108 N/m2

Nozzle thickness, e

= 0.12165 m = 121.65 mm

Adding corrosion allowance of 2mm, thickness of feed nozzle =123.65 mm

3.27

COOLING WATER OUTLET NOZZLE

Optimum duct diameter, dopt = 226G0.5-0.35

Flow rate, G decided

= 4.40 kg/s

Density of water

= 922.2 kg/m3
dopt

= 43.6136 mm
= 0.04361 m

Nozzle thickness,

e =

Pi D i
(2f P i )

63

Design pressure

= 882.232 kPa

Material of construction

= Carbon Steel

Design stress

= 1.18x108 N/m2

Nozzle thickness, e

= 0.12165 m = 121.65 mm

Adding corrosion allowance of 2mm, thickness of feed nozzle =123.65 mm

CHAPTER 4

SPECIFICATION SHEET

Following table and figure are the specification sheet and drawing for the methanol reactor
which is the R-201. The specification sheet provides the summary of all the important
information of the methanol reactor and the figures shows the mechanical drawing of the reactor.

64

Equipment No.(Tag)
Description
Sheet no.

Reactor Data Sheet

R-201
Methanol Reactor
1/1

OPERATING DATA
No. REQUIRED
TYPE

1
Multitubular Catalytic Fixed Bed

ORIENTATION
JACKETED
SHELL
Cooling water
9.47 m
7.1 m
BS 5500
6828.0 kPa
7510.8 kPa
0.1 kPa
155`C
175C
440 kg/s
1
1.6859x106 kJ/hr

CONTENTS
DIAMETER (OUTER)
LENGTH
DESIGN CODE
MAX. WORKING PRESSURE
DESIGN PRESSURE
PRESSURE DROP (ALLOWED/CALC)
MAX. WORKING TEMP
DESIGN TEMPERATURE
VELOCITY
No. OF PASSES
HEAT EXCHANGED

Vertical
Yes
TUBE
Methanol, hydrogen, carbon
monoxide, carbon dioxide, water
0.0605 m
6.096 m
BS 5500
6828.0 kPa
7510.8 kPa
2 kPa
250`C
275 C
259.3 kg/s
1
- 1.6859x106 kJ/hr

MECHANICAL DESIGN ON SHELL

MATERIAL
JOINT FACTOR
CORROSION ALLOWANCE
THICKNESS
NO. OF BOLTS
NOZZLE
FLANGE
GASKET

448
Torispherical
Torispherical

DIAMETER
THICKNESS
THICKNESS
WIDTH

Carbon Steel
0.9
2 mm
807 mm
18mm
MATERIAL
16.66mm
MATERIAL
131.75mm
MATERIAL
0.5mm
MATERIAL

MECHANICAL DESIGN ON TUBES

Stainless Steel 304 (18Cr/8Ni)
15675
0.0565 m
0.0605 m
0.0525 m
0.00792 m
0.076 m (triangular)

MATERIAL
NO. OF TUBES
NOMINAL SIZE
OD
ID
THICKNESS
TUBE PITCH

CATALYST
CuO-ZnO-Al2O3
115 x 1015 m2/g
Sphere
1300-1500 kg/m3
5 mm
0.5
2years

TYPE
SPECIFIC SURFACE AREA
SHAPE
BULK DENSITY
DIAMETER
POROSITY
LIFE SPAN
REMARKS AND NOTES :-

Table 4.1: Specification Sheet for Methanol reactor, R-201

65

Cr-Mo STEEL

Carbon Steel
Carbon Steel
Asbestos

66

67

CHAPTER 5

COST ESTIMATION

M &S
1.066
0.82
Purchased Cost, $ =
(101.9 D H FC )
280

Where D

= diameter, ft = 14.58

= height, ft = 87.48

Fc

= Fm Fp

M&S = Marshall and Swift Index = 1309.8

Table 5.1: Correction factor for pressure vessels
Shell material

CS

SS

Monel Titanium

Fm clad

1.00

2.25

3.89

4.25

Fm solid

1.00

3.67

6.34

7.89

Material of the reactor is SS therefore Fm = 3.67

Fp = 1.18
Fc = Fm Fp = 4.33
Purchased Cost, US$ = $1,404,881.68
F.o.b equipment cost, US$ = 55,056.43 (extrapolation from figure E.2-3, Douglas, 1988)
Total Cost, US$ = $1,459,938 = RM 4,470,330.49

68

CHAPTER 6

OPERATING MANUAL PROCEDURE

6.1

SCOPE AND OBJECTIVE

This procedure provides operating instruction for the Methanol Reactor System;
Included are operation instructions for system start-up and shutdown.

