PL1101ESummary

Chapter1:WhatisPsychology
DefiningPsychology
Scientificstudyofhumanbehaviorandmentalprocesses
Psychologists approach human behavior as scientists who think critically and are curious,
skepticalandobjective
Behavior:Everythingorganismsdothatcanbeobserved
Mentalprocesses:Thoughts,feelingsandmotives
Addresses all sides of human experience (positive, negative, strengths and weaknesses),
characterized by controversy and debate, and new psychological perspectives arise when one
scientistquestionstheviewsofanother
PsychologyinHistoricalPerspective
WilhemWundtsStructuralism:emphasizedtheconsciousmindanditsstructures
WilliamJamesFunctionalism:focusedonthefunctionsofthemindinhumanadaptationtothe
environment
Fit well with the new understandings that arose from Charles Darwins theory of
evolution
ContemporaryApproachestoPsychology
Biological Approach
: Focusses on the body, especially the brain and nervous system.
Technological advances in brain imaging have allowed researchers to examine the brain in all
itscomplexity
BehavioralApproach
:Emphasizedthescientificstudyofobservablebehavioralresponsesand
theirenvironmentaldeterminants(WatsonandSkinnerwereimportantearlybehaviorists)
Psychodynamic Approach
: Emphasizes conscious thought, the conflict between biological
instincts and societys demands, and early family experiences. (Freud was the founding father
ofthepsychodynamicapproach)
Humanistic Approach
: Emphasizes a persons capacity for positive growth, freedom to
chooseadestiny,andpositivequalities
Cognitive Approach:
Emphasizes the mental processes involved inknowing.Studyattention,
thinking,problemsolving,remembering,andlearning
Evolutionary Approach: Stressestheimportanceofadaptation,reproduction,andsurvivalof
thefittest.
Sociocultural Approach: Focuses on the social and cultural determinants of behavior and
encourages us to attend to the ways that our behavior and mental processesareembeddedina
socialcontext


WhatPsychologistsDo
Clinical Psychologist: Typically has a doctoral degree in psychology. Generally cannot
prescribemedication
Psychiatrist: Medical doctor who specialized in treatingpeoplewithabnormalbehavior.Treats
patientswithpsychotherapyandcanprescribedrugs
ScienceofPsychologyandHealth&Wellness
Mind and body are intricately related. Mind can influence the body. The way we think has
implicationsforournervoussystemandbrain.
Motives and goals can influence our bodies as we strive to be physically fit and eat
well.
Body can have an impact on the mind we think differently when our bodies are
restedversustired,healthyversusunhealthy
Chapter3:BiologicalFoundationsofBehavior
TheNervousSystem(NS)
Bodys electrochemical communication circuitry. 4 important characteristics of the brain and
nervoussystemare:
complexity,integration,adaptability,electrochemicaltransmission.
Brainsspecialabilitytoadaptandchangeiscalled
plasticity
Decisionmakinginthenervoussystemoccursinspecializedpathwaysofnervecells.
3
ofthese
pathwaysinvolve
sensoryinput,motoroutput,andneuralnetworks.
NSdividedinto
2
parts:
CentralNervousSystem(CNS):
Consistsofthe
brainandspinalchord
PeripheralNervousSystem(PNS):Somatic
and
Autonomic
Autonomic
Sympathetic nervous system:
Drives our bodys response to
threateningcircumstances(Adrenaline)
Parasympathetic nervous system: Involved in maintaining the body,
digestingfood,andhealingwounds
Neurons
Cells that specialize in processing information. Make up the communication network of the
nervoussystem.
3
mainparts:
CellBody
Dendrite:
Receivingpart
Axon: Sending part. A
myelin sheath
encases andinsulatesmostaxonsandspeedsup
transmissionofneuralimpulses

