WATER THE PROBLEM OF PURITY

In its pure state, water is one of the most aggressive

solvents known.
It is called as the Universal Solvent, water, to a
certain degree, will dissolve virtually everything to
which it is exposed.
Contaminants found in water include atmospheric
gases, minerals, organic materials (some naturally
occurring, others man-made) plus any materials used
to transport or store water.

The Hydrologic Cycle illustrates the process of

contamination and natural purification.

Natural Contamination and Purification

Water evaporates from surface supplies and
transpires from vegetation directly into the
atmosphere.
The evaporated water then condenses in the cooler
air on nuclei such as dust particles and eventually
returns to the earths surface as rain, snow, or other
precipitation. It dissolves gases such as carbon
dioxide, oxygen, and natural and industrial emissions
such as nitric and sulfuric oxides, as well as carbon
monoxide. Typical rain water has a pH of 5 to 6. The
result of contact with higher levels of these dissolved
gases is usually a mildly acidic condition what is
today called acid rain that may have a pH as low
as 4.0.
4

 As the precipitation nears the ground, it picks up many additional

contaminants - airborne particulates, spores, bacteria, and
emissions from countless other sources.
Most precipitation falls into the ocean, and some evaporates before
reaching the earths surface. The precipitation that reaches land
replenishes groundwater aquifers and surface water supplies.
The water that percolates down through the porous upper crust of
the earth is substantially filtered by that process. Most of the
particulate matter is removed, much of the organic contamination
is consumed by bacterial activity in the soil, and a relatively clean,
mildly acidic solution results. This acidic condition allows the water
to dissolve many minerals, especially limestone, which contributes
calcium. Other geologic formations contribute minerals, such as
magnesium, iron, sulfates and chlorides. The addition of these
minerals usually raises groundwater pH to a range of 7 to 8.5.
5

 This mineral-bearing water is stored in natural

underground formations called aquifers. These
are the source of the well water used by
homes, industries and municipalities.
Surface waters such as rivers, lakes and
reservoirs typically contain less mineral
contamination because that water did not pass
through the earths soils. Surface waters will,
however, hold higher levels of organics and
undissolved particles because the water has
contacted vegetation and caused runoff to pick
up surface debris.
6

Bacterial Contamination
One difficulty of water purity is bacterial
contamination and control of bacterial
growth. Water is essential for all life. It is a
necessary medium for bacterial growth
because it carries nutrients. It is an essential
component of living cells. Its thermal stability
provides a controlled environment. Water will
support bacterial growth with even the most
minute nutrient sources available.
7

IDENTIFYING IMPURITIES
The impact of the various impurities
generated during the hydrologic cycle and/or
bacterial colonization depends upon the water
users particular requirements.
In order to assess the need for treatment and
the appropriate technology, the specific
contaminants must be identified and
measured.
8

Specific Impurities
Many individual impurities can be quantified through
water analysis techniques. Below is a discussion of
most ionic individual contaminants.
Common Ions
A number of terms are used to express the level of
mineral contamination in a water supply.

Examples

Iron
Manganese
Sulfate
Chloride
Alkalinity ((CO3)2,(HCO3-) and (OH-)).
Nitrate/ Nitrite
Silica
Aluminum
Phosphate
Sodium
Potassium

10

Dissolved Gases
Carbon Dioxide
Dissolved carbon dioxide (CO2) associates with water molecules to
form carbonic acid (H2CO3), reducing the pH and contributing to
corrosion in water lines.
Oxygen
Dissolved oxygen (02) can corrode water lines, boilers and heat
exchangers, but is only soluble to about 14 ppm at atmospheric
pressure.
Hydrogen Sulfide
The infamous rotten egg odor, hydrogen sulfide (H2S) can
contribute to corrosion. It is found primarily in well water supplies or
other anaerobic sources.

11

Heavy Metals
Heavy metals such as lead, arsenic, cadmium,
selenium and chromium when present
above certain levels can have harmful effects
on human health.
In addition, minute concentrations may
interfere with the manufacture and
effectiveness of pharmaceutical products, as
well as laboratory and industrial processes of
a sensitive nature.
12

Dissolved Organic Compounds

Dissolved organic materials occur in water both as the product of material
decomposition and as pollution from synthetic compounds such as
pesticides.

