Arab slave trade

19th-century European engraving of Arab slave-trading caravan

transporting African slaves across the Sahara
The main slave routes in Africa during the Middle Ages.

people were bought by Arab slave traders and taken from

Africa across the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, and Sahara
desert.[7][8][9] The term Arab when used in historical documents often represented an ethnic term, as many of the
Arab slave traders, such as Tippu Tip and others, were
physically indistinguishable from the Africans whom
they bought and sold.

The Arab slave trade was the practice of slavery in

the Arab world, mainly in Western Asia, North Africa,
Southeast Africa, the Horn of Africa and certain parts
of Europe (such as Iberia and Sicily) beginning during
the era of the Arab conquests and continuing through the
19th century.[1] The trade was conducted through slave
markets in the Middle East, North Africa and the Horn
of Africa, with the slaves captured from Africas interior.
During the 8th and 9th centuries of the Fatimid Caliphate,
most of those enslaved were Saqaliba Europeans captured
during wars and along European coastlines.[2] Historians
estimate that between 650 and 1900, 10 to 18 million
people were enslaved by Arab slave traders and taken
from Europe, Asia and Africa across the Red Sea, Indian
Ocean, and Sahara desert.
Toward the 18th and 19th centuries, the ow of Zanj
(Bantu) slaves from Southeast Africa increased with the
rise of the Oman sultanate, which was based in Zanzibar
in Tanzania. They came into direct trade conict and
competition with Portuguese and other Europeans along
the Swahili Coast.[3] The North African Barbary states
carried on piracy against European shipping and enslaved
thousands of European Christians for ransom.

Scope of the trade

Due to the nature of the Arab slave trade, it is impossible to precisely estimate actual numbers of slaves
traded.[4][5][6] European and American historians assert
that between the 8th and 19th century, 10 to 18 million A female Bantu slave in Mogadishu (18821883).
1

2 SOURCES AND HISTORIOGRAPHY OF THE SLAVE TRADE

Arabs also enslaved Europeans. According to Robert

Davis, between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans
were captured between the 16th and 19th centuries by
Barbary corsairs, who were vassals of the Ottoman Empire, and sold as slaves.[10][11] These slaves were captured
mainly from seaside villages from Italy, Spain, Portugal
and also from more distant places like France or England,
the Netherlands, Ireland and even Iceland. They were
also taken from ships stopped by the pirates.[12] The effects of these attacks were devastating: France, England,
and Spain each lost thousands of ships. Long stretches
of the Spanish and Italian coasts were almost completely
abandoned by their inhabitants, because of frequent pirate attacks. Pirate raids discouraged settlement along the
coast until the 19th century.[13][14]
Periodic Arab raiding expeditions were sent from Islamic
Iberia to ravage the Christian Iberian kingdoms, bringing
back booty and slaves. In a raid against Lisbon in 1189,
for example, the Almohad caliph, Abu Yusuf Yaqub alMansur, took 3,000 female and child captives, while his
governor of Crdoba, in a subsequent attack upon Silves
in 1191, took 3,000 Christian slaves.[15]

pean transatlantic slave trade by 700 years.[29][30][31] Male

slaves were often employed as servants, soldiers, or laborers by their owners, while female slaves, including
those from Africa, were long traded to the Middle Eastern countries and kingdoms by Arab and Oriental traders
as concubines and servants. Arab, African and Oriental traders were involved in the capture and transport of
slaves northward across the Sahara desert and the Indian
Ocean region into the Middle East, Persia and the Far
East.[30][31]
The most signicant Jewish involvement in the slavetrade was in Al-Andalus, as Islamic Spain was called.[32]
According to historian Alan W. Fisher, there was a guild
of Jewish slave traders in Constantinople, the capital
of the Ottoman Empire. The guild had about 2000
members.[19] The city was a major center of the slave
trade in the 15th and later centuries. By 1475 most of the
slaves were provided by Tatar raids on Slavic villages.[19]
Until the late 18th century, the Crimean Khanate maintained a massive slave trade with the Ottoman Empire
and the Middle East, exporting about 2 million slaves
from Poland-Lithuania and Russia over the period 1500
1700.[33]

The Ottoman wars in Europe and Tatar raids (although

not Arabic themselves) brought large numbers of European Christian slaves into the Muslim world.[16][17][18] In 2.1
1769 a last major Tatar raid saw the capture of 20,000
Russian and Polish slaves.[19]

650 to 20th century

The Oriental or Arab slave trade is sometimes called

the Islamic slave trade.According to European historians, propagators of Islam in Africa often revealed a cautious attitude towards proselytizing because of its eect
in reducing the potential reservoir of slaves.[20]
From a Western point of view, the subject merges with
the Oriental slave trade, which followed two main routes
in the Middle Ages:
Overland routes across the Maghreb and Mashriq
deserts (Trans-Saharan route)[21]
Sea routes to the east of Africa through the Red Sea
and Indian Ocean (Oriental route)[22][23]
The Arab slave trade originated before Islam and lasted
more than a millennium.[24][25][26] Arab traders brought
captives across the Indian Ocean from the Swahili Coast
of present-day Kenya, Mozambique, and Tanzania.[27] To
meet the demand for plantation labor, the captured Zanj
slaves were shipped to the Arabian peninsula and the Near
East, among other areas.[28]