 Impulsesaresentfromaneuronalongitsaxonintheformofbriefelectricalimpulses.
Restingpotential
:Thestable,slightlynegativechargeofaninactiveneuron.
Action potential
: Brief wave of electrical charge that sweeps down the axon
allornothing
response
Synapse:
Space between neurons.
Neurotransmitters
are released from the
sending neuron,
and some of these attach to
receptor sites on the
receiving neuron,
where they stimulate
anotherelectricalimpulse
Neurotransmitters: Acetylcholine, GABA, glutamate, norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin,
andendorphins
Neural Networks: Clusters of neurons that are
interconnected
and that develop through
experience
StructuresoftheBrainandtheirFunctions
Main techniques used to study the brain:
brain lesioning, electrical recording, and brain
imaging. Revealedgreatdealaboutthe
3
majordivisionsofthebrain
hindbrain,midbrain,
andforebrain
Cerebral Cortex:
Makes up most of the
outer layer of the brain and where higher mental
functionssuchas
thinkingandplanning
takeplace.
Divided into
hemispheres,
each with
4 lobes: occipital, temporal, frontal and
parietal.
Thereisconsiderableintegrationandconnectionamongthelobes.
Lefthemisphere
2
areas that involve
specific language functions are
Brocas Area ( speech) and
Wernickesarea(languagecomprehension)
Moredominantinprocessing
verbalinformation
(language)
Right Hemisphere:
More dominant in processing
nonverbal information (
such as
spatial
perception,visualrecognition,faces,andemotion)
CorpusCallosum:
Largebundleoffibersthatconnectsthetwohemispheres
EndocrineSystem
Endocrine Glands: Release hormones directly into the bloodstream for distribution
throughoutthebody
PituitaryGland:
Masterendocrinegland
AdrenalGlands:
Playimportantrolesin
moods,energylevel,andabilitytocopewithstress
Pancreas:
Produces
insulin
Ovariesandtestes:
Produce
sexhormones
BrainDamage,PlasticityandRepair
Human brain has considerable plasticity,althoughthisabilitytoadaptandchangeis
greaterin
youngchildren
thanlaterindevelopment.
A damaged brain might repair itself through
collateral sprouting, substitution of function,
andneurogenesis
Brain grafts:
Implants of healthy tissue into damaged brains. More successful when
fetal

tissue
isused
Stem cell research: Controversial new area of science thatmayallowfornoveltreatmentsfor
damagednervoussystems
GeneticsandBehavior
Chromosomes
Threadlike structures that occur in
23 pairs
, with one member of each pair coming
from
eachparent
Containthegeneticsubstance,
deoxyribonucleicacid(DNA)
Genes(
theunitsofhereditaryinformation)areshortsegmentsofchromosomes
Dominantrecessive genes principle:
If one gene of a pair is dominant and one is
recessive,thedominantgeneoverridestherecessivegene
Genotype:
Anindividuals
actualgeneticmaterial
Phenotype:Observablecharacteristics
oftheperson
3
methods of studying
hereditys
influence are
molecular genetics, selective breeding, and
behaviorgenetics(twinstudiesandadoptionstudies)
Both genes and environment play a role in determining the phenotype of an individual.
Even for characteristics in which genes play a large role (e.g height, eye color), the
environmentisalsoafactor.
PsychologysBiologicalFoundationsandHealthandWellness
Stress:
Bodysresponsetochangesintheenvironment
Stressors:
Circumstancesandeventsthatthreatentheorganism
Stress response: Largely a function of
sympathetic nervous system activation
that prepares
usforactioninthefaceofathreat
Involves slowing down maintenance processes (
such as immune function and
digestion)
infavorofrapidaction
Acute stress
isan
adaptiveresponse.Chronicstresscanhave
negativeconsequences
forour
health
Though stress may be inevitable, our reaction to a stressful e vent is largelyafunctionofhow
wethinkaboutit
Chapter4:SensationandPerception
HowWeSenseandPerceivetheWorld
Sensation:
Processofreceivingstimulusenergiesfromtheenvironment
Perception:
Processoforganizingandinterpretingsensoryinformationtogiveitmeaning
Involvesboth
bottomupandtopdownprocessing
Allsensationbeginswith
sensoryreceptors
Specialized cells
that
detect and transmit information about a
stimulus to
sensory
neurons
andthe
brain
Selective
andhave
differentneuralpathways

 Absolutethreshold:Minimumamount
ofenergythatpeoplecandetect
Difference threshold (noticeable difference):
Smallest difference in stimulation required to
discriminate
onestimulifromanother
50%
ofthetime
Signal Detection Theory: Focuses on decision making about stimuli in the presence of
uncertainty
Detection of sensory stimuli
depends on many factors other than the physical
properties ofthestimuli
.Differencesintheseotherfactors
mayleaddifferentpeople
tomakedifferentdecisionsaboutidenticalstimuli
Perceptionisinfluencedbyattention,beliefs,andexpectations
Sensory adaptation:
Change in theresponsivenessofthesensorysystembasedontheaverage
levelofsurroundingstimulation
The ways that our senses start to ignore a particular stimulus once it is around long
enough
TheVisualSystem
Light
Stimulusthatissensedbythevisualsystem
3
characteristicsthatdetermineourexperience
Wavelength(Hue)
Amplitude(Brightness)
Purity(Saturation)
ProcessofSensation
Light passes through the
cornea and lens to the retina (
the lightsensitive surface in
thebackoftheeyethathouseslightreceptorscalled
rodsandcones
)
Rods:
Functionin
lowillumination
Cones:
Reactto
color
Foveaofretina
containsonlyconesandsharpensdetailinanimage
Opticnerve
transmitsneuralimpulsestothebrain
Diverges atopticchiasmwhatweseeintheleftvisualfieldisregisteredintheright
sideofthebrainandviceversa
Intheoccipitallobes
ofthe
cerebralcortex,
theinformationisintegrated
Trichromatic theory of colour perception:
three types of color receptors in the retina allow
ustoperceivethreecolors(green,red,blue)
Opponentprocess theory:
States that cells in the visual system respond to redgreen and
blueyellowcolors
Shapeperception:
Abilitytodistinguishobjectsfromtheirbackground
Depthperception:
Abilitytoperceiveobjectsthreedimensionally
Dependson
binocular(twoeyes)cues
and
monocular(oneeye)cues
Motion perception:
Depends on
specialized neurons, feedback from the body, and
environmentalcues
Perceptual constancy:
Recognition that objects are stable despite changes in the way we see
them

