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CONTENTS
SECTION
INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
SCOPE
FIELD OF APPLICATION
DEFINITIONS
TERMINOLOGY
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
Instantaneous Rates
Future Uprating
Plant Upsets
Process Control
Uncertainties in Properties
Uncertainties in Design Methods
Fouling
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
7.1
7.2
General
Penalties of Over-design
5
6
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9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
7
7
7
8
9.6
10
8
8
10.1
10.2
Pressure Drop
Heat Transfer
8
9
11
10
11.1
11.2
11.3
10
10
10
12
10
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FIGURES
(1)
12
13
14
15
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INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
This document is one of a series on heat transfer prepared for GBH Enterprises.
When designing a heat exchanger it is usual to include some form of over-design
or "safety factor" to allow for uncertainties in the design process. This can be
done in many different ways, which have advantages and drawbacks. Unless the
specifying engineer is aware of the implications of the chosen method, the
effective safety margin may be different from the intention.
SCOPE
This Guide explains the reasons for including a design margin, discusses the
various ways in which one can be provided and comments on the relative merits
of the different ways. It also gives some information on the accuracy of heat
exchanger designs with special reference to shell and tube heat exchangers.
FIELD OF APPLICATION
DEFINITIONS
For the purposes of this Process Engineering Guide, the following definitions
apply:
HTRI
HTFS
With the exception of terms used as proper nouns or titles, those terms with initial
capital letters which appear in this document and are not defined above are
defined in the Glossary of Engineering Terms.
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TERMINOLOGY
Several alternative terms are commonly used to describe the "design margin", for
example "safety factor", "% excess surface", "% over-design", "actual to required
area ratio".
An item of equipment may be designed to be larger than that needed to meet the
average design throughput of the plant at design conditions for several reasons.
The following list has been produced with heat exchangers in mind, but much of
it is equally applicable to other items of equipment.
5.1
Instantaneous Rates
The section of plant may be required to run at instantaneous rates above the
normal plant throughput as part of the normal plant operation to allow for different
availabilities of different sections of the plant. Designing for this condition does
not represent a true design margin, as the higher rate represents a normal
condition.
5.2
Future Uprating
The engineer may wish to make provision for future plant uprating. If it is
probable that the plant will be uprated at some future date, there may be a case
for increasing the design throughput, with a corresponding increase in heat load.
However, the heat transfer coefficient under the initial operating conditions will be
lower than the design figure because of the lower velocities; the performance
under the initial operating conditions should be checked to determine the
expected safety margin at the initial conditions. Again, this does not represent a
true design margin, as after the uprating there will be no margin left.
Rather than installing the larger size unit initially, it may be preferable to make
provision for increasing the size of the exchanger at some later date, either by
replacing it with a larger unit, by adding an additional exchanger in parallel with
the original one or by adding heat transfer enhancement devices.
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5.3
Plant Upsets
5.4
Process Control
The duty required from an exchanger may need to be above the steady state
value in order to provide some control function for another piece of equipment.
5.5
Uncertainties in Properties
5.6
In spite of improvements made over many years, there are still uncertainties in
the predictive methods for heat transfer, especially for processes involving a
phase change. It is generally advisable for a critical duty to provide some form of
safety margin to allow for uncertainties in the design methods.
5.7
Fouling
Beware of over specifying design margins. During the course of a plant design,
several stages occur between the overall concept and detailed equipment
design. These might include:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
This is equivalent to saying that the combined margin for design M0 should be
given by:
where M1, M2, M3 are the margins which would be applied for the uncertainties
considered in isolation, expressed as fractional excess areas. This resulting
margin will be less than that obtained by a straight summation of the individual
margins. In particular, if the margin due to one particular factor is large compared
with the others, then the other margins will be largely irrelevant.
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(Strictly speaking, the above approach is only correct if the uncertainties follow a
normal distribution, but it will be reasonable even if they do not).