Sources and historiography of

the slave trade

Arab captors and Zanzibar workers

Main article: Slavery in contemporary Africa

From approximately 650 until around the 1960s, the
Arab slave trade continued in one form or another. Historical accounts and references to slave-owning nobility in Arabia, Yemen and elsewhere are frequent into
the early 1920s.[29] In 1953, slaves accompanied sheikhs
from Qatar attending the coronation of Queen Elizabeth
II and they did so again on another visit ve years later.

As recently as the 1950s, Saudi Arabia's slave population was estimated at 450,000 approximately 20% of
The Arab trade of Zanj (Bantu) slaves in Southeast Africa the population.[34] During the Second Sudanese Civil War
is one of the oldest slave trades, predating the Euro- people were taken into slavery; estimates of abductions

2.2

Medieval Arabic sources

range from 14,000 to 200,000.[35] Slavery in Mauritania

was legally abolished by laws passed in 1905, 1961, and
1981.[36] It was nally criminalized in August 2007.[37]
It is estimated that up to 600,000 Mauritanians, or 20%
of Mauritania's population, are currently in conditions
which some consider to be slavery, namely, many of
them used as bonded labour due to poverty.[38]

Europeans were enslaved in North Africa, from the beginning of the 16th century to the middle of the 18th, by
slave traders from Tunis, Algiers, and Tripoli alone (these
numbers do not include the European people which were
enslaved by Morocco and by other raiders and traders
of the Mediterranean Sea coast),[44] and roughly 700
Americans were held captive in this region as slaves be[45]
The Arab slave trade in the Indian Ocean, Red Sea, tween 1785 and 1815. 16th- and 17th-century customs
statistics suggest that Istanbuls additional slave import
and Mediterranean Sea long predated the arrival of
have totaled around 2.5 million
any signicant number of Europeans on the African from the Black Sea may
from 1450 to 1700.[46] The markets declined after the
[29][39]
continent.
loss of the Barbary Wars and nally ended in the 1830s,
when the region was conquered by France.

2.2 Medieval Arabic sources

These are given in chronological order. Scholars and
geographers from the Arab world had been travelling to
Africa since the time of Muhammad in the 7th century.

Purchase of Christian captives by Catholic monks in the Barbary

states

David Livingstone wrote of the slave trade in the

African Great Lakes region, which he visited in the midnineteenth century:[40]
We passed a slave woman shot or stabbed
through the body and lying on the path. [Onlookers] said an Arab who passed early that
morning had done it in anger at losing the price
he had given for her, because she was unable to
walk any longer.[41]
Some descendants of African slaves brought to the Middle East during the slave-trade still live there today, and
are aware of their African origins. Some men were castrated to be eunuchs in domestic service.[42][43]
The North African slave markets traded also in European
slaves. The European slaves were acquired by Barbary
pirates in slave raids on ships and by raids on coastal
towns from Italy to Spain, Portugal, France, England, the
Netherlands, and as far aeld as Iceland. Men, women,
and children were captured, to such a devastating extent
that vast numbers of sea coast towns were abandoned.
Ohio State University history Professor Robert Davis describes the white slave trade as minimized by most modern historians in his book Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary
Coast and Italy, 1500-1800 (Palgrave Macmillan). Davis
estimates that 1 million to 1.25 million White Christian

1816 illustration of Christian slaves in Algiers

Al-Masudi (died 957), Muruj adh-dhahab or The

Meadows of Gold, the reference manual for geographers and historians of the Muslim world. The
author had travelled widely across the Arab world
as well as the Far East.
Ya'qubi (9th century), Kitab al-Buldan or Book of
Countries
Abraham ben Jacob (Ibrahim ibn Jakub) (10th century), Jewish merchant from Crdoba[32]
Al-Bakri, author of Kitb al-Maslik wa'l-Mamlik
or Book of Roads and Kingdoms, published in Crdoba around 1068, gives us information about the
Berbers and their activities; he collected eye-witness
accounts on Saharan caravan routes.
Muhammad al-Idrisi (died circa 1165), Description
of Africa and Spain
Ibn Battuta (died circa 1377), Moroccan geographer
who travelled to sub-Saharan Africa, to Gao and to

3
Timbuktu. His principal work is called A Gift to
Those Who Contemplate the Wonders of Cities and
the Marvels of Travelling.
Ibn Khaldun (died in 1406), historian and philosopher from North Africa. Sometimes considered as
the historian of Arab, Berber and Persian societies.
He is the author of Muqaddimah orHistorical Prolegomena and History of the Berbers.

HISTORICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL CONTEXT

Richard Francis Burton, (18211890), The Lake

Regions of Central Africa (1860)
David Livingstone, (18131873), Travel diaries
(18661873)
Henry Morton Stanley, (18411904), Through the
Dark Continent (1878)

Al-Maqrizi (died in 1442), Egyptian historian. His

main contribution is his description of Cairo markets.
Leo Africanus (died circa 1548), author of Descrittione dell Africa or Description of Africa, a rare description of Africa.
Rifa'a al-Tahtawi (18011873), who translated medieval works on geography and history. His work is
mostly about Muslim Egypt.
Joseph Cuoq, Collection of Arabic sources concern- Arab slave traders and their captives along the Ruvuma River in
ing Western Africa between the 8th and 16th centuries Mozambique
(Paris 1975)

2.4 Other sources

Historical manuscripts such as the Tarikh al-Sudan,
the Adalite Futuh al-Habash, the Abyssinian Kebra
Nagast, and various Arabic and Ajam documents
African oral tradition
Kilwa Chronicle (16th century fragments)
Numismatics: analysis of coins and of their diusion
A slave market in Khartoum, Sudan, c. 1876

2.3

European texts (16th19th centuries)

Joo de Castro, Roteiro de Lisboa a Goa (1538)

James Bruce, (17301794), Travels to Discover the
Source of the Nile (1790)
Ren Cailli, (17991838), Journal d'un voyage
Tombouctou
Robert Adams, The Narrative of Robert Adams
(1816)

Archaeology: architecture of trading posts and of

towns associated with the slave trade
Iconography: Arab and Persian miniatures in major
libraries
European engravings, contemporary with the slave
trade, and some more modern
Photographs from the 19th century onward

3 Historical and geographical context

3.1 The Islamic world

Mungo Park, (17711806), Travels in the Interior of

See also: Muslim world, Muslim conquests, Islamic
Africa (1816)
economics in the world and Islamic views on slavery
Johann Ludwig Burckhardt, (17841817), Travels
in Nubia (1819)
The religion of Islam appeared in the 7th century AD.
Heinrich Barth, (18211865), Travels and Discov- In the next hundred years, it quickly diused througheries in North and Central Africa (1857)
out the Mediterranean area, spread by Arabs after they

3.2

Arab views on African people

5
would like the money they earn to be counted toward their
emancipation, then this has to be written in the form of a
contract between the slave and the master. This is called
(mukataba) in Islamic jurisprudence. Muslims
believe that slave owners are strongly encouraged to perform mukataba with their slaves as directed by the Quran:
...And if any of your slaves ask for a deed in
writing (to enable them to earn their freedom
for a certain sum), give them such a deed if ye
know any good in them: yea, give them something yourselves out of the means which Allah
has given to you. ...|Quran, sura 24 (An-Nur),
ayah 33[47]
The framework of Islamic civilization was a welldeveloped network of towns and oasis trading centers
with the market (souq, bazaar) at its heart. These towns
were inter-connected by a system of roads crossing semiarid regions or deserts. The routes were traveled by convoys, and slaves formed part of this caravan trac.

In contrast to the Atlantic slave trade, where the malefemale ratio was 2:1 or 3:1, the Arab slave trade instead usually had a higher female-to-male ratio. This suggests a general preference for female slaves. Concubinage
The Slave Market (c. 1884), painting by Jean-Lon Grme.
and reproduction served as incentives for importing female slaves (often Caucasian), though many were also imconquered the Sassanid Persian Empire and many ter- ported mainly for performing household tasks.[48]
ritories from the Byzantine Empire, including the Levant, Armenia and North Africa. The Muslims invaded
the Iberian peninsula, where they displaced the Visigothic 3.2 Arab views on African people
Kingdom. These regions therefore had a diverse range of
dierent peoples and were, to some extent, unied by an In the Hadith, the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and
Islamic culture built on religious, political and legal foun- the overwhelming majority of Islamic jurists and
dations. For example, they used the Arabic language and theologians, all stated that humankind has a single orithe dinar (currency) in commercial transactions. Mecca gin and rejected the idea of certain ethnic groups being
in Arabia, then as now, was the holy city of Islam and superior to others.[1]
the center of pilgrimages for all Muslims, whatever their Despite this, some ethnic prejudices later developed
origins.
among Arabs for at least two reasons: 1) their extenThe conquests of the Arab armies and the expansion of
the Islamic state that followed have always resulted in
the capture of war prisoners who were subsequently set
free or turned into slaves or Raqeeq ( )and servants
rather than taken as prisoners as was the Islamic tradition in wars. Once taken as slaves, they had to be dealt
with in accordance with the Islamic law which was the
law of the Islamic state, especially during the Umayyad
and Abbasid eras. According to that law, slaves were allowed to earn their living if they opted for that, otherwise
it is the owners (master) duty to provide for that. They
also could not be forced to earn money for their masters
unless with an agreement between the slave and the master. This concept is called
(mukhrajah) (Lane:
And He made an agreement with him, namely, his
slave that he (the latter) should pay him a certain impost
at the expiration of every month; the slave being left at
liberty to work: in which case the slave is termed
)"in Islamic law. If slaves agree to that and they