TheAuditorySystem
Sound:
Vibrations in the air thatareprocessedbytheauditorysystem.Varyinimportantways
thatinfluencewhatwehear:
Pitch:
How high or lowintoneasoundis.Theperceptualinterpretationofwavelength
frequency
Amplitude:
Measuredindecibels.Perceivedasloudness.
Timbre:
Tonesaturation,orperceptualquality,ofasound
TheEar
Outer Ear:
consists of the
pinna
and
external auditory canal.
Acts to
funnelsound
tothemiddleear
Middle Ear:
Eardrum, hammer, anvil, and stirrup vibrateinresponsetothesoundand
transferthevibrationstotheinnerear.
InnerEar:
Fluidfilled.Consistsoftheovalwindow,cochlea,andbasilarmembrane.
Movement of hair cells between the
basilar membrane and the
tectorial
membranegeneratesnerveimpulses
Place theory:
States that each frequency produces vibrations inaparticularspotonthebasilar
membrane
Adequatelyexplainshighfrequencysoundsbutnotlowfrequencysounds
Frequency theory:
States that perception of a sounds frequency depends on how often the
auditorynervefires
Volley principle: States that a clusterofneuronscanfireimpulsesinrapidsuccession,
producingavolleyofimpulses
Information about sound moves from the hair cells to the auditory nerve. The
cortical
destination
ofmostfibersisthe
temporallobesofthecerebralcortex
Localizing soundinvolvesboththe
timingofthesoundandthe
intensity
ofthesoundarriving
ateachear
OtherSenses
SkinSenses
Touch: Detection of mechanical energy, or pressure, against the skin. Information
travels through the spinal cord, brain stem, and thalamus and onto the somatosensory
areasoftheparietallobes
Temperature:
Thermoreceptors under the skin respond to increases and decreases
intemperature
Pain:
Sensationthatwarnsusaboutdamagetoourbodies
TasteandSmell
Chemicalsensesthatenableusto
detectandprocesschemicals
intheenvironment
Papillae:Bumpsonthetongue
thatcontain
tastebuds,thereceptorsfortaste
Olfactory epithelium:
Contains
a sheet of receptor cells forsmellintheroofofthe
nose
KinestheticSenses
Providesinformationaboutmovement,posture,andorientation

 Vestibularsense:
Givesusinformationabout
balanceandmovement
Receptors
areembeddedin
musclefibersandjoints
Semicircularcanalsintheinnerear
containreceptorsthat
detectheadmotion

Sensation,Perception,andHealthandWellness
Caringforyoureyesmeanswearingprotectivelenseswhenyouareinthebrightsun
Protectingyourhearingmeansavoidingdangerouslyloudnoises
Noiseat80decibelsorhigher,ifheardforprolongedperiods,candamagehearing
Experiencesinnaturehavebeenshowntoreducestressandenhancewellbeing
Chapter6:Learning
TypesofLearning
Learning:
A systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through
experience
Associativelearning:
Involveslearningbymakingaconnectionbetweentwoevents
ObservationalLearning:
Learningbywatchingwhatotherpeopledo
Conditioning:
Processbywhichassociativelearningoccurs
ClassicalConditioning:
Organismslearnassociation
betweentwostimuli
OperantConditioning:
Learntheassociation
between

