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2013
RAC55110.1177/0306396813486586Race & ClassEwing: Caribbean labour politics in the age of Garvey, 19181938
SAGE
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At the break of dawn on 19 June 1937, smoke billowed from the wells of the
Apex Company at Fyzabad, in the heart of Trinidads southern oilfields. It was
Adam Ewing is a Mellon Postdoctoral Fellow at Johns Hopkins University. His first book, The Age
of Garvey: global black politics in the interwar era will be published by Princeton University Press.
Race & Class
Copyright 2013 Institute of Race Relations, Vol. 55(1): 2345
10.1177/0306396813486586 http://rac.sagepub.com
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South Africa, 19201940, in The Politics of Race, Class and Nationalism in Twentieth-Century South
Africa (London, Longman, 1987, eds Shula Marks and Stanley Trapido), pp. 20953; Barbara
Bair, Renegotiating Liberty: Garveyism, women, and grassroots organizing in Virginia, in
Women of the American South: a multicultural reader (New York, NYU Press, 1997, ed. Christie
Anne Farnham), pp. 22040; Michael O. West, The seeds are sown: the impact of Garveyism
in Zimbabwe in the interwar years, The International Journal of African Historical Studies (Vol.
35, no. 2/3, 2002), pp. 33562; Robert Trent Vinson, Sea kaffirs: American Negroes and
the gospel of Garveyism in early twentieth-century Cape Town, Journal of African History (Vol.
47, 2006), pp. 281303; Mary G. Rolinson, Grassroots Garveyism: the Universal Negro Improvement
Association in the rural south, 19201927 (Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 2007);
Claudrena N. Harold, The Rise and Fall of the Garvey Movement in the Urban South, 19181942
(New York, Routledge, 2007); Steven Hahn, Marcus Garvey, the UNIA, and the hidden political
history of African Americans, in The Political Worlds of Slavery and Freedom (Cambridge, MA,
Harvard University Press, 2009), pp. 11562; Jarod Roll, Spirit of Rebellion: labor and religion in
the new cotton south (Urbana, University of Illinois Press, 2010), pp. 5275.
Adam Ewing, Garvey or Garveyism: Colin Grants Negro with a Hat (2008) and the search for
a new synthesis in UNIA scholarship, Transition (Vol. 105, 2011), pp. 13045; Adam Ewing,
Broadcast on the Winds: diasporic politics in the age of Garvey, 19191940 (PhD diss., Harvard
University, 2011).
I use the term Garveyist to describe the tradition of organising and politics that grew out of,
and extended beyond, the UNIA. Supporters of Marcus Garvey referred and continue to refer
to themselves as Garveyites. I use this appellation to describe subjects who viewed their work
as a piece of the larger, Garveyist project. Subjects who acquired a Garveyist perspective as a
result of the work of Garveyite organisers, but who pursued their work independent of the
movement, are referred to as Garveyists.
Ronald Harpelle, Cross currents in the western Caribbean: Marcus Garvey and the UNIA in
Central America, Caribbean Studies (Vol. 31, no. 1, 2003), pp. 3573; Carla Burnett, Are We
Slaves or Free Men?: labor, race, Garveyism and the 1920 Panama Canal strike (PhD diss.,
University of Illinois at Chicago, 2004); Anne Macpherson, Colonial Matriarchs: Garveyism,
maternalism, and Belizes Black Cross Nurses, 19201952, Gender & History (Vol. 15, no. 3,
November 2003), pp. 50727; Lara Putnam, Nothing Matters but Color: transnational circuits,
the interwar Caribbean, and the black international, in From Toussaint to Tupac: The Black
International since the Age of Revolution (Chapel Hill, UNC, 2009, eds Michael O. West, William
G. Martin, and Fanon Che Wilkins), pp. 10729; Frank Guridy, Forging Diaspora: Afro-Cubans
and African Americans in a world of empire and Jim Crow (Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina
Press, 2010), pp. 61106.
By greater Caribbean, I refer to the islands of the Caribbean Sea, along with the Atlantic
coastal regions of Central and South America. As discussed below, Garveyism had its greatest
regional impact in the British West Indies (comprising the islands, along with British Guiana
(now Guyana) and British Honduras (now Belize)) and in the labour centres of Central America
and Cuba that attracted large numbers of West Indian migrant workers.
Stein, op. cit., pp. 1423; Macpherson, op. cit., p. 508; Frederick Douglass Opie, Garveyism and
the labor organization on the Caribbean coast of Guatemala, 19201921, The Journal of African
American History (Vol. 94, no. 2, 2009), p. 167; Burnett, op. cit., pp. 182, 190.
Marc C. McLeod, Garveyism in Cuba, 19201940, Journal of Caribbean History (Vol. 30, no. 1/2,
1996), pp. 1578.