sive conquests and slave trade;[1] and 2) the inuence of

Aristotle's idea of nal causes which argues that slaves
are slaves by nature.[49] A renement of Aristotles view
was put forward by Muslim philosophers such as AlFarabi and Avicenna, particularly in regards to Turkic and
black peoples;[1] and the inuence of ideas from the early
mediaeval Geonic academies regarding divisions among
mankind between the three sons of Noah. However, ethnic prejudice among some elite Arabs was not limited
to darker-skinned people, but was also directed towards
fairer-skinned ruddy people (including Persians, Turks
and Europeans), while Arabs referred to themselves as
swarthy people.[50] The concept of an Arab identity itself did not exist until modern times.[51] According to
Arnold J. Toynbee: The extinction of race consciousness
as between Muslims is one of the outstanding achievements of Islam and in the contemporary world there is,
as it happens, a crying need for the propagation of this
Islamic virtue.[52]

HISTORICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL CONTEXT

By the 14th century, an overwhelming number of slaves In the 8th century, Africa was dominated by Arabcame from sub-Saharan Africa, leading to prejudice Berbers in the north: Islam moved southwards along the
against black people in the works of several Arabic histo- Nile and along the desert trails.
rians and geographers. For example, the Egyptian historian Al-Abshibi (13881446) wrote: It is said that when
The Sahara was thinly populated. Nevertheless,
the [black] slave is sated, he fornicates, when he is hunsince antiquity there had been cities living on a trade
gry, he steals.[53]
in salt, gold, slaves, cloth, and on agriculture enabled
by irrigation: Tiaret, Oualata, Sijilmasa, Zaouila,
and others.
In the Middle Ages, the general Arabic term bild
as-sdn (Land of the Blacks) was used for the
vast Sudan region (an expression denoting West and
Central Africa[56] ), or sometimes extending from
the coast of West Africa to Western Sudan.[57] ). It
provided a pool of manual labour for North and Saharan Africa. This region was dominated by certain
states and people: the Ghana Empire, the Empire
of Mali, the Kanem-Bornu Empire, the Fulani and
Hausa.

A Zanj slave gang in Zanzibar (1889).

Egyptian slavemaster and Waswahili slave.

Mistranslations of Arab scholars and geographers from

this time period have led many to attribute certain racist
attitudes that weren't prevalent until the 18th and 19th
century to writings made centuries ago.[9][54]

3.3

Africa: 8th through 19th centuries

In April 1998, Elikia Mbokolo, wrote in Le Monde diplomatique. The African continent was bled of its human resources via all possible routes. Across the Sahara,
through the Red Sea, from the Indian Ocean ports and
across the Atlantic. At least ten centuries of slavery for
the benet of the Muslim countries (from the ninth to the
nineteenth). He continues: Four million slaves exported
via the Red Sea, another four million through the Swahili
ports of the Indian Ocean, perhaps as many as nine million along the trans-Saharan caravan route, and eleven to
twenty million (depending on the author) across the Atlantic Ocean[55]

In eastern Africa, the coasts of the Red Sea and Indian Ocean were controlled by local Muslims, and
Arabs were important as traders along the coasts.
Nubia had been a supply zone for slaves since antiquity. The Ethiopian coast, particularly the port of
Massawa and Dahlak Archipelago, had long been
a hub for the exportation of slaves from the interior, even in Aksumite times. The port and most
coastal areas were largely Muslim, and the port itself was home to a number of Arab and Indian
merchants.[58] The Solomonic dynasty of Ethiopia
often exported Nilotic slaves from their western borderland provinces, or from newly conquered southern provinces.[59] The Somali and Afar Muslim
sultanates, such as the Adal Sultanate, also exported
Nilotic slaves that they captured from the interior,
as well as some vanquished foes.[60] Additionally,
Arabs set up slave-trading posts along the southeastern coast of the Indian Ocean; most notably in the
archipelago of Zanzibar, along the coast of presentday Tanzania. The Zanj region or Swahili Coast

4.2

Routes
anking the Indian Ocean continued to be an important area for the Oriental slave trade up until the
19th century. Livingstone and Stanley were then
the rst Europeans to penetrate to the interior of
the Congo Basin and to discover the scale of slavery there. The Arab Tippu Tip extended his inuence there and captured many people as slaves. After Europeans had settled in the Gulf of Guinea, the
trans-Saharan slave trade became less important. In
Zanzibar, slavery was abolished late, in 1897, under
Sultan Hamoud bin Mohammed.