abehaviorandconsequence
ClassicalConditioning(CC)
Occurs when a
neutral stimulus (NS) becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and
comesto
elicitasimilarresponse
Pavlov discovered that an organism learns the
association between an unconditioned
stimulus(UCS)andaconditionedstimulus(CS)
The
UCS automatically produces the
unconditioned response (UCR). After conditioning
(
CSUCSpairing
),the
CS
isableto
elicittheconditionedresponse(CR)byitself
Acquisition (In classical conditioning):
Initial linking of stimuli and responses, which
involvesaNSbeingassociatedwiththeUCSsothattheCScomestoelicittheCR
2importantaspects:
ContiguityandContingency
Generalization (in CC):
Tendency of a newstimulusthatissimilartotheoriginalCStoelicit
aresponsethatissimilartotheCR
Discrimination(inCC):
Processoflearningtorespondtocertainstimuliandnottoothers
Extinction(inCC):
WeakeningoftheCRintheabsenceoftheUCS
Spontaneous Recovery (in CC):
Recurrence of the CR after a time delay without further
conditioning
Renewal (in CC):
Occurrence of the CR (evenafterextinction),whentheCSispresentedina
novelenvironment
Applications of CC:
Eliminating fears, treating addiction, understanding taste aversion, and

explainingdifferentexperiencessuchaspleasantemotionsanddrugoverdose
OperantConditioning(OC)
Form of learning inwhichthe
consequencesofbehaviorproducechangesintheprobability
ofthebehaviorsoccurrence
Skinner described the
behavior of an organism as operant
the behavior operates on the
environmentandtheenvironmentinturnoperatesontheorganism
While CC involves respondent behavior, OC involves operant behavior.
In most instances,
OCisbetteratexplainingvoluntarybehaviorthanCC
Thorndikes law of effect:
States that
behaviors followed by positive outcomes are
strengthened
,whereas
behaviorsfollowedbynegativeoutcomesareweakened
Shaping:
Process of rewarding approximations of desired behavior in order to shorten the
learningprocess
Positive Reinforcement:
Frequency of a behavior increases because it is followed by a
rewardingstimulus
Primaryreinforcement:
Usingreinforcersthatareinnatelysatisfying
Secondary reinforcement:
Using reinforcers that acquire positive value through
experience
Negative Reinforcement:
Frequency of a behavior increases because it is followed by the
removalofanaversivestimulus
Reinforcement can be either
continuous (a behavior is reinforced every time) or
partial
(reinforcedonlyaportionofthetime)
Schedulesofreinforcement
determinewhenabehaviorwillbereinforced
Basedonnumberofoccurrences:
Fixedratio,variableratio
Timebased:
Fixedintervalandvariableinterval
Generalization(inOC):
Givingthesameresponsetosimilarstimuli
Discrimination (in OC):
Responding to stimuli that signal that a behavior will or will not be
reinforced
Extinction (in OC):
A decreasing tendency to perform apreviouslyreinforcedbehaviorwhen
reinforcementisstopped
Punishment:
Consequencethatdecreasesthelikelihoodthatabehaviorwilloccur
Positive:
Behaviordecreasesbytheintroductionofanaversivestimuli
Negative:
Behaviordecreasesthroughtheremovalofpleasantstimulus
ObservationalLearning
Occurswhenapersonobservesandimitatessomeoneelsesbehavior
4mainprocesses:
Attention:
Payingheedtowhatsomeoneissayingordoing
Retention:
Encoding that information and keeping it in memory so that you can
retrieveit
MotorReproduction:
Imitatingtheactionsofthepersonbeingobserved

 Reinforcement:
Seeingthepersonattainarewardfortheactivity
CognitiveFactorsinLearning
Tolman emphasized the
purposiveness of behavior
. His belief was that much of behavior is
goaldirected
Went beyond stimuli and responsesto
discusscognitivemechanisms
hebelievedthat
expectancies, acquired through experienceswiththeenvironment
,areanimportant
cognitivemechanisminlearning
Latent learning: Unreinforced learning that
is notimmediatelyreflectedinbehavior
.May
occur when a rat or a person roams a particular location and
shows knowledge of the area
when
thatknowledgeisrewarded
Insight learning:
Developed by Kohler. A form of problem solving in which the organism
developsasuddeninsightintoorunderstandingofaproblemssolution
Biological,Cultural,andPsychologicalFactorsinLearning
Biologyrestrictswhatanorganismcanlearnfromexperience
Instinctive Drift:
The tendency of animals to
revert to instinctive behavior that
interferes

withlearnedbehavior
Preparedness: The speciesspecific
biological predisposition to learn in certain
ways
bu
t
notinothers
Taste Aversion: Biological predisposition to
avoid foods that have caused sickness
inthepast
Cultural customs can
influence the degree to which these learning processes are used
. It
also
determinesthecontentoflearning
What we learn is determined in part by what we believe wecanlearn
.Dweckemphasizes
thatindividualsbenefitenormouslyfromhavingagrowthmindsetratherthanafixedmindset
LearningandHealthandWellness
4
important variables involved in the human stress response:
predictability, perceived
control,perceptionsofimprovement,andoutletsforfrustration
Chapter7:Memory
TheNatureofMemory
Memory:
Theretentionofinformationovertime
3processes:
Encoding:
Gettinginformationintostorage
Storage:
Retaininginformationovertime
Retrieval:
Takinginformationoutofstorage
MemoryEncoding

