BHANU PRAKASH.

(06951A0506)
 ACKOWLEDGEMENT

I express my gratitude to Mr. T. RamanaMurthy, Head of the

Department, my Seminar Guide for providing me with adequate facilities,
ways and means by which I was able to complete this seminar. I express my
sincere gratitude to him for his constant support and valuable suggestions
without which the successful completion of this seminar would not have been
possible.

I thank all others, and especially my classmates and my family members

who in one way or another helped me in the successful completion of this work.

BHANU PRAKASH.S
ABSTRACT:

Now a days we are facing majority of crimes related to security issues and these

arise due to the leakage of passwords or illegal authentication. At one end, there

is a continous and tremendous improvement in the life style of humans while at

the other end ; the technological crimes are increasing rapidly. As there is a

problem, there must be a solution .The need for a compromising technology

which can be adopted is highly imperative .Technologies capable of identifying

each person uniquely need to be developed. The only powerful solution for the

problem of illegal authentication is biometrics.

Nature has made human beings with different characterstics which may vary

from one person to another .This property is made use of Biometric Technolgy

to distinctly identify each person.Biometrcs is a means of using the physiological

or behavioral characterstics of a person as a kind of permanent password.

This paper includes about biometrics,its operation and performance and

comparison among biometric categories.Its applications in RETINAL SCAN and

in FIGER AUTHENTICATION.
CONTENTS
• INTRODUCTION

• COMPARISON OF BIOMETRICS

• ISSUES AND CONCERNS

• IDENTITY THEFT AND PRIVATE ISSUES

• APPLICATION OF BIOMETRICS

• PATTERNS

• ALGORITHMS

• CONCLUSION
 INTRODUCTION
Biometric is a ancient Greek word which means: bios ="life", metron ="measure".It is the study
of automated methods for uniquely recognizing humans based upon one or more intrinsic
physical or behavioral traits. In information technology, biometric authentication refers to
technologies that measure and analyze human physical and behavioral characteristics for
authentication purposes.

Examples of physical characteristics include fingerprints, eye retinas and irises, facial patterns
and hand measurements, while examples of mostly behavioral characteristics include signature,
gait and typing patterns. Voice is considered a mix of both physical and behavioral
characteristics. But all biometric traits share physical and behavioral aspects.

OPERATION AND PERFORMANCE:

In a typical IT biometric system, a person registers with the system when one or more of his
physical and behavioral characteristics are obtained. This information is then processed by a
numerical algorithm, and entered into a database. The algorithm creates a digital representation
of the obtained biometric. If the user is new to the system, he or she enrolls, which means the
digital template is entered into the database. Each subsequent attempt to use the system, or
authenticate, requires the biometric of the user to be captured again, and processed into a digital
template. That template is compared with prestored one.The above process will repeats at time
the user attempts to entering in to the system. The comparison process involves the use of a
Hamming distance. Hamming distance involves comparision of bits,if the bits are
dissimilar,hamming distance contains the percentage of dissimilar bits out of the number of
comparisons made.
Example if two strings 101010 and 100110 then the hamming distance is two,since there is
variation in “10” and “01”.
So system easily detects the fraud person by comparing the features behind it.Current
technologies have widely varying Equal Error Rates, varying from as low as 60% and as high as
99.9%.
PERFORMANCE:

A Performance of a biometric measure is referred interms of the false accept rate (FAR), the
false non match or reject rate (FRR), and the failure to enroll rate (FTE or FER). The FAR
measures the percent of invalid users who are incorrectly accepted as genuine users, while the
FRR measures the percent of valid users who are rejected as impostor. In real-world biometric
systems the FAR and FRR can typically be tradeoff against each other by changing some
parameter. One of the most common measures of real-world biometric systems is the rate at
which both accept and reject errors are equal: the equal error rate (EER), also known as the
cross-over error rate (CER). The lower the EER or CER, the more accurate the system is
considered to be.

Stated error rates sometimes involve idiosyncratic or subjective elements. For example, one
biometrics vendor set the acceptance threshold high, to minimize false accepts. In the trial, three
attempts were allowed, and so a false reject was counted only if all three attempts failed. At the
same time, when measuring performance biometrics (e.g. writing, speech etc.), opinions may
differ which constitute a false reject. If a signature verification system is trained with an initial
and a surname, can a false reject be legitimately claimed when it then rejects the signature
incorporating a full first name?Despite these misgivings, biometric systems have the potential to
identify individuals with a very high degree of certainty.
COMPARISION OF BIOMETRICS:

The BIOMETRICS compares each other against seven categories:

THEY ARE:

 Universality:It describes how common a biometric is found in each individual.