4
4.1

Geography of the slave trade

Supply zones

7
Hayrettin Eendi, was freed in 1918. The slaves of
Slavic origin in Al-Andalus came from the Varangians
who had captured them. They were put in the caliph's
guard and gradually took up important posts in the army
(they became saqaliba), and even went to take back
taifas after the civil war had led to an implosion of the
Western Caliphate. Columns of slaves feeding the great
harems of Crdoba, Seville and Grenada were organised
by Jewish merchants (mercaderes) from Germanic countries and parts of Northern Europe not controlled by the
Carolingian Empire. These columns crossed the Rhone
valley to reach the lands to the south of the Pyrenees.
There are also historical evidence of North African Muslim slave raids all along the Mediterranean coasts across
Christian Europe and beyond to even as far north as the
British Isles and Iceland (see the book titled White Gold
by Giles Milton).[61] The majority of slaves traded across
the Mediterranean region were predominantly of European origin from the 7th to 15th centuries.[62] The Barbary pirates continued to capture slaves from Europe and,
to an extent, North America, from the 16th to 19th centuries.
Slaves were also brought into the Arab world via Central
Asia, mainly of Turkic or Tartar origin. Many of these
slaves later went on to serve in the armies forming an elite
rank.
At sea, Barbary pirates joined in this trac when
they could capture people by boarding ships or by
incursions into coastal areas, mainly in Southern Europe as well as other European coasts.
Nubia and Ethiopia were also exporting regions:
in the 15th century, Ethiopians sold slaves from
western borderland areas (usually just outside the
realm of the Emperor of Ethiopia) or Ennarea,[63]
which often ended up in India, where they worked
on ships or as soldiers. They eventually rebelled and
took power (dynasty of the Habshi Kings in Bengal
1487-1493).
The Sudan region and Saharan Africa formed another export area, but it is impossible to estimate
the scale, since there is a lack of sources with gures.

Photograph of a slave boy in Zanzibar. 'An Arab masters punishment for a slight oence. ' c. 1890.

Merchants of slaves for the Orient stocked up in Europe. Danish merchants had bases in the Volga region and dealt in Slavs with Arab merchants. Circassian
slaves were conspicuously present in the harems and there
were many odalisques (from the Turkish odalk, meaning "chambermaid") from that region in the paintings
of Orientalists. Non-Muslim slaves were valued in the
harems, for all roles (gate-keeper, servant, odalisque, musician, dancer, court dwarf, concubine). In the Ottoman
Empire, the last black slave sold in Ethiopia, named

Finally, the slave trac aected eastern Africa, but

the distance and local hostility slowed down this section of the Oriental trade.

4.2 Routes
Caravan trails, set up in the 9th century, went past the
oasis of the Sahara; travel was dicult and uncomfortable
for reasons of climate and distance. Since Roman times,
long convoys had transported slaves as well as all sorts of
products to be used for barter. To protect against attacks
from desert nomads, slaves were used as an escort. Any
who slowed down the progress of the caravan were killed.

GEOGRAPHY OF THE SLAVE TRADE

peoples that lived along the East African coast.[30][31] The

Zanj were for centuries shipped as slaves by Arab traders
to all the countries bordering the Indian Ocean. The
Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs recruited many Zanj slaves
as soldiers and, as early as 696, we learn of slave revolts
of the Zanj against their Arab enslavers in Iraq (see Zanj
Rebellion). Ancient Chinese texts also mention ambassadors from Java presenting the Chinese emperor with
two Seng Chi (Zanj) slaves as gifts, and Seng Chi slaves
reaching China from the Hindu kingdom of Srivijaya in
Java.[64]
Dhows were used to transport goods to Oman.

Historians know less about the sea routes. From the evidence of illustrated documents, and travellers tales, it
seems that people travelled on dhows or jalbas, Arab
ships which were used as transport in the Red Sea. Crossing the Indian Ocean required better organisation and
more resources than overland transport. Ships coming
from Zanzibar made stops on Socotra or at Aden before
heading to the Persian Gulf or to India. Slaves were sold
as far away as India, or even China: there was a colony
of Arab merchants in Canton. Serge Bil cites a 12thcentury text which tells us that most well-to-do families in
Canton had black slaves whom they regarded as savages
and demons because of their physical appearance. Although Chinese slave traders bought slaves (Seng Chi i.e.
the Zanj [64] ) from Arab intermediaries and stocked up
directly in coastal areas of present-day Somalia, the local
Somalisreferred to as Baribah and Barbaroi (Berbers)
by medieval Arab and ancient Greek geographers, respectively (see Periplus of the Erythraean Sea),[30][65][66]
and no strangers to capturing, owning and trading slaves
themselves[67] were not among them:[68]
One important commodity being transported by the Arab dhows to Somalia was
slaves from other parts of East Africa. During
the nineteenth century, the East African slave
trade grew enormously due to demands by
Arabs, Portuguese, and French. Slave traders
and raiders moved throughout eastern and
central Africa to meet the rising demand for
enslaved men, women, and children. Somalia
did not supply slaves -- as part of the Islamic
world Somalis were at least nominally protected by the religious tenet that free Muslims
cannot be enslaved -- but Arab dhows loaded
with human cargo continually visited Somali
ports.
Catherine Lowe Besteman, Unraveling
Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of
Slavery[69]