6.2

STANDARD OPERATING CONDITION

Parameter

Normal Set point (R-201)

Temperature

250 C

Flow rate

933595 kg/hr

Pressure

6828 kPa

69

6.3

PROCEDURES

Reactor Pre-start up Procedures

No

Procedures Steps

Checklist

Ensure that inventory is available at each unit operation. Note that

reactor will be last unit operation to start up.

Verify Vessel Readiness for start up, i.e., all maintenance and I&E
works completed, the reactor is clean and rinse with process water
as necessary, man way close, and all blind are removed and proper
gasket are installed.

Line up cooling water to shell-side of R-201

Line up all transmitter and stroke all control valve

Close, plug and cap all bleeders

Place the reactor temperature indicators and pressure indicator (PI)

in service

Purge reactor with high pressure N2 until vent O2 is less than 6%.

Pressure up the reactor with high-pressure nitrogen to 400kPa and

performed leak check on all flanges.

10

Pressure up the reactor to 6828kPa and check flanges for leaks.

Initiate the Reactor

No.

Procedures Steps

Checklist

Condition reactor, R-201, 6828kPa and temperature 250C

Adjust the feed to desired flow rate

The system is stabilized once feed is heated up to the standard

operating condition.

70

Hot Hold and Shut Down the Reactor

No.

Procedures Steps

Checklist

Notify Wastewater Unit, Utilities Unit and Shipping Unit.

Reduce flow rate to 70% of feed rate.

Shut down heat exchanger by gradually reducing hot stream flow

rate

Reduce reactor feed further to 50% of feed rate, then to 30%.

To HOT HOLD the reactor, block all isolation valves, control

valves and manual block valves for cooling water, oxygen and
feed. Verify at field that all isolation and control valve are closed.
This is to put reactor on HOT HOLD.

To SHUT DOWN the reactor, block all isolation valves, control

valves and manual block valves for feed. Verify at field that all
shutoff and control valve are closed.

Open both man way of the reactor and inspect inside the reactor.
Access the need of cleaning. Prepare the reactor for washing with
process water if required.

Inspect the condition of catalyst inside reactor. Check if there is

any coking or crash powder of catalyst.

Prepare for vessel maintenance.

10

If not clean, perform washing.

Emergency Procedures: Placing Reactor on Hot Hold

When Reactor (R-201) is placed on Hot Hold, the reactor is isolated in an attempt to
maintain reactor pressure and temperature so that the feed stay in optimum temperature.
Cooling water is not allowed to cool down and solidify. An electric heater with backup
power supply (or generator) maybe used to keep cooling water temperature from
dropping. Loss of electrical power is the primary reason for placing the reactor on Hot
Hold. For power outages of short duration (< 10 minutes), the reactor shall be placed on
Hot Hold during power outage.
71

6.4

CATALYST CHANGE OUT PROCEDURE

The change out of the reactors catalyst is due to the end of the life of the catalyst.
Catalyst performance is monitored by the temperature profile across the reactor;
decrease in temperature profile across reactor indicates the deactivation of catalyst.
Thus, this will lead to the reduction in production of methanol. Once the production is
not at the target, decisions are made to change the catalyst.

Removal of Top and Bottom Cover of Methanol Reactor

Erect Scaffolding around the top and bottom part of methanol reactor prior to shut down.
Blind is put at the flange to avoid any foreign materials from entering the reactor or
lines. The top cover is removed and hanged by using 3 chain blocks

Dismantle thermocouples
There are 5 thermocouples that is to be removed Thermocouples are being removed very
slowly (unscrew) and carefully by vibrating it from side to side in order to avoid it being
stuck in the tubes.

Removal of Spool
The spool is removed after the top cover is being removed. Only the venting line is
removed (including the block valve).The process venting line is remained in position.
The venting line spool is removed and laid down at the side of the reactor. The unremoved process line is covered with plastic to prevent any entrance of water or particle.