Naturally-Occurring
Tannins, humic acid and fulvic acids are common natural contaminants.
They cause color in the water. They have no known health consequences
in normal concentrations. In the presence of free halogen compounds
(principally chlorine or bromine), they form chlorinated hydrocarbons and
trihalomethanes (THMs), which are suspected carcinogens.

Synthetic Organic Compounds (SOCs)

A wide variety of synthetic compounds which are potential health hazards
are present in water systems due to the use of industrial and agricultural
chemicals. These compounds are not readily biodegradable and leach from
soil or are carried by runoff into water sources.

13

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC)

Due to relatively low molecular weight, many synthetic organic
compounds such as carbon tetrachloride, chloroform and methylene
chloride will easily volatilize. Volatility is the tendency of a compound to
pass into the vapor state. Most are introduced into the water supply in
their liquid phase. If ingested they may be absorbed into the bloodstream.

Radioactive Constituents
Water in itself is not radioactive but may contain radionuclides. They are
introduced either as naturally-occurring isotopes (very rare) or refined
nuclear products from industrial or medical processes, radioactive fallout
or nuclear power plants.

14

Microbiological Contamination
Microbiological contamination can be classified as
viable and nonviable. Viable organisms are those that
have the ability to reproduce. Nonviable organisms
cannot reproduce or multiply.
Bacterial Contamination
Bacterial contamination is quantified as Colony
Forming Units (CFU), a measure of the total viable
bacterial population. CFUs are typically determined
by incubating a sample on a nutritional medium and
counting the number of bacterial colonies that grow.
15

Pyrogenic Contamination
Pyrogens are substances that can induce a fever in a
warm-blooded animal. The most common pyrogenic
substance is the bacterial endotoxin. Pyrogens are
quantified as Endotoxin Units per milliliter (EU/mL).
Total Organic Carbon (TOC)
TOC is a direct measure of the organic, oxidizable,
carbon-based material in water. TOC is a vital
measurement used in sophisticated water treatment
systems such as electronics grade where any
amount of contamination can adversely affect
product quality and yield.
16

Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)

BOD is a measure of organic material contamination in water, specified in
mg/L. BOD is the amount of dissolved oxygen required for the biochemical
decomposition of organic compounds and the oxidation of certain
inorganic materials (e.g., iron, sulfites). Typically the test for BOD is
conducted over a five-day period.

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

COD is the amount of dissolved oxygen required to cause chemical
oxidation of the organic material in water. Both BOD and COD are key
indicators of the environmental health of a surface water supply. They are
commonly used in waste water treatment but rarely in general water
treatment.
17

General Qualitative Identification

Qualitative identification is usually used to
describe the visible or aesthetic characteristics
of water. Among others these include:
Turbidity (Clarity)
Taste
Color
Odor

18

Turbidity
Turbidity consists of suspended material in water,
causing a cloudy appearance. This cloudy appearance is
caused by the scattering and absorption of light by
these particles. The suspended matter may be inorganic
or organic. Generally the small size of the particles
prevents rapid settling of the material and the water
must be treated to reduce its turbidity.
Turbidity can be measured by different optical systems.
Such measurements simply show the relative resistance
to light transmittance, not an absolute level of
contamination.
19

 A candle turbidimeter is a very basic visual method

used to measure highly turbid water. Its results are
expressed in Jackson Turbidity Units (JTU). A
nephelometer is more useful in low turbidity water,
with results expressed in Nephelometric Turbidity
Units (NTU).
Suspended matter can also be expressed
quantitatively in parts per million (ppm) by weight or
milligrams per liter (mg/L). This is accomplished by
gravimetric analysis, typically filtering the sample
through a 0.45-micron membrane disc, then drying
and weighing the residue.
20

Taste
The taste sense is moderately accurate and able to
detect concentrations from a few tenths to several
hundred ppm. However, taste often cannot identify
particular contaminants. A bad taste may be an
indication of harmful contamination in drinking
water, but certainly cannot be relied on to detect all
harmful contaminants.