 Uniqueness:It shows how well the biometric separates one individual from another.
 Permanence:->measures how well a biometric resist aging.

 Collectability:It explains how easy it is to acquire a biometric for measurement.

 Performance:It indicates the accuracy, speed, and robustness of the system capturing the
biometric.
 Acceptability: It indicates the degree of approval of a technology by the public in
everyday life.
 Circumvention :It is how easy it is to fool the authentication system.

They are ranked by biometric based on the categories as being either low, medium, or high.
A low ranking indicates poor performance in the evaluation criterion whereas a high ranking
indicates a very good performance.

ISSUES AND CONCERNS:

As with many interesting and powerful developments of technology, excessive concern with the
biometric may have the effect of eclipsing a more general critical faculty.

Identity theft and privacy issues:

Concerns about Identity theft through biometrics use have not been resolved.
For example:
If a person's credit card number is stolen, it can cause them great difficulty with following
factors:
SINGLE FACTOR:
In single factor,just knowing the credit card number and its expiration date can sometimes
enough to use a stolen credit card successfully.
TWO-FACTOR: In this security solutions requires something you know plus something you
have;
For example, a debit card and a personal Identification Number(PIN)OR BIOMETRIC .
By accessing biometric data one may think that the financial or personal information of a person
may hacked.But it ignores a key operational factor inherited to all biometrics-based security
solutions , biometric solutions are based on matching. At the point of transaction,the person
image will be scanned ,means “live” image.THE obtained image is matched with prestored
static "match template" created when the user originally enrolled in the security system. Most of
the available biometric systems address the issues of ensuring that the static enrollment sample
has not been tampered with IE, using hash codes and encryption, so the problem is effectively
limited to cases where the scanned "live" biometric data is hacked.
Even then, most competently-design solutions contain anti-hacking routines.

APPLICATIONS OF BIOMETRIC:

RETINAL SCAN:

A Retinal scan is a biometric technique that uses the unique patterns on a person's retina to
identify them.

The human retina is stable from birth to death, making it the most accurate biometric to measure.
It has been possible to take a retina scan since the 1930s, when research suggested that each
individual had unique retina patterns. The research was validated and we know that the blood
vessels at the back of the eye have a unique pattern, from eye to eye and person to person. A
retinal scan involves the use of a low-intensity light source and coupler that are used to read the
blood vessel patterns, producing very accurate biometric data. It has the highest crossover
accuracy of any of the biometric collectors, estimated to be in the order of 1:10,000,000.

Development of the technology has taken longer than expected and for many years the process of
taking a retinal scan was measured in 10 seconds. New technology is capable of capturing a
retinal scan in less than 2 seconds.

ADVANTAGE:

Some biometric identifiers, like fingerprints, can be spoofed. This is not the case with a retina
scan. The retina of a deceased person quickly decays and cannot be used to deceive a retinal
scan. It is for this reason that retina scan technology is used for high end access control security
applications.

Fingerprint authentication:

DERMATOGLYPHICS:

DERmatoglyphics (from ancient Greek derma = "skin", glyph = "carving") is the scientific study
of fingerprints. The term was coined by Dr. Harold Cummins, the father of fingerprint analysis.

• Fingerprint authentication refers to the automated method of verifying a match between

two human fingerprints. Fingerprints are one of many forms of biometrics used to
identify an individual and verify their identity . This article touches on two major classes
of algorithms (minutia and pattern) and four sensor designs (optical, ultrasonic, passive
capacitance, and active capacitance).

PATTERNS:

Patterns include aggregate characteristics of ridges.

The three basic patterns of fingerprint ridges are the Arch, Loop, and Whorl.

ARCH: An arch is a pattern where the ridges enter from one side of the finger, rise in the
center forming an arc, and then exit the other side of the finger.
 LOOP:The loop is a pattern where the ridges enter from one side of a finger, form a curve,
and tend to exit from the same side they enter.

WHORL:In the whorl pattern,ridges form circularly around

a central point on the finger.

Scientists have found that family members often share the same general fingerprint patterns,
leading to the belief that these patterns are inherited.

The arch pattern :

The loop pattern:

 The whorl pattern:

MINUTIA FEATURES: Minutia points, which are unique features found within the patterns.

The major minutia features of fingerprint ridges are: ridge ending, bifurcation, and short ridge (or
dot).

Ridge ending:It is the point at which a ridge terminates.

Bifurcation:These are points at which a single ridge splits into two ridges.

Short ridges(DOT):Short ridges (or dots) are ridges which are significantly shorter than the
average ridge length on the fingerprint.

