MECH 364

MECHANICAL
VIBRATIONS
Presentation Part 4
Clarence W. de Silva, Ph.D., D.Eng. (hc), P.Eng.
Professor of Mechanical Engineering
The University of British Columbia
e-mail: desilva@mech.ubc.ca
http:// www.mech.ubc.ca/~ial
C.W.

de Silva

Plan

Frequency Response Analysis

To Study:

Response to a Harmonic (Sine) Excitation of:

Undamped Oscillator; Damped Oscillator

Q-factor (Half-Power Bandwidth) Method of

Damping Measurement

Frequency Response FunctionFRF

(Frequency Transfer FunctionFTF)

Mechanical Impedance Approach:

Impedance; Mobility; Interconnection Laws;
Overall Model in Frequency Domain

Force Transmissibility, Motion Transmissibility

Vibration Isolation:
Design of Vibration Isolators/Mounts

MECH 364 Road Map

Frequency Domain
Independent variable is frequency
Related to the time domain through Fourier
transform
Amplitude, frequency and phase are important
System is represented by frequency transfer
functions (FTF)
Frequency Response: Response to a sine
(harmonic) excitation (as a function of excitation
frequency)

Frequency, Amplitude, and Phase Angle

Harmonic Response: x = A sin(wnt + f )
w = frequency
A = amplitude; f = phase angle

Frequency Response of
Undamped Oscillator

Forced Undamped Oscillator

Mass-Spring System With Harmonic Excitation

mx&& + kx = f (t ) = f 0 cos wt

&&
x + w x = a cos wt
2
n

Undamped natural frequency:

wn =

k
m

x
Spring

Mass

f(t) = f0 cos t

Case 1: Excitation Frequency Natural Frequency

x&& + w 2n x = a cos wt with w w n

Homogeneous Solution: xh = A1 cosw nt + A2 sin w nt ;

Particular Solution: x p = (w 2-w 2 ) coswt

n

Note: x p satisfies the forced system equation

Complete Solution:

a
+ 2
cos wt
(w n - w 2 )
14442444
3

x = A1 cosw n t + A2 sin w n t
14444
4244444
3
H

Satisfies the homogeneous equation

Satisfies equation with input

a

Determine A1 and A2 using the ICs: x ( 0) = x o and x&( 0) = v o xo = A1 + w 2 - w 2 ; vo = A2w n

n

Complete response:

a
+ 2
cos wt
wn -w2
1442444
3

v
a
x = xo - 2
cos w n t + o sin w n t
2
wn
(w n - w )

14444444
4244444444
3

Homogeneous Solution

v
= xo cosw n t + o sin w n t
wn
1444424444
3
X

Particular Solution

a
t - cos w n t ]
[cosw4
2444
3
(w 2n - w 2 ) 144

(w n +w )
(w -w )
t sin n
t
2
2 3
144444244444
2 sin

Free Response
(Depends only on ICs)

Forced Response (depends on input)

Comes from both xh and x p .

Comes from xh

(w n + w )
wave modulated by
2

(w n - w )
2

wave

*Sinusodal at w n
*Exhibits a beat phenomenon for small wn - w
Note: Bounded-input bounded-output (BIBO) stabile, not asymptotically stable

Input Frequency = 1.0 rad/s

0.03

Input Frequency = 2.2 rad/s

(a)

0.2

(c)

0.02

0.15
0.1

Response (m)

Response (m)

0.01

-0.01
-0.02

0.05
0
-0.05

-0.03

-0.1
-0.04

-0.15
-0.05

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Time (s)

-0.2

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Time (s)

Input Frequency = 1.9 rad/s

0.4

(b)

0.3

(a) Excitation frequency << Natural frequency

(b) Excitation frequency < Natural frequency
(beat phenomenon)
(c) Excitation frequency > Natural frequency
(beat phenomenon)

Response (m)

0.2
0.1
0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4

10

20

30

40

Time (s)

50

60

70

Case 2: Excitation Frequency = Natural Frequency (Resonant Condition)

Previous x p is not valid. It cannot be distinguished from homogeneous solution
at
x
=
sin wt
p
Particular Solution:
2w