 Encoding requires attention, but the attention must be selective. Divided attention negatively
influencesmemory
LevelsofProcessingtheory:
Informationisprocessedonacontinuum
Shallow:
Sensoryorphysicalfeaturesareencoded
Intermediate:
Labelsareattachedtostimuli
Deep:
Themeaningsofstimuliandtheirassociationswithotherstimuliareprocessed
Deeper processing, Elaboration, the extensiveness of processing at any given level of
memory encoding, using imagery (or mental pictures) as context information, can all
improvememory
MemoryStorage
AtkinsonShiffrin theory:
Describes memoryasathreestageprocess
sensory,shortterm,
andlongtermmemory
SensoryMemory
Holdsperceptionoftheworldonlyforaninstant
Visualsensorymemory(Iconic)
:Retainsinformationforaboutofasecond
Auditory sensory memory (Echoic)
: Preserves information for several
seconds
Shorttermmemory
Limited capacity memory system in which information is
usually retained for as
longas30seconds
Memory limitation is
7 +/ 2 bits of information
.
Chunking and rehearsal can
benefit
shorttermmemory
Baddeleys concept of working memory
characterizes shortterm memory as
active
andcomplex
Working memory has
3 components: A centralexecutiveandtwoassistants
(phonologicalloopandvisuospatialworkingmemory)
LongtermMemory
Relatively permanent type of memory
that
holdshugeamountsofinformationfora
longtime
2mainsubtypes:
Explicit memory
:
Conscious recollection of information, such as specific
factsorevents
Episodic
Memoryand
Semantic
Memory
Retrospectiv
ememoryand
Prospective
memory
Implicit memory: Affects behavior through prior experiences that are
not
consciouslyrecollected
Includes systems for procedural memory, priming, and classical
conditioning
MemoryRetrieval
Serial Position effect:
Tendency to recall items at the beginning and the end of a list better

thanthemiddleitems
Primacy Effect:
Tendency to recall items at the
beginning of the list better than the
onesinthemiddle
Recency Effect:
Tendency to recall items at the
end of the list better than the middle
ones
Retrieval is
easier when effective cues are present and also
depends on the nature of the
retrievaltask.
Simple recognition of previously remembered information
in the presence of cuesis
generallyeasierthanrecalloftheinformation
(MCQtests)
Encoding Specificity Principle:
Information present at the time ofencodingorlearningtends
tobeeffectiveasaretrievalcue

contextdependentmemory
Retrieval also benefits from
priming
, which activates particular connectionsorassociationsin
memory
Tipofthetongue phenomenon: Occurs when we
cannot quite pull something out of
memory
SpecialCasesofRetrieval
AutobiographicalMemory:
Apersonsrecollectionsofhis/herlifeexperiences.
Reminiscence bump:
The fact that most people have more autobiographical
memoriesforthesecondandthirddecadesoflife
3levels:Lifetimeperiods,generalevents,andeventspecificknowledge
Biographiesoftheself,connectthepastandpresenttoformouridentity
EmotionalMemories
Flashbulb memories:
Capture emotionally profound events that people often
recallaccuratelyandvividly
PersonalTraumaMemories
Usually
more accurate than memory for ordinary events
, but it too is
subjecttodistortionandinaccuracy
People tend to
remember the core information about a personal trauma but
mightdistortsomeofthedetails
Can cause individuals to
repress emotionally laden information so that it is
notaccessibletoconsciousness
Repression:
Forgetting a particularly troubling experience because it would be too
upsettingtorememberit
Eyewitnesstestimony:
Maycontainerrorsduetomemorydecayorbias

Forgetting
Encodingfailureisforgettinginformationthatwasneverenteredintolongtermmemory.
Retrievalfailurecanoccurdueto
4reasons:
Interference theory:
Suggests that we forget not because memories are lost from
storagebutbecauseotherinformationgetsinthewayofwhatwewanttoremember
Proactive interference:
Occurs when material learned earlier disrupts the
recallofmateriallearnedlater

 Retroactive Interference:
Occurs when material learned later disrupts the
recallofmateriallearnedearlier
Decay Theory:
States that when we learn something new, a neurochemical memory
traceisformed,butthischemicaltraildisintegratesovertime
MotivatedForgetting:
Occurswhenwewanttoforgetsomething
Common when a memory becomes painful or anxietyladen, as in the case of
emotionaltraumassuchasrapeandphysicalabuse
Amnesia:
Physiologicallybasedlossofmemory
Anterograde:
Affectingtheretentionofnewinformationorevents
Retrograde:
Affectingmemoriesofthepast,butnotmemoriesofnewevents
Canbeacombinationofboth