72

Removal of Spent Catalyst

For unloading of the old, spent catalyst, a large and powerful vacuum system is needed.
The vacuum host used must be in tight position the tube holes. The method used for
removing the spent catalyst is shown below.

Plant air @4 bar

Step 1: A hollow rod is attached with the plant air source.

Plant air @4 bar

Tube is pushed up
and down to remove
catalyst
Vacuum host

Tubes at the reactor

Step 2: The hollow rod is used to push the spent catalyst which is in packed and tight
condition. The vacuum host is used to suck all dust release during the activity.

Figure 6.1: Vacuum System for Unloading Catalyst

73

Tube cleaning
The reactor tubes may be fouled both on the inside and outside surface; thus reducing
the heat transfer of the heat of reaction from the process. Inside tube area fouling is
caused by compounds evaporated from the catalyst and condensed on the inner tube
surface.
Outside tube area may be fouled by compounds from decomposition, polymerization or
oxidation of the Dowtherm Oil. A long steel rod with a wire brush at the end of the rod
is used to clean the tubes.The brush rod is used to scrub the tubes for three times
(minimum) to ensure complete cleaning of the tube.
Upon completion of the tube cleaning, all the tubes are inspected to ensure the inner
surface of the tubes is clear of any deposit.

Eddy Current Test

300 tubes are selected randomly that are to be undergone eddy current test.The test is
concurrently carried out with the spent catalyst removal. Selected tubes for the test is
cleared and cleaned. Later the test is done while personnel removing catalyst from other
tubes. This is in order to minimize time lost.
A tube that has passed the test indicates that the tubes are free from corrosion or erosion
and the tube wall thickness is uniform.

Pneumatic Test
Blinding must be done before conducting the pneumatic test.Pneumatic test was
performed on the shell side as soon as the eddy current test completed. Shell side was
cleaned by hydro jet.

74

Loading a charge catalyst into a tubular reactor with thousands of tubes is not a enviable
job. It must be well planned and supervised in order to avoid poor loading. Poor loading
will results in poor performance of the reactor and uneven flow distribution among the
tubes.
For instance, a tube in which the catalyst has bridged during loading may end up with
too little catalyst with low pressure drop (equals high flow). This tube will pass more
unconverted syngas than the average tube. If a tube with bridging results in catalyst
being loaded far above the Dowtherm A level, overheating and possible damage to the
tube may occur during operation.

Catalyst Mixing
The catalyst loadings comprise a layer of diluted catalyst. It consists of a typical mixture
of Cu(60-70%)- ZnO(20-30%) Al2O3 (5-15%). Mixing is done by small amount (small
container where it is put in a bagging bag). This is to ensure thorough mixing of the
catalyst.

Installation of Mesh, Bottom Cover and Thermocouple

Before new catalyst is being charged in, the mesh, bottom cover and thermocouple must
be installed. There are 15 thermocouples of 5 different heights to be inserted inside the
reactor tubes.
Tubing or a string is to be used to guide the thermocouples so that the thermocouples
would be at the center of the tubes.The guiding rod is a hollow 10 mm instrument tubing
rod inserted into the tube; and the thermocouple is inserted into the hollow part of the
rod.

75

The thermocouples to be inserted inside tubing of slightly larger diameter and inserted
inside the reactor tubeIf string is used, the thermocouple need to be wrapped with the
string and the thermocouple is pull up inside the reactor tube using the string.
Thermocouples must be adjusted according to the height recommended by licensor and
properly tagged to ensure the right connection to DCS (Distributed Control System); but
in the actual situation, the thermocouples could not be adjusted after installation because
every 5 thermocouples (1 set) are tightened to each other.
It is very important for the thermocouples to be in an accurate height and radially centre,
to ensure the reliable readings and monitoring of catalyst activity during normal
operation.
As the thermocouples are inserted into the tubes, the bottom cover is simultaneously
closed, leaving a confined space for personnel inserting the thermocouples.

Figure 6.2: Installation of Thermocouple

76

Catalyst Loading
A plastic funnel connected with transparent host of 5000 mm length is used to load
the catalyst. This will avoid free fall of the catalyst and hence reduce the possibility of
broken catalyst. The catalyst is added little by little amount (piece by piece) to ensure
that the level of the catalyst loaded is not exceeding the limit.
Besides, bridging of catalyst in the tubes may happen if it is poured too fast. The
required height is obtained by level checking. The tubes which have been overloaded
with catalyst are emptied via vacuum and then reloaded again until the required height is
obtained.