Note: This satisfies the forced system equation

2
2 2
Note: Double-integration nature of forced response in Laplace domain: 1/(s + w ) .

at

Complete Solution: x = A1 coswt + A2 sin wt + 2w sin wt

ICs: x ( 0) = x o and x&( 0) = v o xo = A1 , vo = wA2

v
x = xo coswt + o sin wt
w
Total Response: 1444424444
3
X

at
+
sin wt
2w
14243
F

Free Response (Depends on ICs)

Forced Response (Depends on Input)

*Sinusodal at w

*Oscillatory with linearly

increasing amplitude

Note: Unstable response in the BIBO sense

Response for Excitation frequency = Natural frequency

Input Frequency = 2.0 rad/s

1.5

Response (m)

0.5

0
-0.5

-1

-1.5

10

20

30

40

Time (s)

50

60

70

Frequency Response of
Damped Oscillator

Damped Oscillator With

Harmonic Excitation
x

Spring

k
Mass

f(t) = f0 cos t

Viscous Damper

Equation of Motion:

my&& + by& + ky = f (t ) = f0 cos wt

&&
y + 2zwn y& + wn2 y = a cos wt

Characteristic polynomial: D ( s ) = s + 2zwn s + wn

Note: Roots of characteristic equation D ( s ) = 0 are the eigenvalues (poles)
2

Total Response Components

Due to Damping: H 0; X 0; F P
Frequency Response: P

Frequency Response of Damped Oscillator

2
2
Characteristic Polynomial: D( s) = s + 2zw n s + w n
2
2
Set s = jw: D( jw ) = -w + 2zw n jw + w n
2
2 2
2
Magnitude D = (wn - w ) + (2zwnw )

Phase angle

f = D ( jw ) = tan -1

2zwnw
wn2 - w 2

Note: Take proper quadrant of the complex number into account

For excitation a cos wt :
For excitation a sin wt :

xp =
xp =

a
cos(wt - f )
D

a
sin(wt - f )
D

Note: Frequency Transfer Function (Frequency Response Function)

G ( s) s = jw = G ( jw ) =

Note:

1
= G ( jw )
D

1
1
= 2

D( jw ) s + 2zwn s + wn2 s = jw

= amplification of the response wrt excitation

f = D ( jw ) = -G ( jw )

= phase lag of the response wrt excitation

Phase Angles
Imaginary
Axis
Quadrant 2

Quadrant 1

90 < < 180 or

0 < < 90 or

-270 < < -180

-360 < < -270

Real
Axis

Quadrant 3

Quadrant 4

180 < < 270 or

270 < < 360 or

-180 < < -90

-90 < < 0

Proper quadrant of a complex number (correct phase angle)

is determined by the sign of real part and imaginary part.
An integer multiple of 360 may be added to or subtracted from
without consequence.

Characteristics of Frequency Response

Frequency response (particular solution to harmonic excitation)
has the following characteristics:
1. For asymptotically stable system:
Homogenous solution decays to zero
Particular solution Steady-state harmonic response
2. Frequency = excitation frequency w
3. Amplitude is amplified by magnitude

1
D

G( jw )

4. Response lags the excitation by phase angle f = D ( jw )

(or, leads by

-f = G ( jw ) )

Amplification
(Magnitude)

(a)

Damped Oscillator
(a) Magnitude vs Frequency
(b) Phase Angle vs Frequency
(Bode Plots if Log Scale)
Frequency w

Phase Lead
(-f)
0

-90

(b)
wr

wn

n = undamped natural frequency

r = resonant frequency

-180

Resonance
Condition of peak amplification when excited by a sine input
Resonance
Associated frequency of excitation is resonant frequency
Max amplification

G( jw ) =

1
D

Min D Min D

2
2
D
=
w
w
+ 2zw nwj D 2 = (w 2n - w 2 ) + (2zw nw ) = D
Note:
n
2

Resonance

dD
2
= 2 w 2n - w 2 ( -2w ) + 2(2zw n ) w = 0
dw

2
w
=
1
2
z
wn
Resonant frequency r

Note: w r w d w n
Damped natural frequency

wd =

1 -z 2 w n

Damping Measurement by Half-Power BW (or Q-Factor) Method

wn2
wn2
Use normalized FRF of damped oscillator: G ( jw ) = s2 + 2zwn s + wn2 = wn2 - w 2 + 2zwnw j
s = jw
1
Value at undamped natural frequency: G ( jw ) w=wn = 2z j