21

Color
Color is contributed primarily by organic material,
although some metal ions may also tint water.
While not typically a health concern, color does
indicate a certain level of impurities, and can be
an aesthetic concern.
True color refers to the color of a sample with
its turbidity removed. Turbidity contributes to
apparent color. Color can be measured by visual
comparison
of
samples
with
known
concentrations of colored solutions. Color can
also be measured using a spectrophotometer.
22

Odor
The human nose is the most sensitive odordetecting device available. It can detect odors
in low concentrations down to parts per
billion (ppb). Smell is useful because it
provides an early indication of contamination
which could be hazardous

23

General Quantitative Identification

pH
The relative acidic or basic level of a solution is measured by pH.
The pH is a measure of hydrogen ion concentration in water.
Since pH is expressed in log form, a pH of 6.0 is 10 times more
acidic than a pH of 7.0, and a pH of 5.0 is 100 times more acidic
than a pH of 7.0. The pH level can be determined by various
means such as color indicators, pH paper or pH meters. A pH
meter is the most common and accurate means used to
measure pH.

24

Total Solids
Total Solids (TS) (Table 1) is the sum of Total Dissolved
Solids (TDS) and Total Suspended Solids (TSS). In water
analysis these quantities are determined gravimetrically by
drying a sample and weighing the residue.

25

Conductivity/Resistivity
Ions conduct electricity. Because pure water contains few
ions, it has a high resistance to electrical current. The
measurement of waters electrical conductivity, or
resistivity, can provide an assessment of total ionic
concentration.
Conductivity
is
described
in
microSiemens/cm (S) and is measured by a conductivity
meter. Resistivity is described in megohm-cm, is the
inverse of conductivity and is measured by a resistivity
meter.
26

Water Purification
Water purification is the removal of contaminants
from raw water to produce drinking water that is
pure enough for human consumption or for
industrial use.
Substances that are removed during the process
include bacteria, minerals and man-made chemical
pollutants.
A small amount of disinfectant is usually intentionally
left in the water at the end of the treatment process
to reduce the risk of re-contamination in the
distribution system.
27

Sources of drinking water

1. Deep groundwater
2. Shallow groundwater (wells)
3. Upland lakes and reservoirs
4. Rivers, canals and low land reservoirs
5. Atmospheric water generation
6. Rainwater harvesting or fog collection
28

Municipal Water Treatment

There are three principal stages in water
purification:1. Primary treatment
2. Secondary treatment
3. Tertiary treatment

29

Primary Treatment
Pumping and containment - The majority of water must be pumped from its
source and directed into pipes or holding tanks.
Screening - The first step in purifying surface water is to remove large debris
such as sticks, leaves, trash and other large particles which may interfere with
subsequent purification steps.
Storage - Water from rivers may also be stored in bankside reservoirs for
periods between a few days and many months to allow natural biological
purification to take place.
Pre-conditioning - Many waters rich in hardness salts are treated with sodaash (Sodium carbonate) to precipitate calcium carbonate.

30

31

Secondary Treatment
This includes the techniques that can be used to remove the fine
solids, micro-organisms and some dissolved inorganic and organic
materials. The choice of method will depend on the quality of the
water being treated, the cost of the treatment process and the
quality standards expected of the processed water.
pH Adjustment
If the water is acidic, lime or soda ash is added to raise the pH. Lime
is the more common of the two additives because it is cheaper, but
it also adds to the resulting water hardness.