Differential Pressure Test

The differential pressure (DP) test is carried out after the completion of level checking to
ensure the uniformity of the DP across the catalyst in every tube .Ideally, all tubes
should be checked for pressure drop after loading (or for equal flow at fixed upstream
pressure).
But, due to the time consuming in such checking, it is seldom done .As a minimum, it is
advisable to check a small fraction of the tubes. The equipment used for this test is a
differential pressure meter with instrument air supply at 0.5 bars.
300 tubes are selected randomly to perform the DP test, then the average reading is
taken and its standard deviation is calculated. For the rest of the tubes, any tubes that are
under/above the range compared to the calculated standard deviation is considered fail,
thus, the tube need to be reloaded. For the tubes with thermocouples, a different average
and standard deviation is used.
All data is recorded for future references.

77

Catalyst Blowing and Bottom Spool Installation

The reactor top cover is reinstalled as soon as the P test completed. The reactor is then
heated up by passing the heat transfer oil into the shell side of the reactor. The oil system
temperature is raised by 30oC every hour; until the temperature reaches 273 oC.
Once heating is done, the tube side of the reactor is blown to remove catalyst dust in the
tubes. Bottom spool is reinstalled after blowing is completed. The reactor now is ready
for start up.

78

CHAPTER 7

MINOR EQUIPMENT DESIGN 1: COMPRESSOR

Compressors are machines that compress air or gas. Compression is achieved through
the reduction of the volume that the gas occupies. Each compressor is generally a
function of the gas capacity, action and discharge head. There are four types of
compressors namely, centrifugal, axial, reciprocating and rotary.

Figure 7.1: Four types of compressor, centrifugal, axial, reciprocating and rotary
compressor (clockwise) (Saeid et al. 2006)

79

Centrifugal and axial-flow units are continuous flow compressors. Centrifugal

compressors use a rotating disk or impeller in a shaped housing to force the gas to the
rim of the impeller, increasing the velocity of the gas. A diffuser (divergent duct) section
converts the velocity energy to pressure energy. Centrifugal compressors are generally
used for higher pressure ratios and lower flow rates.
On the other hand, axial-flow compressors are dynamic rotating compressors that use
arrays of fan-like airfoils to progressively compress the working fluid. Axial-flow
compressors are used for lower-stage pressure ratios and higher flow rates. Axial-flow
compressors are mainly used as compressors for turbines. The pressure ratio in a singlestage centrifugal compressor is about 1.2:1, while axial is 1.05:1 and 1.15:1.
Reciprocating compressors are generally used when a high-pressure head is requested at
a low flow rate. However, because of difficulty in preventing gas leakage and lubricating
oil contamination, reciprocating compressors are seldom used for compression of gases
requiring high purity.
Centrifugal compressor is preferred in this case where high pressures are required at
relatively low flow rates. Natural gas at 255C and 963.25 kPa is to be compressed to
1920 kPa before feeding into the primary reformer. A 1.99 pressure ratio is required.
Centrifugal compressor is preferred over axial-flow compressor as it is generally used
for higher pressure ratios. In industrial compressors, the compression path will be
polytropic where Pvn = constant (P = pressure, v = volume). The work required is given
by a general expression,

R n P2
W = Z T1

M n 1 P1

Where;
W

= Compressor work (kJ/hr)

= Compressibility factor

80

n 1
n

= Gas constant (kJ/kgmol.K)

T1

= Inlet temperature of the stream (K)

P1

= Initial pressure (bar)

P2

= Final pressure (bar)

Cp
Cv

= 1.34

Compressor efficiencies are usually expressed as isentropic efficiencies, i.e., on the basic
of an adiabatic reversible process. Isothermal efficiencies are sometimes quoted, and
design calculations are simplified when isothermal efficiencies are used. The work of
compressor and single stage compressor can be calculated by assuming the compressor
is operated ideally under adiabatic compression.