Minutiae and patterns are very important in the analysis of fingerprints since no two fingers have
been shown to be identical.
Fingerprint sensors:

A fingerprint sensor is an electronic device used to capture a digital image of the fingerprint
pattern. The captured image is called a live scan. This live scan is digitally processed to create a

biometric template (a collection of extracted features) which is stored and used for matching.
This is an overview of some of the more commonly used fingerprint sensor technologies.

Optical sensor:

Optical fingerprint imaging involves capturing a digital image of the print using visible light.
This type of sensor is, in essence, a specialized digital camera. The top layer of the sensor, where
the finger is placed, is known as the touch surface. Beneath this layer is a light-emitting phosphor
layer which illuminates the surface of the finger. The light reflected from the finger passes
through the phosphor layer to an array of solid state pixels (a charge coupled device) which
captures a visual image of the fingerprint. A scratched or dirty touch surface can cause a bad
image of the fingerprint. A disadvantage of this type of sensor is the fact that the imaging
capabilities are affected by the quality of skin on the finger. For instance, a dirty or marked
finger is difficult to image properly. Also, it is possible for an individual to erode the outer layer
of skin on the fingertips to the point where the fingerprint is no longer visible. However, unlike
capacitive sensors, this sensor technology is not susceptible to electrostatic discharge damage.

Capacitance sensor:

Capacitance sensors utilize the principles associated with capacitance in order to form fingerprint
images. The two equations used in this type of imaging are:

where

C is the capacitance in farads.

Q is the charge in coulombs.

V is the potential in volts.

E0-> permittivity of free space,measured in farad/metre

εr is the dielectric constant of the insulator used

A-> area of each plane electrode, measured in square metres

d->separation between the electrodes, measured in metres

In this method of imaging, the sensor array pixels each act as one plate of a parallel-plate
capacitor, the dermal layer (which is electrically conductive) acts as the other plate, and the non-
conductive epidermal layer acts as a dielectric.

Passive capacitance:

A passive capacitance sensor uses the principle outlined above to form an image of the
fingerprint patterns on the dermal layer of skin. Each sensor pixel is used to measure the
capacitance at that point of the array. The capacitance varies between the ridges and valleys of
the fingerprint due to the fact that the volume between the dermal layer and sensing element in
valleys contains an air gap. The dielectric constant of the epidermis and the area of the sensing
element are known values. The measured capacitance values are then used to distinguish
between fingerprint ridges and valleys.

Algorithms:

Matching algorithms are used to compare previously stored templates of fingerprints against
candidate fingerprints for authentication purposes. In order to do this either the original image
must be directly compared with the candidate image or certain features must be compared.
Pattern-based (or Image-based) algorithms:

It compares the basic fingerprint patterns between a previously stored template and a candidate
fingerprint. This requires that the images be aligned in the same orientation. To do this, the
algorithm finds a central point in the fingerprint image and centers on that. In a pattern-based
algorithm, the template contains the type, size, and orientation of patterns within the aligned
fingerprint image. The candidate fingerprint image is graphically compared with the template to
determine the degree to which they match.

Minutia-based algorithms:

It compares several minutia points extracted from the original image stored in a template with
those extracted from a candidate fingerprint. Similar to the pattern-based algorithm, the minutia-
based algorithm must align a fingerprint image before extracting feature points. This alignment
must be performed so that there is a frame of reference. For each minutia point, a vector is stored
into the template in the form:

mi = (type,xi,yi,θi,W) where

mi is the minutia vector

type-> type of feature(ridgeending,bifurcation,short ridge)

xi is the x-coordinate of the location

yi is the y-coordinate of the location

θi is the angle of orientation of the minutia

W->weight based on the quality of the image at that location

It is important to note that an actual image of the print is not stored as a template under this
scheme. Before the matching process begins, the candidate image must be aligned with the
template coordinates and rotation. Features from the candidate image are then extracted and
compared with the information in the template. Depending on the size of the input image, there
can be 10-100 minutia points in a template. A successful match typically only requires 7-20
points to match between the two fingerprints.
 CONCLUSION
Biometrics-based authentication has many usability advantages over traditional systems such as
passwords. Specifically, users can never lose their biometrics, and the biometric signal is
difficult to steal or forge. We have shown that the intrinsic bit strength of a biometric signal can
be quite good, especially for fingerprints, when compared to conventional passwords.

Yet, any system, including a biometric system, is vulnerable when attacked by determined
hackers. We have highlighted eight points of vulnerability in a generic biometric system and
have discussed possible attacks. We suggested several ways to alleviate some of these security
threats. Replay attacks have been addressed using data-hiding techniques to secretly embed a
telltale mark directly in the compressed fingerprint image. A challenge/response method has
been proposed to check the liveliness of the signal acquired from an intelligent sensor.