32

Coagulation and Flocculation

Together, coagulation and flocculation are purification methods that
work by using chemicals which effectively "glue" small suspended
particles together, so that they settle out of the water. Many of the
suspended water particles have a negative electrical charge. The
charge keeps particles suspended because they repel similar
particles. Coagulation works by eliminating the natural electrical
charge of the suspended particles so they attract and stick to each
other. The joining of the particles so that they will form larger
settleable particles is called flocculation. The larger formed particles
are called flocs.
33

The coagulants include Fe and Al salts

Alum

K2(SO4)3. 24H2O

Ferrous Suphate Fe2SO4.7H2O

Sodium Aluminate NaALO2

The chosen coagulant and the raw water is slowly mixed in a large tank
called a flocculation basin. The flocculation paddles turn very slowly to
minimize turbulence. The principle involved is to allow as many particles to
contact other particles as possible generating large and robust floc
particles.
34

35

Sedimentation
Water exiting the flocculation basin enters the sedimentation basin,
also called a clarifier or settling basin. It is a large tank with slow
flow, allowing floc to settle to the bottom. The outflow is typically
over a weir so only a thin top layer-furthest from the sedimentexits. The amount of floc that settles out of the water is dependent
on the time the water spends in the basin and the depth of the
basin.
As particles settle to the bottom of the basin a layer of sludge is
formed on the floor of the tank. This layer of sludge must be
removed and treated.
36

37

Filtration
After separating most floc, the water is filtered as the final step to
remove remaining suspended particles and unsettled floc. The most
common type of filter is a rapid sand filter. Water moves vertically
through sand which often has a layer of activated carbon above the
sand. The top layer removes organic compounds affecting taste and
odour. Most particles pass through surface layers but are trapped in
pore spaces or adhere to sand particles. This property of the filter is
key to its operation: if the top layer of sand were to block all the
particles, the filter would quickly clog.

38

39

Ultrafiltration Membranes

Ultrafiltration membranes are a relatively new

development; they use polymer film with chemically
formed microscopic pores that can be used in place
of granular media to filter water effectively without
coagulants. The type of membrane media determines
how much pressure is needed to drive the water
through and what sizes can be filtered out.

40

41

Tertiary Treatment
Disinfection is normally the last step in purifying
drinking water. Water is disinfected to destroy any
pathogens which passed through the filters. Following
the introduction of any chemical disinfecting agent, the
water is usually held in temporary storage - often called
a contact tank or clear well to allow the disinfecting
action to complete.
42

Chlorine
The most common disinfection method is some form of chlorine which is a strong oxidant
that kills many micro-organisms.
Because chlorine is a toxic gas, there is a danger of a release associated with its use. This
problem is avoided by the use of bleaching powder which is a relatively inexpensive solid
that releases free chlorine when dissolved in water.

CaOCl2 + H2O ---------------- Ca(OH)2 + Cl2

Cl2 + H2O --------------- 2HCL +[O]
Germ + [O] --------------- oxidized germ
Although chlorine is effective in killing bacteria, it has limited effectiveness against
protozoans that form cysts in water. Another drawback of chlorine gas is that it reacts with
organic compounds in the water to form potentially harmful levels of the chemical byproducts trihalomethanes (THMs). The formation of THMs is minimised by effective removal
of as many organics from the water as possible before disinfection.

43

Chloramines
Chloramines are another chlorine-based disinfectant.
Although chloramines are not as effective as
disinfectants, compared to chlorine gas or sodium
hypochlorite, they are less prone to form THMs.
ClNH2 + H2O --------- HOCL +NH3
HOCl ---------- HCl + [O]
44

Ozone (O3)
Ozone is made by passing oxygen through ultraviolet light or a electrical
discharge. To use ozone as a disinfectant, it must be created on site and
added to the water by bubble contact. Some of the advantages of ozone
include the production of relatively fewer dangerous by-products (in
comparison to chlorination) and the lack of taste and odor produced by
ozonation. But disadvantages include high cost and no residual
disinfectant in the water.

O3 ----------- O2 + [O]
45

UV Radiation
UV radiation is very effective at inactivating cysts, as
long as the water has a low level of colour so the UV
can pass through without being absorbed.

46

Because neither ozone nor UV radiation leaves a

residual disinfectant in the water, it is sometimes
necessary to add a residual disinfectant after they
are used. This is often done through the addition of
chloramines,

discussed

above

as

primary

disinfectant. When used in this manner, chloramines

provide an effective residual disinfectant with very
little of the negative aspects of chlorination.
47

What Is Hard Water?