Parameter for Calculation:

Mass flowrate

= 74 476.21 kg/hr

Volumetric flow

= 24 795.55 m3/hr = 9.665 m3/s

Inlet temperature, T1

= 403.3 K

Gas Constant, R (kJ/kgmol K)

= 8.314 kJ/kmol.K

From ICON simulation, =

Cp
Cv

1.34

Inlet pressure, Pl

= 243.18 kPa (ambient)

Outlet pressure, P2

= 2837 kPa

Compressibility factor, Z

= 0.9667

81

From Figure X,

Figure 7.2 Approximate polytrophic efficiency centrifugal and axial flow compressor

(Sinnot 2000)
Design Pressure

= 1.035 x 2837.1 kPa

= 2936.4 kPa

For Centrifugal Compressor, at volumetric flow rate = 3.53 m3/s,

Compressor efficiency, Ep = 74%
For compression, Ep = polytropic work/actual work required
From Equation 3.38, Sinnot (2000),
Polytropic temperature exponent, m =

-1
Ep
1.34 - 1
1.34 0.74

82

= 0.341

Polytropic exponent, n

1
1 m

1
1 0.341

= 1.518

Work required, -W

n P2
= ZRT1

n 1 P1

n 1
n

1.5181

1.518 2784204 1.518

= 0.9667(8.314)(403.3)
1

1,518 1 238646

= 12 467.34 kJ/kmol

Actual work required

12467
0.74

= 16 847.76 kJ/kmol

Shaft power

16847.76 kJ
x1862.86kmol / hr
kmol

= 31 385 032.06 kJ/hr

= 8 718 kW
Outlet temperature, T2

P
= T1 2
P
1

= 932 K = 659 C
83

Table 7.1: Specification Sheet for compressor K-301

K-301
High Speed Centrifugal
Compressor
1/1

Equipment No. (Tag)

Compressor Data Sheet

Description
Sheet No.
GENERAL

COMPRESSOR TYPE
LUBRICATION METHOD
COOLING METHOD
OPERATION MODE

Oil Free
Air Cooled
Continuous

Centrifugal
1
No. OF UNITS
Flooded
Forced Lubrication
Lube Oil Console
Water Cooled

Parallel
Intermittent
Indoor
Outdoor

OPERATING CONDITIONS & REQUIREMENTS

INLET FLOW RATE
INLET TEMPERATURE
OUTLET TEMPERATURE
INLET PRESSURE
OUTLET PRESSURE
DESIGN PRESSURE
MOLECULAR WEIGHT
RELATIVE HUMIDITY

1.8 m3/s

Normal

n/a

Maximum
403 K
932 K
2.43 bar
28.37 bar
29.36 bar
39.97 kg/kmol
0.4% RH

SITE CONDITIONS/UTILITIES
AIR QUALITY
ALTITUDE ABOVE SEA LEVEL

Saliferous

Salt Laden
50 m

Corrosive
28C
32C
25C

Normal
Max
Min

AMBIENT TEMPERATURE
REQUIRE TROPICALIZATION
REQUIRE WINTERIZATION

Yes
Yes
Pressure
Temperature
Pressure
Temperature

COOLING WATER SUPPLY

COOLING WATER RETUN

No
No
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a

COOLING WATER FLOW RATE

AUXILIARIES TO BE SUPPLIED
Electric Motor Driver
Gear Unit / Accessories
Inlet Filter / Silencer
Inter Cooler / Water Cooled
Inter Cooler / Air Cooled
Outlet filter / Accessories
Air Reservoir / Accessories
Barring Gear

Diesel Engine Driver

Guards
Blow-Off / Silencer
After Cooler / Water Cooled
After Cooler / Air Cooled
Dual Dryer / Accessories
Safety Relief Valves
Noise Abatement Shroud

Air Reservoir / Accessories

Common Skid (Compressors Package / Dryer /Filter/ Reservoir)
Spreader Bar and Sling Assembly

Motor Rated Power

Winding Configuration

ELECTRIC MOTOR DRIVER

8 718 kW
Delta

Yes

Space heater

Power Factor
Motor Type
Operation Method
Rotation Viewing at Motor Fan
Remarks and Notes :-

Power
Voltage
No

Star
kW
V

5%
Safety Factor
Squirrel Cage
Synchronous

Direct On Line
Soft Starting

CW
CCW

Driver rated power shall be at least 110% of the maximum power absorbed by the compressor.

