ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION

MODULE 1

INSTRUMENT
It is a device or a system which is designed to
maintain functional relationship b/w
prescribed properties of physical variable and
must include ways and means of
communication to human observer.

MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
The term measurement system is meant to
include all components in a chain of hardware
and software that leads from the measured
variable to processed data.

CLASSIFICATION OF TYPES OF
MEASUREMENT APPLICATION
o Three major categoris:
Monitoring of processes and operation
Control of processes and operation
Experimental engineering and analysis

BASIC MEASURING SYSTEM BLOCK

DIAGRAM

Functional element of an instrument

Textbook Doeblin, Measurement Systems,
MCGraw Hill.

PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTIC OF
INSTRUMENT
Static characteristic
Dynamic characteristic
Text book Morris, Principles of Measurement
& Instrumentation

STATIC CHARACTERISTIC
Accuracy
Precision\Repeatabili
ty\Reproducibility
Tolerance
Range or span
Bias
Linearity

Sensitivity of
measurement
Sensitivity of
disturbance
Hysteresis
Dead space
Threshold
Resolution

STATIC CHARACTERISTIC cont

o Accuracy extend to which reading might be
wrong. Quoted as percentage of full-scale (f.s.)
reading.
Eg:- pressure gauge 0-10 bar - 1.0%.
o Precision\Repeatability\Reproducibility
Precision instruments degree of freedom
from random errors. Large no: of reading
high precision instrument spread of reading
will be small.

STATIC CHARACTERISTIC cont

Repeatability closeness of reading when
same input is applied over a short period of
time.
Reproducibility closeness of reading for
same i/p change in method of
measurement, observer, measuring
instrument, location, condition of use and
time of measurement.

COMPARISON OF ACCURACY AND

PRECISION

STATIC CHARACTERISTIC cont

o Tolerance maximum error which is to be
expected in some value.
Eg:- resistor tolerance
o Range or span maximum and minimum
value that an instrument can measure.
o Bias constant error which exists over full
range of measurement of an instrument.
Removable by calibration.

STATIC CHARACTERISTIC cont

o Linearity o/p
reading linearly
proportional to
quantity being
measured.
Non-linearity
maximum deviation of
any of the o/p
reading.
Instrument output
characteristic

STATIC CHARACTERISTIC cont

o Sensitivity of measurement change in
instrument o/p reading when quantity being
measured changes by a given amount.
sensitivity =

.

STATIC CHARACTERISTIC cont

o Sensitivity of disturbance
All calibration and specification of an
instrument are only valid under controlled
condition of temp, pressure etc.
These standards defined by instrument
specification.
Sensitivity of disturbance measure of
magnitude of this change

STATIC CHARACTERISTIC cont

Environmental
change affect two
ways:
Zero drift temp
change.
Effect where zero
reading is modified
by a change in
ambient condition.

Effect of disturbance
zero drift

STATIC CHARACTERISTIC cont..

Sensitivity drift (scale of
drift) amount by
which sensitivity of
measurement varies as
ambient condition
change
How much drift there is
for a unit change in
each environment
parameters

Effect of disturbance
sensitivity drift

STATIC CHARACTERISTIC cont

Instrument suffer both
zero drift and sensitivity
drift at the same time,
typical modified o/p
characteristic

Zero drift plus

sensitivity drift

STATIC CHARACTERISTIC cont

o Hysteresis noncoincidence b/w loading
and unloading curves.
i/p measured quantity to
the instrument is steadily
increased from ve value,
curve A. If the i/p variable
is then steadily
decreased, curve B.

Instrument characteristic with

hysteresis.

STATIC CHARACTERISTIC cont

o Dead space range of
different i/p values
over which there is no
change in o/p value.
Hysteresis also dead
space. Some do not
suffer from hysteresis
still exhibit dead
space.

Instrument characteristic with

dead space.

STATIC CHARACTERISTIC cont

o Threshold minimum level of i/p. If the input
to an instrument is gradually increased from
zero, the input will have to reach a certain
minimum level before the change in the
instrument output reading is of a large enough
magnitude to be detectable.
o Resolution - The smallest change in a
measured variable to which an instrument will
respond.

DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTIC
The dynamic behavior of an instrument is
determined by subjecting its primary element
(sensing element) to some unknown and
predetermined variations in the measured
quantity.
The three most common variations:
Step change
Linear change
Sinusoidal change

DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTIC cont

Step change the primary element is subjected
to an instantaneous and finite change in
measured variable.
Linear change the primary element is following
a measured variable, changing linearly with time.
Sinusoidal change the primary element follows
a measured variable, the magnitude of which
changes in accordance with a sinusoidal function
of constant amplitude.

DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTIC cont

The dynamic characteristics of an instrument
are:
Speed of Response rapidity with which an
instrument responds to changes in the
measured quantity.
Fidelity the degree to which an instrument
indicates the changes in the measured
variable without dynamic error (faithful
reproduction).

DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTIC cont

Lag the retardation or delay in the response
of an instrument to changes in the measured
variable.
Dynamic Error the difference between the
true values of a quantity changing with time
and the value indicated by the instrument, if
no static error is assumed.

DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTIC cont

The dynamic characteristics its behavior
between the time a measured quantity changes
value and the time when the instrument output
attains a steady value in response.
The static characteristics of measuring
instruments are concerned only with the steady
state reading that the instrument settles down to,
such as the accuracy of the reading etc.

DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTIC cont

In any linear, time-invariant measuring system, the
following general relation can be written between
input and output for time t > 0:

1

+ 1
+ + 1
+ 0

= + 1 1 + + 1

+ 0

0 , , 0 , ,

DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTIC cont

If we limit consideration to that of step
changes in the measured quantity only, then

1

+ 1
+ + 1

+ 0 = 0
Zero order instrument
If all the coefficients 1 , , other than 0
are assumed zero
0
0 = 0 =
=
0

DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTIC cont

First order instrument
If all the coefficients 2 , , other than
0 , 1 are assumed zero

1
+ 0 = 0

If is replaced by D operation , then

1 + 0 = 0
Rearranging,
0
0
=
1
1+
0

DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTIC cont

0

Defining K = 0 static sensitivity

1
=
0 time constant of the s/m
Then, 0 =
Fig: first
order instrument
Characteristic
(thermometer)

1+

DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTIC cont

The liquid-in-glass thermometer is a good
example of a first order instrument.
It is well known that, if a thermometer at
room temperature is plunged into boiling
water, the output e.m.f. does not rise
instantaneously to a level indicating 100C,
but instead approaches a reading indicating
100C in a manner similar to that shown in
Figure.

DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTIC cont

Second order instrument
If all the coefficients 3 , , other than
0 , 1 &2 are assumed zero
2

2
+ 1
+ 0 = 0

Applying D operation, then

2 2 + 1 + 0 = 0

DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTIC cont

Rearranging,

0
=
0 + 1 + 2 2
0

Defining, K = 0 static sensitivity,

= 0 2 undamped natural freq ,
=

Then,

20 2

damping ratio.

= 2

+ 2

+1

 This is the standard equation for a second order

system and any instrument whose response can
be described by it is known as a second order
instrument.
If equation is solved analytically, the shape of the
step response obtained depends on the value of
the damping ratio parameter .
The output responses of a second order
instrument for various values of following a step
change in the value of the measured quantity at
time t are shown in Figure

RESPONSE CHARACTERISTIC OF
SECOND ORDER INSTRUMENT

ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT ERROR

ANALYSIS
A S S I G N M E N T Errors in measurement
error analysis.
Te x t b o o k
H S Kalsi, Electronic Instrumentation.
D.U. S Murthy, Transducers & Instrumentation.
Sawhney, A.K., A Course in Electrical and Electronic
Measurements and Instrumentation.

W D Cooper, Modern Electronic Instrumentation

and Measurement techniques.
Rangan, Sarma & Mani, Instrumentation-devices
and systems.

UNITS
The units of measurement fall into two
distinct systems:
the English system and
the SI system

SI UNITS
The SI units (centimeter-gram-second (CGS)units) based
on the metric system but it should be noted that not all of
the metric units are used.
The SI system of units is maintained by the Confrence
Genrale des Poids et Measures.
Because both systems are in common use it is necessary to
understand both system of units and to understand the
relationship between them.
A large number of units (electrical) in use are common to
both systems.
Older measurement systems are calibrated in English units,
where as newer systems are normally calibrated in SI units

ENGLISH SYSTEM
The English system has been the standard used in the United States, but
the SI system is slowly making inroads, so that students need to be aware
of both systems of units and be able to convert units from one system to
the other.
Confusion can arise over some units such as pound mass and pound
weight.
The unit for pound mass is the slug (no longer in common use), which is
the equivalent of the kilogram in the SI system of units whereas pound
weight is a force similar to the newton, which is the unit of force in the SI
system.
The conversion factor of 1 lb = 0.454 kg, which is used to convert mass
(weight) between the two systems, is in effect equating 1-lb force to
0.454-kg mass; this being the mass that will produce a force of 4.448 N or
a force of 1 lb.
Care must be taken not to mix units of the two systems.
For consistency some units may have to be converted before they can be
used in an equation.

UNITS
Basic Units
Table 2.1 gives a list of the base units used in
instrumentation and measurement in the
English and SI systems. Note that the angle
units are supplementary geometric units.

UNITS

UNITS
Units Derived from Base Units
All other units are derived from the base
units. The derived units have been broken
down into units used in both systems (e.g.,
electrical units), the units used in the English
system, and the units used in the SI system.

UNITS
Units Common to Both the English and SI
Systems
The units used in both systems are given in
Table 2.2.

UNITS

UNITS
English Units Derived from Base Units
Table 2.3 lists some commonly used units in the
English system. The correct unit for mass is the
slug, which is now not normally used. The English
system uses weight to infer mass, which can lead
to confusion. The units for the pound in energy
and horsepower are mass, whereas the units for
the pound in pressure is a force. Note that the lb
force = lb mass (m) g = lb (m) ft s^2 [3].

UNITS

UNITS
SI Units Derived from Base Units
The SI system of units is based on the CGS or
metric system, but not all of the units in the
metric system are used.
It should be noted that many of the units have
a special name.

FUNDAMENTAL UNITS

SUPPLEMENTARY FUNDAMENTAL
UNITS

DERIVED UNITS

STANDARDS
A standard is physical representation of a unit of
measurement.
A known accurate measure of physical quantity is
termed as standard.
Types of Standards
International Standards (defined based on
international agreement )
Primary Standards (maintained by national
standards laboratories)
Secondary Standards ( used by industrial
measurement laboratories)
Working Standards ( used in general laboratory)

CALIBRATION
o Calibration of all instruments is important since it
affords the opportunity to check the instruments
against a known standard and subsequently to
find errors and accuracy.
o Calibration Procedure involve a comparison of
the particular instrument with either
a Primary standard
a secondary standard with a higher accuracy than
the instrument to be calibrated.
an instrument of known accuracy.

UNITS-DIMENSIONS STANDARDS
INSTRUMENT CALIBRATION
Text books
W D Cooper, Modern Electronic Instrumentation
and Measurement techniques
Morris, Principles of Measurement &
Instrumentation
D.U. S Murthy, Transducers & Instrumentation
Rangan, Sarma & Mani, Instrumentation-devices
and systems

T H A N K YO U