4.3 Barter

Cowry shells were used as money in the slave trade

Slaves were often bartered for objects of various kinds:

in the Sudan, they were exchanged for cloth, trinkets and
so on. In the Maghreb, they were swapped for horses. In
the desert cities, lengths of cloth, pottery, Venetian glass
slave beads, dyestus and jewels were used as payment.
The trade in black slaves was part of a diverse commercial network. Alongside gold coins, cowrie shells from
the Indian Ocean or the Atlantic (Canaries, Luanda) were
used as money throughout sub-saharan Africa (merchandise was paid for with sacks of cowries).

4.4 Slave markets and fairs

Enslaved Africans were sold in the towns of the Arab

World. In 1416, al-Maqrizi told how pilgrims coming from Takrur (near the Senegal River) had brought
1,700 slaves with them to Mecca. In North Africa, the
main slave markets were in Morocco, Algiers, Tripoli and
Cairo. Sales were held in public places or in souks. Potential buyers made a careful examination of the merchandise": they checked the state of health of a person
who was often standing naked with wrists bound together.
In Cairo, transactions involving eunuchs and concubines
happened in private houses. Prices varied according to
Slave labor in East Africa was drawn from the Zanj, Bantu the slaves quality. Thomas Smee, the commander of

4.5

Towns and ports involved in the slave trade

9
ket by their purchasers; indeed there is every
reasons to believe that the slave-dealers almost
universally force the young girls to submit to
their lust previous to their being disposed of.
From such scenes one turns away with pity and
indignation.[70]

4.5 Towns and ports involved in the slave

trade

5 A recent topic
The history of the slave trade has given rise to numerous
debates amongst historians. For one thing, specialists are
undecided on the number of Africans taken from their
homes; this is dicult to resolve because of a lack of reliable statistics: there was no census system in medieval
Africa. Archival material for the transatlantic trade in the
16th to 18th centuries may seem useful as a source, yet
these record books were often falsied. Historians have
to use imprecise narrative documents to make estimates
13th-century slave market in Yemen
which must be treated with caution: Luiz Felipe de Alencastro states that there were 8 million slaves taken from
the British research ship Ternate, visited such a market Africa between the 8th and 19th centuries along the Oriental and the Trans-Saharan routes.[71]
in Zanzibar in 1811 and gave a detailed description:
'The show' commences about four o'clock
in the afternoon. The slaves, set o to the
best advantage by having their skins cleaned
and burnished with cocoa-nut oil, their faces
painted with red and white stripes and the
hands, noses, ears and feet ornamented with
a profusion of bracelets of gold and silver and
jewels, are ranged in a line, commencing with
the youngest, and increasing to the rear according to their size and age. At the head of this le,
which is composed of all sexes and ages from 6
to 60, walks the person who owns them; behind
and at each side, two or three of his domestic
slaves, armed with swords and spears, serve as
guard.
Thus ordered the procession begins, and
passes through the market-place and the principle streets... when any of them strikes a spectators fancy the line immediately stops, and
a process of examination ensues, which, for
minuteness, is unequalled in any cattle market
in Europe. The intending purchaser having ascertained there is no defect in the faculties of
speech, hearing, etc., that there is no disease
present, next proceeds to examine the person;
the mouth and the teeth are rst inspected and
afterwards every part of the body in succession, not even excepting the breasts, etc., of
the girls, many of whom I have seen handled
in the most indecent manner in the public mar-

Olivier Ptr-Grenouilleau has put forward a gure of

17 million African people enslaved (in the same period
and from the same area) on the basis of Ralph Austens
work.[72] Ronald Segal estimates between 11.5 and 14
million were enslaved by the Arab slave trade.[73][74][75]

6 See also
Slavery in antiquity
Christian views on slavery
Judaism and slavery
Black orientalism
Slavery in the Spanish New World colonies
Slavery in Spain
Slavery in the United States
Slavery in the British and French Caribbean

7 References
This article was initially translated from the featured French wiki article "Traite musulmane" on
19 May 2006.