Hardness is that characteristic of water which prevents the
lathering of soap. It is caused by compounds of calcium and
magnesium. Water dissolves, suspends, or exchanges certain trace
elements and compounds from many things that it contacts on its
travels.
Total water 'hardness' (including both Ca++ and Mg++ ions) is
reported as ppm w/v (or mg/L) of CaCO3. Water hardness usually
measures the total concentration of Ca and Mg, the two most
prevalent divalent metal ions, although in some geographical
locations iron, aluminium, and manganese may also be present at
elevated levels.

48

Temporary or Carbonate Hardness

Temporary hardness is hardness that can be removed by boiling or by the
addition of lime (calcium hydroxide). It is caused by a combination of
calcium ions and bicarbonate ions in the water. Boiling, which promotes
the formation of carbonate from the bicarbonate, will precipitate calcium
carbonate out of solution, leaving water that is less hard on cooling.

Ca (HCO3)2

Heat
--------> CaCO3 + H2O + CO2

Mg (HCO3)2

Heat
--------> MgCO3 + H2O + CO2

49

Permanent or Non-Carbonate Hardness

Permanent hardness is hardness (mineral content)
that cannot be removed by boiling. It is usually
caused by the presence of calcium and magnesium
sulfates and/or chlorides in the water, which become
more soluble as the temperature rises. Despite the
name this can be removed using a water softener, or
ion exchange column.

50

Hardness of water is usually reported as:

Units of Hardness

Parts per million (ppm) is parts of CaCO3

equivalent hardness per million parts of water
Milligrams per litre (mg/litre) is the no. of mg of
CaCO3 hardness per litre of water
Degree Clark is the no. of grains of CaCO3
hardness per gallon of water.

51

Problems caused by hard water

While hard water is not generally unhealthy, it can cause many potentially costly
problems.

Hard water causes scaling, which is the precipitation of minerals to form a rockhard deposit called lime scale.

For domestic purposes, hard water requires more soap and synthetic detergents
for laundry and washing.

Using soap on the body in hard water can cause the formation curd. This curd
remains on the skin even after rinsing, clogging pores serving as a medium for
bacterial growth, causing skin irritation and dry skin.

In industry, hard water contributes to scaling in boilers, cooling towers and other
industrial equipment.
52

WATER SOFTENING
The process of removing hardness producing
salts from water is known as softening of
water and can be accomplished by one of the
following methods.
Lime-soda Process
Zeolite or Permutit Process.
Deionization Process

53

Lime-soda Process
Lime-soda Process is the most widely used method of softening water. It is based on
converting the dissolved calcium and magnesium salts into insoluble salts, which are then
allowed to settle and filtered off. The added ingredient lime Ca(OH)2 precipitates temporary
hardness, permanent magnesium hardness, iron and aluminium salts and free acids (like
CO2, H2S- etc).

Ca(HCO3)2+ Ca(OH)2 --------> 2CaCO3 + 2H2O

Mg(HCO3)2 + 2Ca(OH)2 --------> 2CaCO3 +Mg(OH)2 +2H2O
MgSO4 + Ca(OH)2 --------> Mg(OH)2 +CaSO4,
FeSO4+ Ca(OH)2 --------> Fe(OH)2 +CaSO4

54

Types of Lime-soda Process

Lime-soda process may be carried out in the
following ways

Cold lime-soda process

Hot lime-soda process

55

Cold lime-soda process.

This method is usually applied for municipal water treatment. In this method
calculated quantity of chemicals (lime and soda) are mixed with water at
atmospheric temperature. At room temperature the precipitates formed are finely
divided, so, they do not settle down easily, nor can they be filtered easily.
Consequently, it is essential to add small amounts of coagulants. These coagulants
forms flocs of of aluminium hydroxide, which entraps the fine precipitates formed by
the reactions of lime and soda. This process provides water containing a residual
hardness of 50 to 60 ppm.