MemoryandHealthandWellness
Autobiographical memories, particularly
selfdefining memories
, provide a
unique source of
identity
,andshoringthosememorieswithothersplaysaroleinsocialbonding
Taking on cognitively challenging tasks throughout life can
stave off the effects of age on
memory
and
lessentheeffectsofAlzheimerdisease
Engaging everyday life means living memorably.
Mindfulness to life events provides a rich
reservoirofexperiences
uponwhichto
buildastorehouseofautobiographicalmemories
Chapter8:Thinking,Intelligence,andLanguage
TheCognitiveRevolutioninPsychology
Cognition:
The way in which information is processed and manipulated in remembering,
thinking,andknowing.
Advent of the computer spurred a
cognitive revolution in which psychologists took on the
challengeofunderstandinghumanprocessing
Artificial Intelligence (AI):
The science of
creating machines capable of performing
activities that require intelligence when they are done by people, is a byproduct of the
cognitiverevolution
Thinking
Concepts:
Mentalcategoriesusedtogroupobjects,events,andcharacteristics
Help us
to generalize
,
improve our memories
, and
they keep us from having to
learnnewthingswitheverynewinstance
orexampleofaconcept
Prototype model:
Suggest that members of a concept may vary in terms of their
similaritytothemosttypicalitem
Problem Solving:
An attempt to find a way to attain a goal when the goal is not readily
available.
4steps:
Findandframe
theproblem

Develop
goodproblemsolving
strategies
Evaluate
solutions
RethinkandRedefine
problemsandsolutionsovertime
Effectivestrategiesinproblemsolving
Subgoals:
Intermediategoalsthatputyouinabetterpositiontoreachyourgoal
Devisingalgorithms:
Strategiesthat
guarantee
asolution
Using heuristics: Shortcuts that
suggest, but do not guarantee
, a solution to a
problem
Reasoning:
Mentalactivityoftransforminginformationtoreachconclusions
Inductivereasoning:
Fromthespecifictothegeneral
Deductivereasoning:
Fromthegeneraltothespecific
Decisionmaking:
Involvesevaluatingalternativesandmakingchoicesamongthem
Biasesandheuristics
mayleadtoproblematicdecisionmaing
Confirmation bias: Tendency to searchfor,anduse,informationthatsupports
ouridea,ratherthanthosethatrefutesthem
Hindsight bias:
The tendency to report falsely, after the fact, that we
accuratelypredictedanoutcome
Availability Heuristic:
Apredictionabouttheprobabilityofaneventbasedon
theeaseofrecallingorimaginingsimilarevents
Representativeness Heuristic: Tendency to make judgments about group
membership based on physical appearances or thematchbetweenapersonand
onesstereotypeofagroupratherthanonavailablebaserateinformation
Criticalthinkingandcreativityimproveproblemsolving
Critical thinking:
Involves thinking productively, evaluating the evidence, being
mindful,andkeepinganopenmind
Creativity: The ability to think in novel and unusual ways and to come up with
unconventionalsolutions
Creativethinkersareflexibleandplayful,selfmotivated,willingtofacerisk,
andobjectiveinevaluatingtheirwork

Intelligence
Intelligence:
Consists of the
ability to solve problems and to
adapt to and learn from
everydayexperiences
Traditionally, measured by tests designed to compare peoples performance on
cognitivetasks
3criteriaofagoodintelligencetest:
Validity:
Extenttowhichatestmeasureswhatitisintendedtomeasure
Reliability:
Howconsistentlyanindividualperformsonatest
Standardization:
Focuses on uniform procedures for administering and scoring a test
andestablishingnorms
Binet
developedthefirstintelligencetest
Someintelligencetestsareunfairtoindividualsfromdifferentcultures

Culturefairtests
areintelligenceteststhatare
intendedtobeculturallyunbiased
Genes
areclearlyinvolvedinintelligence
The proportion of differences in intelligence that is explained by genetic variation
(heritability)issubstantial
Environmentalinfluences
onintelligencehavealsobeendemonstrated
Flynn Effect:
The fact that intelligence test scores have risen considerably
aroundtheworldinrecentdecades
Giftedness:
Have
high intelligence (IQ of 130 or higher)
, and/or
superior talent for a
particulardomain
Research have shown that gifted individuals are likely to make
important and
creativecontributions
Intellectual Disability:
Have an organic cause or can be cultural and social in origin.
Conditionoflimitedmentalabilityinwhich:
theindividualhaslowIQ,usuallybelow70
Hasdifficultyinadaptingtoeverydaylife
Hasanonsetofthesecharacteristicsduringchildhood
Instead of focusingonintelligenceasasingle,broadcognitiveability,somepsychologistshave
brokenintelligenceupintoavarietyoflifeskills
Sternbergs triarchic theory:
States that there are 3 main types of intelligence
analytical,creative,andpractical
Gardner identifies
9
types of intelligence:
verbal, mathematical, spatial,
bodilykinesthetic,musical,interpersonal,intrapersonal,naturalistandexistential
Multiple intelligences approaches
have broadened the definition of intelligence and
motivatededucatorstodevelopprogramsthatinstructstudentsindifferentdomains
Criticsmaintainthat:
Multipleintelligences theories include factors that are
not part of intelligence,
such
as
musical skills,andthatpeoplewhoarehighlyintelligentarelikelyto
excel
inmany
differentareas,notjustone
Thereisnot
enoughresearch
tosupporttheconceptofmultipleintelligences