10

[1] Bernard Lewis (2003), From Race and Slavery in the

Middle East: An Historical Enquiry", in Kevin Reilly,
Stephen Kaufman, Angela Bodino, Racism: A Global
Reader, M.E. Sharpe, pp. 528, ISBN 0-7656-1060-4
[2] http://www.columbia.edu/itc/history/conant/
mushin1998.pdf
[3] Owen Alik Shahadah. Arab Slave Trade. African Holocaust Society. Retrieved 2007-01-04.
[4] Arab Slave Trade:". African Holocaust Society. Retrieved 2007-01-04.
[5] Queenae Taylor Mulvihill (2006). Warriors: Spiritually
Engaged, page 253
[6] Arab versus European: diplomacy and war in nineteenthcentury east central Africa
[7] Focus on the slave trade, BBC
[8] The Unknown Slavery: In the Muslim world, that is
and its not over, National Review
[9] Arab Slave Trade: Nominal Muslims. African Holocaust Society. Retrieved 2007-01-04.
[10] Research News: When Europeans were slaves: Research
suggests white slavery was much more common than previously believed, Ohio State University
[11] Davis, Robert. Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White
Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy,
1500-1800. Based on records for 27,233 voyages that set
out to obtain slaves for the Americas. Stephen Behrendt,
Transatlantic Slave Trade, Africana: The Encyclopedia
of the African and African American Experience (New
York: Basic Civitas Books, 1999), ISBN 0-465-000711.
[12] 17th-century Icelandic accounts of Barbary or Turkish
raids, rst in Turkish and then English.

REFERENCES

[23] BBC Remembering East African slave raids

[24] Know about Islamic Slavery in Africa
[25] The Forgotten Holocaust: The Eastern Slave Trade.
Archived from the original on 2009-10-25.
[26] Irfan Shahid, Byzantium and the Arabs in the Sixth
Century, Dumbarton Oaks, 2002, p. 364 documents;
Ghassanid Arabs seizing and selling 20,000 Jewish
Samaritans as slaves in the year 529, before the rise of
Islam.
[27] Heart of Africa, vol. ii., chap. xv.
[28] Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies, Volumes
21-22. 1991. p. 87. Retrieved 17 January 2015.
[29] Mintz, S. Digital History Slavery, Facts & Myths
[30] F.R.C. Bagley et al., The Last Great Muslim Empires,
(Brill: 1997), p.174
[31] Bethwell A. Ogot, Zamani: A Survey of East African History, (East African Publishing House: 1974), p.104
[32] Slave Trade. Jewish Encyclopedia
[33] Darjusz Koodziejczyk, as reported by Mikhail Kizilov
(2007). Slaves, Money Lenders, and Prisoner Guards:
The Jews and the Trade in Slaves and Captivesin the
Crimean Khanate. The Journal of Jewish Studies. p. 2.
[34] 400 for a Slave
[35] Slavery, Abduction and Forced Servitude in Sudan. US
Department of State. 22 May 2002. Retrieved 20 March
2014.
[36] Slavery still exists in Mauritania
[37] Mauritanian MPs pass slavery law

[13] BBC - History - British Slaves on the Barbary Coast

[38] The Abolition season, BBC World Service

[14] Jeerson Versus the Muslim Pirates by Christopher

Hitchens, City Journal Spring 2007

[39] Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch, in Les Collections de

l'Histoire (April 2001) says:la traite vers l'Ocan indien
et la Mditerrane est bien antrieure l'irruption des Europens sur le continent

[15] Ransoming Captives in Crusader Spain: The Order of

Merced on the Christian-Islamic Frontier
[16] Supply of Slaves
[17] Soldier Khan
[18] The living legacy of jihad slavery, American Thinker
[19] Mikhail Kizilov. Slave Trade in the Early Modern
Crimea From the Perspective of Christian, Muslim, and
Jewish Sources. Oxford University. pp. 728.

[40] Kwame Anthony Appiah, Henry Louis Gates (2005).

Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and AfricanAmerican Experience 5-Volume Set. Oxford University
Press. p. 295. ISBN 0195170555.
[41] David Livingstone (2006). "The Last Journals of David
Livingstone, in Central Africa, from 1865 to His Death".
Echo Library. p.46. ISBN 1-84637-555-X

[20] Murray Gordon, Slavery in the Arab World, New Amsterdam Press, New York, 1989. Originally published in
French by Editions Robert Laont, S.A. Paris, 1987, page
28.

[42] Labb, Theola (2004-01-11). A Legacy Hidden in Plain

Sight. The Washington Post. Retrieved 2010-04-25.

[21] Battutas Trip: Journey to West Africa (1351 - 1353)

[44] Davis, Robert. Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White

Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy,
1500-1800.

[22] The blood of a nation of Slaves in Stone Town

[43] Dr Susan

11

[45] Adams, Charles Hansford (2005). The Narrative of

Robert Adams: A Barbary Captive. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. xlvxlvi. ISBN 978-0-521603-73-7.
[46] The Cambridge World History of Slavery: Volume 3, AD
1420AD 1804
[47] Quran 24:33 (Translated by Yusuf Ali)
[48] Ehud R. Toledano (1998), Slavery and abolition in the Ottoman Middle East, University of Washington Press, pp.
134, ISBN 0-295-97642-X
[49] Aristotle, Politics, Book I.
[50] Bernard Lewis (1992), Race and slavery in the Middle
East: an historical enquiry, Oxford University Press, pp.
189, ISBN 0-19-505326-5
[51] Lindsay, James E. (2005), Daily Life in the Medieval Islamic World, Greenwood Publishing Group, pp. 125,
ISBN 0-313-32270-8
[52] A. J. Toynbee, Civilization on Trial, New York, 1948, p.
205
[53] Lewis, Bernard (2002), Race and Slavery in the Middle
East, Oxford University Press, p. 93, ISBN 0-19-5053265