Magnitude (amplification) =

1
2z

Note: Phase angle of G(jw) at w = w n is -p / 2

For small z : wr @ wn
Half-power points Amplification =
w 2n
1 1
= 2
=
2 2z w n - w 2 + 2 jzw nw

1
2

w
w
1 - + 2 jz
wn
wn

1
2

of peak value

1
1
=
2
2
2 4z
1 - r 2 + 4z 2 r 2

Note: Normalized (non-dimensionalized) excitation frequency

Two solutions
We

w1 and w2 (or r1 and r2 ) :

w2 - w1
@ 2z
get:
wn
wn
1
=
=
Q-factor Dw 2z
r2 - r1 =

Half-Power Bandwidth =

Damping ratio

z@

(w 2 - w 1 ) =
2w n

Note: Q-factor measures sharpness of resonant peak

r=

w
wn

Dw = w2 - w1 (or r2 - r1 )

Dw w 2 - w 1
@
2w n w 2 + w 1

Damping Measurement by Half-Power BW (or Q-Factor) Method

AMPLIFICATION

1
2z
1
2 2z

w1

wn
Dw

w2

Frequency w

Machine Start-Up Requirements

Accelerate:
l Fast enough to skip resonance lock-in
l Slow enough to reduce power consumption and component stressing

Transfer Function and

Frequency Response

Laplace and Fourier Transforms

Laplace Transform: Time Domain Laplace Domain (s-domain or
complex frequency domain)

Y ( s ) = y (t ) exp(- st ) dt

or Y ( s ) = Ly (t ) with Laplace operator L

Laplace variable s = s + jw
with j = -1
Note: Real value is chosen sufficiently large so that the transform
integral is finite even when y (t ) dt is not finite
0

s + j

Inverse Laplace Transform:

1
y (t ) =
Y ( s ) exp( st ) ds
2p j s -j

y(t ) = L-1Y ( s)

or

Fourier Transform: Time domain Frequency Domain

Y ( jw ) =

y(t ) exp ( - jwt ) dt or

where

w = 2p f

Y ( jw ) = y (t )

= angular frequency and f = cyclic frequency variable

Inverse Fourier Transform:

1
y (t ) =
2p

Y ( jw )

exp ( jwt ) dw

or

y (t ) = -1 Y ( jw )

Conversion from Laplace to Fourier (One-sided): Set s = jw

Laplace Transform of a Derivative

Time Derivative:

y& =

dy
dt

Lapalace Transform

L y& = e- st
0

dy
dt = sY ( s) - y(0)
dt

(Integrated by parts: udv = uv - vdu )

Repeatedly apply this result:

L &&
y ( t ) = sL [ y& (t )] - y& (0) = s[ sY (s) - y (0)] - y& (0)

L &&
y ( t ) = s 2L y ( t ) - sy (0) - y& (0)

Similarly
L &&&
y = s3Y ( s) - s 2 y(0) - sy& (0) - &&
y(0)

General Result:
d n y(t )
d n-1 y
n
n -1
n-2
L
= s Y (s ) - s y(0) - s y& (0) -L - n -1 (0)
dt n
dt
d n y (t )
L
= s nY ( s )
n
dt

Note: With zero ICs,

Time derivative Laplace variable s

Time Domain Laplace Domain:
Differential Equations Algebraic Equations (easier math)
Note: ICs can be added separately to any model (E.g., Laplace model)

Laplace Transform of an Integral

t

Time Integral:

y (t )dt
0

1 d
L y (t )dt = e y (t )dt dt = (- ) (e- st ) y (t )dt dt
Lapalace Transform 0
s dt
0
0
0
0
- st

Integrate by parts: udv = uv - vdu

t

1
1
1
L y (t )dt = (- )e- st y (t )dt |0 - (- )e- st y (t )dt = 0 - 0 + ( )e- st y(t )dt
s
s
s
0
0
0
0
t