56

57

Hot lime-soda process

This method is applied for boiler feed-water
treatment. This involves treating water with
chemicals at a temperature of 80 to 150 oC.

58

59

Comparison of HLSP & CLSP

Since hot process is operated at a temperature close to the boiling point of the solution,
so,

the reaction proceeds faster, while in hot softening the reactions are completed in 15
minutes; whereas in the cold process several hours are needed,

the softening capacity of hot process is increased to many fold,

the precipitate and sludge formed settle rapidly and hence no coagulants are
needed,

much of the dissolved gases (such as CO2 and air) are driven out of the solution,

viscosity of softened water is lower, so, filtration of the water becomes, much easier.
This in turn increases the filtering capacity of filters, and

hot lime-soda produces water of comparatively lower residual hardness of 10 to 20

ppm.

60

Zeolite or Permutit Process

Zeolites (or Permutits) are Complex silicates consisting of macromolecules
of several metallic and non-metallic oxides, which form a rather crystalline
structure of approximate chemical formula Na2O. Al2O3. 2SiO2. 6H2O and
they are simply represented by Na2Ze. They hold sodium ions in loose
fashion and consequently when they are treated with a solution, an
equilibrium is formed between the sodium ions held by the zeoiite and
positive ions present in the solution. Thus, if the zeolite bed is kept in
contact with a solution containing heavy metal ions such as Ca+2 Mg+2,
etc., there will be a tendency for these ions to be exchanged by the
sodium ions contained in zeolite.

61

Natural and Synthetic Zeolites

Zeolite used for water-softening purposes can be natural or synthetic. The
former are mined as such and are more durable. The later are
manufactured by heating china clay and soda ash together and cooling
and crushing the resulting glass. Artificial zeolites have a greater exchange
capacity per unit weight but are less durable and more easily effected by
acids than natural zeolites.

62

Process details
For softening of water by zeolites process, hard water is percolated at a
specified rate through a bed of zeolites kept in a cylinder. The hardness
causing ions (Ca+2, Mg+2, etc.) are retained by the zeolite, while the
outgoing water contains sodium salts.Reactions taking place in the
softening

process

are

63

Regeneration.
After some time, when the zeolite is completely converted into calcium and
magnesium zeolites and it ceases to soften water, i.e., it gets exhausted. At
this stage the supply of hard water is stopped and the exhausted zeolite is
reclaimed by treating the bed with a dilute (10%) brine (NaCl) solution,

CaZe(or MgZe)+ 2NaCl -------->Na2Ze

(Exhausted zeolite)

(Brine)

(Reclaimed zeolite)

The washings (containing CaCl2

and

CaCl2(orMgCl2)
(Washings)

MgCl2) are led to drain and the

reclaimed zeolite bed is used again for softening.

64

Zeolite process of softening.

65

Advantages of zeolite process.

It removes the hardness completely, ie., nearly zero
hardness water is produced.
The equipment used is compact occupying a small
space.
No impurities are precipitated so there is no danger
of sludge formation in the treated water at a later
stage.
The process automatically adjusts itself for different
hardness of incoming water.
66

Disadvantages of zeolite process.

The treated water contains more sodium salts than in
lime-soda process.
Higher capital cost as compared to LSP but lower
operational cost.
Zeolite treatment only replaces the cations (like Ca2+,
Mg2+, etc.) with Na+, but leaves all the acidic ions (like
HCO-3" and CO32-) in the softened water. When such
softened water is used in steam boilers, free CO2 is
released. Free CO2 thus set free is weakly acidic and is
corrosive to boiler materials.
67

Osmosis
Osmosis is the spontaneous net movement of
solvent molecules through a partially permeable
membrane into a region of higher solute
concentration, in the direction that tends to
equalize the solute concentrations on the two
sides.

68

69

Reverse Osmosis
Reverse osmosis is a separation process that
uses pressure to force a solvent through a semipermeable membrane that retains the solute on
one side and allows the pure solvent to pass to
the other side, forcing it from a region of high
solute concentration through a membrane to a
region of low solute concentration by applying a
pressure in excess of the osmotic pressure.
70

71

72