84

CHAPTER 8

MINOR EQUIPMENT DESIGN 2: PUMP

8.1

INTRODUCTION

The function of this pump (P-203) is to pump the water to acetic acid reactor

8.1

SELECTION OF THE PUMP TYPE

Pumps can be classified into general types:

i-

Dynamic pumps, such as centrifugal pumps

ii-

Positive displacement pumps, such as reciprocating and diaphragm pumps

A sketch showing the essential features of a diaphragm pump is shown in figure follows.
Diaphragm pumps are a type of reciprocating positive displacement pump in which
liquid is pumped by a reciprocating diaphragm, which is driven by a solenoid, a
mechanical drive, or a fluid drive. Other versions are air operated. Pump has inlet and
outlet valves.

85

Figure 8.1: Schematic diagram of basic element of a diaphragm pump

8.3

PROCESS DESIGN

Table 8.1: Properties of process streams of P-203

Suction

Discharge

Pumping temperature

109 C

50.00 C

Viscosity,

0.000257139 Pa.s

0.00097574 Pa.s

Pressure

137.389 kPa

3 189 406 kPa

Density

951.7791 kg/m

997.3112 kg/m3

Parameter of the piping

Length

= 100m

Area

= 0.0157 m2

Diameter

= 0.1m

Volume

= 1.57 m3

From ICON;
Liquid volume Flow rate = 17.176 m3/hr = 0.004771 m3/s
Mass Flow = 17130.43kg/hr = 3.925:X/s

86

4O)(P$, ] = 

4O)(P$, ] = 

"O =

)(7$O
;7O

0.004771%' /L
%
= 0.3037
.
0.0157%
L
"O =

aH
]

951.7791 0.3037 0.1

= 112412
0.000257139

This is turbulent flow as Re > 4000.

Table 8.2: Pipe roughness

Material

Absolute roughness ,mm

Drawn tubing

0.0015

Commercial steel pipe

0.046

Cast iron pipe

0.26

Concrete pipe

0.3 to 3.0

The type of pipe chosen is commercial steel pipe. for commercial steel is 0.046mm.
0.046 10K'
=
= 4.6 10Kv
0.1
D

Referring to Moody chart, at /D = 4.6x10-4 and Re = 112412, the friction factor, f =

0.022. Assume that the frictional pressure drop due to the changing flow direction and
cross sectional area of the pipe is negligible compared to the pressure drop due to the
roughness. The equation below is applied.
ha = (p2 p1) + (z2 z1) + (V22 V11)
2g

Where 1 and 2 indicate point of suction and discharge respectively.

87

The pressure drop in a pipe:

Pf = 8f

/ 0 V 2
M
.

Pf = 8 x 0.022 x

M99
9.M

x 0.5 x 951.7791 x 0.30372

Pf = 7 725Pa = 7.725kPa
To determine head losses; where the loss coefficient, KL, which is defined as
KL =

& +

=u

By rearranging:

hL =

hL =

.k

._

u
_M.9.'9' 

hL = 0.8 m
To find the actual head rise, ha:

P = gha
ha =

'9_.9M

k _M.M.M
=

ha = 326.87 m
To find the total head required, assume that z = 20m
Total head required is given by:

Total head =

m
k

88

+ z

9.'9'
..M

Total head =

'9_.9M9.9..

_M.M.M

'9_.9M

_M.M.M

+ 20

Total head = 354 m

Theoretical hydraulic power, W

= 0.163 x`

= 0.163

9336.9
0.005 354 = 0.2693:
1000

To calculate the capacity of the pump to be used to obtained the efficiency,

Capacity =

Capacity =

rRmUQRT{-soT

MM'9/

_M.M/

Capacity = 18 m3/hr

We assume that the efficiency of the pump is 65%.