1
L y (t )dt = Y ( s )
s
0

Time integration 1/s

Transfer Function
It is a Laplace Domain Model
Output/Input in the Laplace domain, with zero ICs
(Note: ICs can be incorporated later, as usual)
General System: nth Order Linear, Constant-parameter System
(Time Domain Model)
dny
d n -1 y
du
d mu
an n + an -1 n -1 + K + a0 y = b0u + b1
+ K + bm m ; m n
dt
dt
dt
dt
With zero ICs,

d k f (t )
L
= s k F (s)
k
dt

Transfer Function Model:

b0 + b1s + K + bm s m
Y ( s)
= G ( s) =
U ( s)
a0 + a1s + K + an s n

General Response to Harmonic Excitation

nth-order linear, constant-parameter system:

dny
d n -1 y
du
d mu
an n + an-1 n -1 + K + a0 y = b0u + b1
+ K + bm m
dt
dt
dt
dt

Harmonic (Sinusoidal) Input in Complex Form:

u = uo e jwt = uo (cos wt + j sin wt )
jwt
Response (At Steady State): y = yo e = yo (cos wt + j sin wt )
jwt
Substitute and Cancel Common Term e :
bm ( jw )m + bm -1 ( jw )m -1 + L + b0
yo =
uo
n
n -1
a
j
w
+
a
j
w
+
L
+
a
(
)
(
)

n -1
0
n

yo = G ( jw ) uo

(Note:

de jwt
= jw e jwt )
dt

Frequency Transfer Function (Frequency Response Function):

b0 + b1 ( jw ) + K + bm ( jw ) m
G ( jw ) = G ( s) |s = jw =
a0 + a1 ( jw ) + K + an ( jw ) n

Magnitude

G ( jw ) = M ;

Phase angle G ( jw ) = f

G ( jw ) = M cos f + jM sin f = Me jf

y = uo Me ( )
Note: Excitation u = uo cos wt Response y = uo M cos (wt + f )
j w t +f

Excitation u = uo sin wt Response

y = uo M sin (w t + f )

Mechanical Impedance Approach

Useful Mechanical Transfer Functions

Transfer Function
Dynamic Stiffness
Receptance, Dynamic Flexibility,
Compliance
Impedance (Z)
Mobility (M)
Dynamic Inertia
Accelerance
Force Transmissibility (Tf)
Motion Transmissibility (Tm)

Definition
(Laplace or Frequency Domains)
Force/Displacement
Displacement/Force
Force/Velocity
Velocity/Force
Force/Acceleration
Acceleration/Force
Transmitted Force/Applied Force
Transmitted Velocity/Applied
Velocity

Dynamic Inertia = Force/Acceleration

Accelerance = Acceleration/Force
Dynamic Stiffness = Force/Displacement
Receptance
= Displacement/Force

= Impedance/(j)
= Mobility j
= Impedance j
= Mobility/(j)

Mechanical Elements
Mass/Inertia Element

Spring/Flexibility Element

Damper/Dissipation Element

Impedance and Mobility Functions of

Mechanical Elements
Element

Mass
m
Spring
k
Damper
b

Time-Domain
Model

dv
m = f
dt
df
= kv
dt
f = bv

Impedance

Z m = ms
k
Zk =
s
Zb = b

Mobility
(Generalized
Impedance)

Mm =

1
ms

Mk =

s
k

Mb =

1
b

Note: Frequency domain is a special case of Laplace domain

Frequency domain is used when dealing with impedance approaches

Interconnection Laws for Mechanical Impedance

and Mobility
Series Connections

Parallel Connections
f1

f
Z1

Z1

Z2

f2
M1

M2
v1

v2

M1
Z2
M2

v = v1 + v 2

f = f1 + f 2

v v1 v 2
= +
f
f
f

f
f
f
= 1 = 2
v
v
v

M = M1 + M 2

Z = Z1 + Z 2

1
1
1
=
+
Z Z1 Z 2

1
1
1
=
+
M M1 M 2

Example 1: Ground-based Mechanical Oscillator

Mechanical Circuit

Impedance Circuit

Three elements are connected in parallel Mechanical impedances add

F (s)
k
ms 2 + bs + k
Overall Impedance Function Z ( s) = V ( s) = Z m + Z k + Z b = ms + s + b =
s