Language
Language:
Aformofcommunicationthatisbasedonasystemofsymbols
Allhumanlanguageshavecommonaspects:
Infinitegenerativity
Organizationalrulesaboutstructure
AllLanguageshave5commoncharacteristics:
Phonology:
Thesoundsystemofalanguage
Morphology:
Rulesforcombining
morphemes
Morphemes:
Meaningful strings of sounds that
contain no smaller
meaningfulparts
Syntax:
Thewayswordsarecombinedtoform
acceptablephrasesandsentences
Semantics:
Meaningofwordsandsentences

 Pragmatics:
Usesoflanguage
Although language and thought influence each other, there is increasing evidence that they
evolvedasseparate
,modular,biologicallypreparedcomponentsofthemind
Chomsky said that
humans are biologically prewired to learn language at a
certain
timeandinacertainway
There is strong evidence that
particular regions in the left hemisphere of the brain
are
predisposedtobeusedforlanguage
Experience
isalsocrucialtolanguagedevelopment
Children are
biologically prepared to learn language but
benefit enormously from
beinginacompetentlanguageenvironmentfromearlyindevelopment
Research shows that we can
continuetomasterskillsand
evenincreaseintelligence
by
engaginginchallengingmentaltasks
evenwhenweare
adults
Thinking,ProblemSolving,andHealthandWellness
The way individuals think about life events
determines whether they experience them as
stressful
Cognitive appraisal
: Individuals interpretation of the events in their lives
as either
threatening(Stressful)orchallenging(notstressful)
Coping:
Peoplesattemptstohandlesituationsthatthey
perceiveasstressful
Cognitiveappraisal
canbeapowerfultoolfor
copingwithnegativelifeevents
Benefit finding,
atypeofreappraisal,relatesto
enhancedpsychologicalandphysical
health
Chapter9:HumanDevelopment
ExploringHumanDevelopment
Development:
Pattern of change in human capabilities that begins at birth and continues
throughoutlifespan
Researchonhumandevelopment
canbeeither:
Crosssectional:
demonstratesagedifferences
Longitudinal:
Demonstrates agerelated change ( Necessary in order to make strong
conclusionsaboutdevelopment)
Both nature
(biological inheritance
) and
nurture (environmental experience
) extensively
influencedevelopment
However, people are not at the mercy of either their genes or their environment when
theyactivelyconstructoptimalexperiences
Resilience:
Capacity of individuals to thrive during difficulties at every stage of
development
ChildDevelopment
Prenataldevelopment
progressesthrough
germinal,embryonic,andfetalperiods
Teratogens:
Environmental threats, such as alcohol and nicotine, as well as certain illnesses,

whichcanadverselyaffectthefetus
Preterm birthisanotherpotentialproblem,especiallyiftheinfantisverysmallorgrowsupin
anadverseenvironment
Physicaldevelopment
Dramaticinthefirstyear,andanumberofmotormilestonesarereachedininfancy:
Rooting,gripping,toecurling,startle,gallant
Extensive changes in the brain
, including
denser connections
between synapses,
takeplace
CognitiveDevelopment
InPiagetsview,
childrenuse
schemas
toactivelyconstructtheirworldeitherby
Assimilating
newinformationinto
existingschemas
Adjustingexistingschemas
toaccommodate
newinformation
4stages:
Sensorimotor:
Lasts
from birth to about 2 years old
. Infants construct an
understanding of the world by
coordinating sensory experiences withmotor
actions
Preoperational:
Lasts
from 27 years old
. Thought is more symbolic than
sensorimotorthought
Concrete Operational: Lasts
from 711 years old
. Individual
uses
operations and
replaces intuitive reasoning with logical reasoning in
concretesituations
Formal Operational: Lasts
from 1115 years old and continues through
adulthood. Features thinking about things that are not concrete,
making
predictions,andusinglogictocomeupwithhypothesesaboutthefuture
SocioemotionalDevelopment
Erikson presented a major 8stage psychosocial view of lifespan development, of
whichthefirst4stagesoccurinchildhood
Trust VS Mistrust: Birth to 1.5 years.
A sense of trust requires a feeling of
physical comfort and minimal amount of fear about the future. Infants basic
needsaremetbyresponsive,sensitivecaregivers
Autonomy VS Shame and Doubt: 1.5 to 3 years.
After gaining trust intheir
caregivers, infants start to discover that they have a will of their own. They
assert their sense of autonomy. If infants are restrained too much or punished
tooharshly,theyarelikelytodevelopasenseofshameanddoubt
Initiative VS Guilt: 35 years.
As they encounter a widening social world,
they are challenged more and need to develop more purposeful behavior to
come with these challenges. Children are now asked to assume more
responsibility. Uncomfortable guilt feelings may arise, if the children are
irresponsibleandaremadetofeeltooanxious.
Industry VS Inferiority: 6 years to Puberty. As children move into the
elementary school years, they direct their energy toward mastering knowledge
and intellectual skills. The danger at this stage involves feeling incompetent
andunproductive