To calculate the shaft power driving the pump, Wshaft,

Wshaft =

9...
9._

Wshaft = 0.414kW

89

Brake horse power:

BHP =

BHP =

__9

9...
9._

__9

BHP = 0.0075 hp
The pressure at the inlet to a pump must be high enough to prevent cavitations from
occurring in the pump. Cavitations occurs when bubbles of vapor, or gas, from in the
pump casing. Vapor bubbles will from if the pressure falls below the vapor pressure of
the liquid.
NPSHavail =

!W j
+ H- a

Where:

NPSHavail

= net positive suction head available at the pump suction, m

= the pressure above the liquid in the feed vessel, N/m2

= the height of liquid above the pump suction, m=25m

Pf

= the pressure loss in the suction piping, N/m2

Pv

= the vapor pressure of a liquid at the pump suction, N/m2

= 101325 Pa at 109 oC
= the density of the liquid at the pump suction temperature, kg/m3

NPSH avail =

M''

_M.M

+ 25 -

._

NPSH avail = 54.77 m

NPSH avail <NPSH r< 54.77m

90

M9M'._

_M.M _M.M
-

Diaphragm Pump:
P-203
Operating Data
NUM. of MACHINES
(unit)
TYPE
LIQUID
AVAILABLE NPSH (m)
CAPACITY (m3/hr)
PRESSURE (kPa)

Install
1
Working
1
Standby
Air Diaphragm-operated Pump
Water(mostly) & Methanol(little)
54.77
Max
22
Min
15
Normal
Suction 137 Discharge 3189 Differential

18
3052

Technical Data
SPEED (rpm)

374

PUMP EFFICIENCY

65%

COUPLING
TYPE OF GLAND OR
SEAL
SUCTION

Shaft-coupling
Flash Gland
Single

MOTOR EFFICIENCY
DETAILS OF
LUBRICATOR
FULL LOAD
TORQUE

50%
Lube Oil

CASING TYPE
SUCTION STAGE

Diffuser
Single

1.0095

Materials Of Construction
NAME

AMOUNT

Bottom
Tee

1
4

Ball
Stand
column
Outside
platen

4
2
2

Diaphragm
Endo platen

2
2

Nut

Gasket

MATERIAL
NAME
Stainless
steel1Cr18ni9Ti Stud
Neoprene
O Ring
Neoprene
Top
Stainless
Clapboar
steel1Cr18ni9Ti d
block
Q235-A
Gasket
Center
pump
Neoprene
body
Q235-A
Muffler
Q235-A

AMOUNT

MATERIAL

3
4

Q235-A
Buna-N
Stainless
steel1Cr18ni9Ti
Cast
ironHT200

Buna-N

1
1

Shaft
1
Air
distributi
ve valve
1
6
Q235-A
Table 8.3: Specification Sheet for pump P-203

91

Cast
ironHT200
ABS
Stainless
steel1Cr18ni9Ti

Brass HPb59

REFERENCES

Max S. Peters, Klaus D. Timmerhaus, Ronald E. West (2003), Plant Design and
Economics for Chemical Engineers, 5th Ed., McGraw Hill, US.
Christie J. Geankoplis (1993), Transport Processes and Unit Operation, 3rd Ed.,
Prentice Hall Inc, New Jersey.
John J. McKetta (1975), Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing and Design, Vol. A1
R.K. Sinnott (2000), Coulson & Richardsons Chemical Engineering, Volume 6, 3rd
Ed., Butterworth Heinemann, Great Britain.
R.H Perry & D.W Green (1997), Perrys Chemical Engineering Handbook, 7th Ed.,
Mc Graw Hill, USA.
Ullmanns (1985), Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Vol. B4
Levenspiel, O, Chemical Reaction Engineering, Third Edition ,(1999), John Wiley
&Sons, Ltd.
Lakshmanan, A. and Lorenz T. Biegler, (1997). Journal: A Case Study for Reactor

Network Synthesis: The Vinyl Chloride Process, Department of Chemical Engineering,

Carnegie Mellon University.
Kirk-Othmer (1985), Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, Vol. 1
Ullmanns (1985), Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Vol. A1
H. Scott Fogler (2001), Elements of Chemical Reaction Engineering, 3rd Ed., Prentice
Hall Inc, New Jersey.

92

James M. Douglas (1988), Conceptual Design of Chemical Processes, International

Edition, Mc Graw Hill Inc, New York
Gael D. Ulrich (1984), A Guide To Chemical Engineering Process Design and
Economics, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York.
John J. Mcketta, Unit Operations Hanbook, Volume 1, Marcel Dekker, Inc.
Martyn S. Ray and Martin G. Sneesby, Chemical Engineering Design Project, A case
study approach, 2nd Edition, Gordon and Breach Science Publisher.

93