[63] Emery Van Donzel, Primary and Secondary Sources for

Ethiopian Historiography. The Case of Slavery and SlaveTrade in Ethiopia, in Claude Lepage, ed., tudes thiopiennes, vol I. France: Socit franaise pour les tudes
thiopiennes, 1994, pp.187-88.
[64] Roland Oliver, Africa in the Iron Age: c.500 BC-1400 AD,
(Cambridge University Press: 1975), p.192
[65] Mohamed Diriye Abdullahi, Culture and Customs of Somalia, (Greenwood Press: 2001), p.13
[66] James Hastings, Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics Part
12: V. 12, (Kessinger Publishing, LLC: 2003), p.490
[67] Henry Louis Gates, Africana: The Encyclopedia of the
African and African American Experience, (Oxford University Press: 1999), p.1746
[68] David D. Laitin, Politics, Language, and Thought: The
Somali Experience, (University Of Chicago Press: 1977),
p.52
[69] Catherine Lowe Besteman, Unraveling Somalia: Race,
Class, and the Legacy of Slavery, (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), p. 51
[70] Moorehead, Alan (1960), The White Nile, New York:
Harper & Brothers, pp. 1112, ISBN 9780060956394
[71] Luiz Felipe de Alencastro, Traite, in Encyclopdia Universalis (2002), corpus 22, page 902.

[54] Translation and the Colonial Imaginary: Ibn Khaldun Orientalist, by Abdelmajid Hannoum 2003 Wesleyan University.

[72] Ralph Austen, African Economic History (1987)

[55] Please note : The numbers occurring in the source, and

repeated here on Wikipedia include both Arab and European trade. The impact of the slave trade on Africa

[74] Adam Hochschild (Mar 4, 2001). Human Cargo. New

York Times. Retrieved Dec 20, 2012.

[56] International Association for the History of Religions

(1959), Numen, Leiden: EJ Brill, p. 131, West Africa
may be taken as the country stretching from Senegal in
the west, to the Cameroons in the east; sometimes it has
been called the central and western Sudan, the Bilad asSdan, 'Land of the Blacks, of the Arabs

[73] Quoted in Ronald Segals Islams Black Slaves

[75] Ronald Segal (2002), Islams Black Slaves: The Other

Black Diaspora, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, ISBN 9780374527976

8 Further reading

[57] Nehemia Levtzion, Randall Lee Pouwels, The History of

Islam in Africa, (Ohio University Press, 2000), p.255.

Edward A. Alpers, The East African Slave Trade

(Berkeley 1967)

[58] Pankhurst, Richard. The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in

Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th
Century (Asmara, Eritrea: Red Sea Press, 1997), pp.416

Ibn Khaldun, The Muqaddimah, trans. F. Rosenthal, ed. N. J. Dawood (Princeton 1967)

[59] Pankhurst. Ethiopian Borderlands, pp.432

Murray Gordon, Slavery in the Arab World (New

York 1989)

[60] Pankhurst. Ethiopian Borderlands, pp.59 & 435

[61] Conlin, Joseph (2009), The American Past: A Survey
of American History, Boston, MA: Wadsworth, p. 206,
ISBN 978-0-495-57288-6, retrieved 10 October 2010
[62] McDaniel, Antonio (1995), Swing low, sweet chariot: the
mortality cost of colonizing Liberia in the nineteenth century, University of Chicago Press, p. 11, ISBN 0-22655724-3

Habeeb Akande, Illuminating the Darkness: Blacks

and North Africans in Islam (Ta Ha 2012)
Bernard Lewis, Race and Slavery in the Middle East
(OUP 1990)
Patrick Manning, Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades (Cambridge 1990)

12

Paul E. Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa (Cambridge 2000)

Allan G. B. Fisher, Slavery and Muslim Society in
Africa, ed. C. Hurst (London 1970, 2nd edition
2001)
The African Diaspora in the Mediterranean Lands
of Islam (Princeton Series on the Middle East) Eve
Troutt Powell (Editor), John O. Hunwick (Editor)
(Princeton 2001)
Ronald Segal, Islams Black Slaves (Atlantic Books,
London 2002)
Robert C. Davis, Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters:
White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary
Coast, and Italy, 1500-1800 (Palgrave Macmillan,
London 2003) ISBN 978-1-4039-4551-8
Owen 'Alik Shahadah, African Holocaust Audio
Documentary

External links
Arab Slave Trade
BBC - History - British Slaves on the Barbary Coast
BBC - Islam and Slavery
Encyclopdia Britannica's Guide to Black History
iAbolish.ORG! American Anti-Slavery Group
(AASG) - particular focus on North African slaves
Digital History/Slavery Facts & Myths Mintz, S.

EXTERNAL LINKS

13

10
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Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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