V ( s)
s
M
(
s
)
=
=
Mobility Function
F ( s ) ms 2 + bs + k

Note: Mobility (not mechanical impedance) is the natural transfer function

for this system

Example 2:

Oscillator with Support Motion

Mechanical Circuit

Impedance Circuit

Spring and damper are connected in parallel: Their overall impedance =

Z k + Zb = 1/ s + b = Z s (say)

Mass is connected in series with this pair: Their overall mobility

V (s)
1
1
1
ms 2 + bs + k
= Mm +
=
+
=
F (s)
Z s ms (k / s + b) ms (bs + k )

Corresponding impedance

F ( s) ms(bs + k )
=
V ( s ) ms 2 + bs + k ;

Mobility of mass

Vm ( s ) 1
=
F (s ) ms

Transmissibility

Force Transmissibility

Force Transmissibility T f =

Force Transmitted to Support Fs

Applied Force F

Motion Transmissibility

Motion Transmissibility Tm =

System Motion Vm
Applied Support Motion V

Example 1: Ground-based Mechanical Oscillator

Mechanical Circuit

Impedance Circuit

Parallel Connection Common across variable; Through variables add

Force Transmissibility

Fs Fs / V
Zb + Z k
2zwn s + wn 2
b+k/s
bs + k
Tf =
=
=
=
= 2
= 2
F F / V Z m + Z b + Z k ms + b + k / s ms + bs + k s + 2zwn s + wn 2
Note:

Tf =

Zs
Z m + Z s with Suspension Impedance Z s = Z b + Z k

Example 2:

Oscillator with Support Motion

Mechanical Circuit

Motion Transmissibility

Tm =

Impedance Circuit

Vm Vm / F
Mm
1
1
Zs
=
=
=
=
=
V V / F M m + M s 1 + M s 1 + Zm Zm + Zs
Mm
Zs

Tf (Example 1) = Tm (Example 2)
They are complementary systems for transmissibility

Transmissibility (Magnitude)
Transmissibility

f s ( jw ) vm ( jw )
bjw + k
2zwn jw + wn 2
2z jr + 1
=
=
=
=
2
2
2
f ( jw )
v ( jw ) k - mw + bjw wn - w + 2zwn jw 1 - r 2 + 2z jr

Note: Normalized frequency w = r

n
Transmissibility Magnitude

T=

1 + 4z 2 r 2

(1 - r )
2

+ 4z r
2 2

At r = 0, T = 1 ; At r = 1,

T = 1+

TRANSMISSIBILITY

T
1+

1
4z 2

0
1

Frequency r
Ratio

1
4z 2

Design of
Vibration Isolators/Mounts

VIBRATION DESIGN AND CONTOL

Approaches of Vibration Mitigation:
1. Isolation: Suppress/buffer vibration excitation (Deals with force)
2. Design Modification: Modify or redesign system => for same levels of
excitation, achieve acceptable vibrations (Deals with system)
3. Control: Absorb or dissipate vibrations using external devices, through
implicit or explicit sensing and control (Deals with response)
Shock Excitations
l Transient and very short duration
l Possess a wide band of frequencies
l Time-domain techniques are particularly suited
l May be treated as an impulse which instantaneously changes velocity of
inertia element
l May be treated as an initial-velocity excitation of a free (unforced) system.
Specification of Machine Vibration Limits

Example:
Displacement limit (peak)
Velocity limit
Acceleration limit

= 0.001 m
= 0.01 m/s
= 1.0 g

Example
Velocity
(m/s)

0.01

0.001 m

1g

0.001
1.0

10.0

100.0

1000.0

Frequency (Hz)