7.1
General
(b)
Penalties of Over-design
Design margins are provided to compensate for uncertainties which could reduce the
calculated performance. However, these uncertainties could be unfounded, or even act
to improve performance, resulting in an oversized exchanger for the duty. In most cases,
the only penalty associated with an oversized exchanger is the extra capital cost.
However, there may be cases where an oversized exchanger can have positively
harmful effects.
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If the oversized unit is part of an exchanger network, its over-performance could result in
problems with other exchangers in the network. It may be possible to overcome this by
the provision of suitable control schemes, such as bypassing of some of the fluid round
the unit, but this could result in other problems, such as excessive fouling. In the
extreme, it may require the installation of additional trim heaters or coolers, thus
detracting from the benefits of the network.
Thermosyphon boilers can present particular problems. The turndown ratio of such units
is limited; typically a 3:1 turndown is the most that can be achieved without running into
problems with stability or total failure to circulate. The performance and stability of such
units is influenced not only by the installed area but by also by the design of the
circulation pipework and the distribution of pressure drop around the circuit. For steam
heated boilers, it may also be necessary to run with sub-atmospheric steam to achieve
turn-down conditions with an oversized boiler. This can lead to problems of condensate
removal. It is imperative that the designer carry out performance runs for the design for
the complete operating range under both clean and fouled conditions. For more
information on vertical thermosyphon boilers, see GBHE-PEG-HEA-515
So far, it has been assumed that the required duty of the exchanger is fixed, and
the margin is required to ensure that this duty can be met. The exchanger
designer will then try to produce the "best" design which meets the duty within
the constraints, with some agreed margin.
However, in many cases, the duties of specific exchangers within the process are
not fixed a priori. The duty of these exchangers should be optimized by the
correct trade-off between capital and running costs, possibly with the assistance
of heat exchanger network design methods. Discussion of these methods is
beyond the scope of this guide.
Many such exchangers can be classified as "non-critical". For these, designs
based on normal fouling resistances without additional margins should be
considered.
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9.1
(b)
Note that the "area ratio" obtained when rating an exchanger, or the "percentage
over-design" obtained when rating an exchanger, is an indication of the extra
length of exchanger above that required.
It is not possible to use this approach without declaring it to the manufacturer.
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9.2
Sometimes a higher air or cooling water inlet temperature is specified for critical
services than for non-critical duties. This suffers from the disadvantage that the
actual margin on performance at normal air or water temperatures will depend on
the required product temperature. A refrigerant condenser designed using this
approach might have a 25% margin; for a reactor cooler/condenser, with a higher
outlet temperature, it might be only 5%.
The specification of design ambient temperature for air cooled heat exchangers
is discussed in sub clause 3.5 of GBHE-PEG-HEA-513. It should be used to
ensure that a critical unit is designed to meet its duty on warm days, but it is not
recommended to use this parameter to control design margins at other ambient
conditions.
This approach can be useful when designing vertical thermosyphon reboilers.
Because of the coupling between heat transfer performance and circulation, the
extra length concept cannot safely be used. It is better to design the unit for
operation with a lower steam pressure, and hence condensing temperature, than
is available. A check on the predicted performance with the higher steam
pressure will give the maximum heat duty possible; the ratio of this to the
desired duty is a measure of the safety margin. However, beware that the higher
steam pressure does not result in problems such as film boiling, particularly
under clean conditions. See GBHE-PEG-HEA-515 for more details.
9.3
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9.4
This reduces the overall heat transfer coefficient, hence resulting in a larger
surface area being selected for the exchanger. The designer will seek to
minimize the area, within the constraints of allowable pressure drop; the film
coefficients used will not be affected by the "safety margin" as is the case for
using an increased throughput. The approach is useful when dealing with a
manufacturer, as it enables the safety margin to be hidden from him. However, it
is good practice to disclose the actual safety margins in the final documentation,
so the expected fouling resistance should be recorded in the final revisions of the
data sheets.