In developing this argument, I owe a debt to a pioneering body of Garvey scholarship that
deserves more credit than it has received. See W. F. Elkins, Black power in the British West
Indies: the Trinidad longshoremens strike in 1919, Science and Society (Vol. 31, no. 1, 1969),
pp. 715; Tony Martin, The Pan-African Connection: from slavery to Garvey and beyond (Dover,
MA, The Majority Press, 1983); and, in particular, Rupert Lewis, Marcus Garvey: anti-colonial
champion (Trenton, NJ, Africa World Press, Inc., 1988).
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Georgetown, Demerara UNIA, Negro World, 11 March 1922, p. 11; Leader of Eastern Division
Visits the Colony of British Guiana, Negro World, 9 July 1921, p. 9. For an example of interorganisational and intercolonial association see Great Labor Mass Meeting Held at Liberty
Hall in Trinidad, Negro World, 23 August 1924, p. 14.
For Garvey, see Rupert Lewis, Garveys perspective on Jamaica, in Garvey: His Work and
Impact (Kingston, Institute of Social and Economic Research, University of the West Indies,
1988, eds Rupert Lewis and Patrick Bryan), pp. 2367; Martin, Race First, op. cit., pp. 2345;
Lewis, Marcus Garvey, op. cit., pp. 20912; Ken Post, Arise Ye Starvelings: the Jamaican labour
rebellion of 1938 and its aftermath (The Hague, Nijhoff, 1978), pp. 2067. Lewis notes that twelve
of the twenty-six clauses of the PPPs manifesto were geared towards worker concerns.
Bolland, op. cit., pp. 2123; Brereton, op. cit., pp. 1778.
Garveyism was both more widespread and more deeply rooted in the political culture of the
region [than Marxism], writes Nigel Bolland. Many labour leaders of the 1930s were followers
or former followers of Garvey, some with experience in the UNIA branches in Cuba, Costa
Rica or the United States. So it was not only the ideas of Garvey that were important but also
the experience of public speaking and organising, and of recognizing the need for unity, selfreliance and solidarity. After the Italian invasion of Ethiopia, in particular, the Pan-African and
anticolonial aspects of Garveys philosophy became a major force in the labour rebellions. See
Bolland, op. cit., p. 360.
For petitions, correspondence, and reports of meetings pertaining to the Italo-Ethiopian
conflict, see PRO, CO 318/418/4 and CO 318/421/5.
Confidential Letter to H. Beckett, St. Lucia, 16 October 1935, PRO, CO 318/418/4; S. M. Grier,
Governor, Windward Islands, to Malcolm Macdonald, 12 November 1935, CO 321/363/13.
According to one veteran leader in the West Indian labour movement, most of the major labour
leaders who came to prominence in the British West Indies as late as the 1930s were profoundly
influenced by Garvey. This was particularly true in Jamaica, where the labour rebellion of
1938 was led by Alexander Bustamante, who had been influenced by Garveyism as a younger
man, and St. William Wellington Grant, a leading Garveyite in New York in the early 1930s.
Surrounding Bustamante and Grant were several other men with ties to Garveyism and the
UNIA: A. G. S. Coombs, Hugh Buchanan, J. A. G. Edwards, Stennet Kerr Coombs, and L. W. J.
Rose. See Martin, Pan-African, op. cit., p. 53; Post, op. cit., p. 275; Lewis, Marcus Garvey, op. cit.,
p. 265.
Bolland, op. cit., pp. 2812. Another of Paynes lieutenants, Israel Lovell, was a prominent and
long-time Garveyite. See Report by Loc/Corpl. J. Jones, Barbados Detective Department, to
Captain J. R. Anderson, Inspector of Police, 10 August 1920, PRO, CO 318/355/43627.
R. S. Johnson, Governor, Leeward Islands, to Sir Philip Cunliffe-Lister, 14 May 1935, PRO, CO
152/454/12; Report of the commissioners appointed to enquire into and report on the labour
disputes in Demerara and Berbice, September and October, 1935, CO 111/732/2; Murchison
Fletcher to Mark Young, 3 August 1937, cited in Martin, Pan-African, op. cit., p. 75.
See, for example, the address delivered by T. Albert Marryshow before the St. Kitts Workers
League in 1935. Honourable T. Albert Marryshow at St. Kitts, Union Messenger, c. October
1935, in PRO, CO 318/418/4.
Meeting between the Secretary of State for the Colonies and Deputation of the West Indies
Committee, 3 July 1936, PRO, CO 295/599/13; E. J. Waddington, Governor, Barbados, to
Moore, 3 January 1939, CO 28/324/11; Chief Justice, Antigua, to Governor Johnston, 11 May
1935, CO 152/454/12.
Testimony of Tubal Uriah Butler, Rex v. Butler, PRO, CO 295/608/5; Bolland, op. cit., pp. 2546.
For testimony, reports of Butler meetings, and letters and materials written by Butler, see the
documents collected in Rex v. Butler, PRO, CO 295 295/608/5. In particular, see the Mass
Meeting Poster printed by Butler; Report of Meeting, Point Fortin, 16 June 1937; T. Uriah B.
Butler, General Secretary, BEWCHRP, to Acting Governor, Fyzabad, 27 July 1936; Butler to Lt.