Operating Vibration Specification (Nomograph) for a Machine

Possible Solutions for Vibration Mitigation

1. Tightening of the loose components
2. Rubber inserts at joints and connections
3. Strengthening of the bending and torsional
stiffness levels of brackets and attachments (using
box sections, I-sections, etc.).
4. Modification of the operating conditions so as to
avoid the excitation of critical resonances
5. Passive control of vibration through dampers
and/or vibration absorbers
6. Active control of vibration through sensing and
feedback
7. Further redesign of the machine

Vibration Mounts

An insertion Machine for Integrated-Circuit Components

(Amistar Corp., San Marcos, CA)

Transmissibility Characteristics
1. There is a non-zero frequency value where transmissibility magnitude will peak
(resonance)
2. For small z peak transmissibility magnitude is at approximately r = 1.
As z increases, peak shifts to left (lower peak frequency)
3. Peak magnitude decreases with increasing z
4. Transmissibility curves pass through magnitude 1.0 at the same frequency ratio r = 2
5. Isolation region( T f < 1 ) is given by r > 2 . Here T f increases with z
6. Transmissibility magnitude decreases for large r

Design Formulas for Vibration Mounts

In the isolation region (r > 2 ) transmissibility decreases (isolation increases)
as z decreases maintain z as small as possible
For small z in the isolation region:

w 2 mT
k=
(1 + T )

T=

(r

1
2

-1

with

r 2 = w 2 / w 2n = w 2 m / k

for lowest possible operating frequency

w = w0

determine design stiffness of isolator for a specified level of isolation 1-T

in the operating frequency range w > w 0 , for a system of known mass m
(including the isolator mass).
Note: Static deflection d s of spring:

ds =

mg
k

d s = (1 + T )

g
w 2T

Note: Since the isolation region is w > 2w n it is desirable to make

wide frequency range of operation.
Make isolator as soft as possible (k as low as possible)

wn

small

Vibration Isolation Formulas

Transmissibility (Force/Force or Motion/Motion):
1 + 4z 2 r 2
1
T=
@
(1 - r 2 )2 + 4z 2 r 2 (r 2 - 1)
Properties:
2

1.
2.

Tpeak @

Tpeak

1 + 4z
2z

for small z

1
2z

occurs at r

for r > 1 and small z

p ea k

1 + 8z

2z

- 1

1/2

@ 1

4.

All T curves coincide at r = 2 for all z

Isolation region: r > 2

5.

In isolation region:

3.

for small z

T decreases with r (better isolation at higher frequencies)

T increases with z (better isolation at lower damping)
Design Formulas:
Level of isolation = 1 - T
w 2 mT
Isolator stiffness k =
(1 + T )

Where: m = system mass; w = operating frequency

Static deflection d

mg
g
= (1 + T ) 2
k
w T

Design Steps for Vibration Isolator

1. Specify required level of isolation ( 1 - T ) and lowest
frequency of operation ( w0 )
2. Determine mass of vibration source ( m )
3. Use design equation (see previous slide) with w = w 0 to
compute stiffness k of isolator
4. If physical components k is not acceptable, increase
(add inertia block) and recompute
5. Distribute k over several mount elements
6. Introduce a mounting pad of known stiffness and
damping. Modify k and b accordingly and compute T
using damped transmissibility equation (See previous slide)
8. If specified T is not achieved, modify isolator
parameters and repeat design cycle.

Example
Motor and fan unit of a building ventilation system Weight = 50 kg
Operating speed range: 600 to 3,600 rpm
Offices are located directly underneath the motor room 90% vibration isolation is
desired
Mounting springs each of stiffness 100 N/cm are available
Design an isolation system to mount motor-fan unit on room floor.
For isolation level 90%, force transmissibility is T = 0.1
600
2p rad/s
Lowest frequency of operation w0 =
60
Try four mounting points
Total spring stiffness k = 4 100 10 2 N/m
Substitute in design equation:

(10 2p ) 2 m 0.1
4 100 100 =
m = 111.5
1.1

kg

Since mass of unit is 50 kg, use an inertia

block of mass 61.5 kg

Use of Design Curves

Design Example: Isolation I = 90%; Operating frequency f 0 = 10 Hz (for 600 rpm)
We have: f n = 3.0 Hz (from design curves) 3 . 0 2 p = k / m 115 kg (as before)