9.5
In many ways this is the most satisfactory form of safety margin, and it does
allow the final unit to be checked against design conditions. However, it suffers
from the same drawback as does raising the design air or water temperature, in
that the margin will appear greater for units with a low outlet temperature.
9.6
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10
It was stated earlier that one of the reasons for providing a design margin was
due to uncertainty in the design methods used. This Clause gives some
indication as to the likely magnitude of such errors.
Firstly, the fouling layer reduces the effective bore of the tube. For a
smooth tube, in turbulent single phase flow, the pressure drop is
inversely proportional to the diameter raised to the power 4.75.
Thus, a dirt layer which reduces the bore by 10% will increase
the pressure drop by 65%, all other things being equal.
(b)
Commercially available programs, allow the user to input the thickness of the
fouling layer, and use this to determine the effective tube diameter for pressure
drop calculations. However, these calculations take no account of the effect of
fouling on roughness.
Some programs make no allowance for the effect of fouling on pressure drop.
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The basic correlations for two phase pressure drop have considerably greater
error than is the case for single phase flow, even without considering the effects
of fouling. Errors of up to a factor of 2 in the estimated frictional pressure drop in
smooth tubes may occur. However, the effects of surface roughness are less
pronounced for two phase systems.
11
The choice of design margin ultimately lies with the process engineer and the
designer and will be influenced by the nature of the process and the criticality of
the exchanger in question. The degree of uncertainty in the fouling resistances
should also be taken into consideration. The figures given in 11.1 to 11.3 should
be regarded only as guides.
11.1
11.2
Condensers
11.3
Boilers
For boilers, it is generally worth considering the design margin in terms of the
ratio of the maximum to desired evaporation capacity. For cases where the
boiling resistance is dominant, particularly for multi-component systems, a
margin of 10-20% is recommended.
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12
An exchanger which has less than the necessary surface will have a lower heat
duty than required. However, the effect is generally not directly proportional to
the shortfall in surface; an exchanger with only 90% of the required surface will
generally perform more than 90% of the required duty.
For single phase duties it is possible to estimate the effects of over- or undersurface on exchanger performance from a theoretical analysis. The change in
heat load for a given change in surface area depends on the exchanger pass
arrangement, the ratio of the product of heat capacity and flowrate for the hot and
cold streams, C*, and the number of heat transfer units in the exchanger, NTU,
(NTU = U.A/Cmin, where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient, A is the
area and Cmin is the product of heat capacity and flowrate for the stream showing
the greater temperature change.) The NTU value is a measure of the "thermal
length" of the exchanger; duties with a large temperature overlap between the
streams have a large value of NTU.
Figure 1 shows the effect of changes in exchanger length on heat load for a pure
countercurrent exchanger with C* = 1. It can be seen that as the number of
transfer units for the base case is increased, the effect on performance of a given
fractional change in length reduces. For a duty requiring an NTU value of 5, a
50% increase in length only results in a 6% increase in duty. Conversely, an
exchanger of only the necessary length is still capable of 85% of the required
duty.
Figure 2 shows the effects on performance of changes in the number of tubes.
Again, a pure countercurrent flow is assumed, with C* = 1. For this case, all the
thermal resistance is assumed to occur on the tubeside. It can be seen that the
performance is very insensitive to the number of tubes.
Even for a very low value of NTU, a 50% increase in the number of tubes gives
only 8.5% improvement in performance, whilst for NTU=5 the improvement is
only 1.3%. This confirms what was said above, that the provision of a design
margin by adding additional surface in parallel is not a good policy.
The above analysis is based on several assumptions, including a constant heat
transfer coefficient along the exchanger and linear temperature/enthalpy
relationships. It is less easy to perform a theoretical analysis for cases involving
multi-component phase change, but experience suggests that a similar behavior
can be expected. For example, the heat transfer performance of vertical tubeside
inerts condensers is generally insensitive to the number of tubes, but does
depend significantly on tube length.
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FIGURE 1
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GBHE-PEG-HEA-502
GBHE-PEG-HEA-515
GBHE-PEG-HEA-513
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