 Kohlberg
proposedacognitivetheoryofmoraldevelopment:
Preconventional(Nointernalization)
Stage1:HeteronomousMorality
Individuals pursue their own interests but let others do the
same.Whatisrightinvolves
equalexchange
Stage2:Individualism,Purpose&Exchange
Children obey because adults tell them to obey. People base
theirmoraldecisionson
fearofpunishment
Conventional(IntermediateInternalization)
Stage 3: Mutual Interpersonal Expectations, R/S, Interpersonal
Conformity
Individuals value trust, caring, and loyalty to others as a basis
formoraljudgments
Stage4:SocialSystemMorality
Moral judgments are based on understanding and the social
order,law,justice,andduty
Postconventional(FullInternalization)
Stage5:SocialContractorUtilityandIndividualRights
Individuals reason that values, rights, and principles undergird
ortranscendthelaw
Stage6:UniversalEthicalPrinciples
The person has developed moral judgments that are based on
universal human rights. When faced with a dilemma between
law and conscience, a personal individualized conscience is
followed
Adolescence
Puberty: Period of rapid skeletal and sexual maturation that occurs
mainly in early
adolescence
. Onset occurs about
two years earlier in girls than in boys. Its
triggered by
hormonalchanges
.
Cognitivedevelopment
According to
Piaget,
cognitive development in adolescence is characterized by the
appearance of formal operational thought
, which is the final stage in his theory.
Involves
abstract,idealistic,
and
logicalthought
SocioemotionalDevelopment
Oneofthemostimportantaspectsinadolescenceis
identity
th
Eriksens
5
stage:
IdentityVSIdentityConfusion
Individuals are faced with finding out who they are, what they are all
about, and where they are going in life. An important dimensionisthe
explorationofalternativesolutionstorolesandalso,careerexploration.
Marcia
proposed4statusesofidentitybasedoncrisisandcommitment
Aspecialconcern
isthedevelopmentof
ethnicidentity

EmergingAdulthood,AdultDevelopment,andAging
Emerging adulthood:
The period between adolescence and adulthood. Characterized by the
explorationofidentitythroughwork

andrelationships,instability,andselffocus
Most adults reach their peak physical performanceduringtheir20sandphysicalskillsbeginto
declineduringthe30s.
Cellularclock theory:
Cellscandivideamaximumofabout100timesandthat,aswe
age,our
cellsbecomelesscapableofdividing
Each time a cell divides, the
telomeres protecting the ends of chromosomes
shorten
.Afterabout100replications,thetelomeresare
dramaticallyreduced
,
andthecell
cannolongerreproduce
Freeradical theory:
Peopleagebecauseunstableoxygenmolecules(freeradicals)are
producedinsidetheircells.ThesedamageDNAandothercellularstructures.
Mayleadtoarangeofdisorders,includingcancerandarthritis
Hormonal stress theory:
Aging in the bodys hormonal system can
lower resistance
to stress and increase the likelihood of disease
. As individuals age, the hormones
stimulatedbystress
stayinthebloodstreamlonger
thanwhentheywereyounger\
Eveninlateadulthood,thebrainhas
remarkablerepaircapacity

andplasticity

CognitiveDevelopment
Piaget argued that no new cognitive changes occur in adulthood. However, some
psychologists have proposed that the
idealisticthinkingofadolescentsisreplacedby
the
morerealistic,pragmaticthinking

ofyoungadults
Longitudinal research on intelligence has shown that
many cognitive skills peak in
middleage
Olderadults
donotdoaswellonmemoryandcognitive
tasksandare
slower
toprocessinformation
thanyoungeradults
However,olderadultsmayhave
greaterwisdom
thanyoungeradults
SocioemotionalDevelopment
Eriksons3stages
inadulthoodare:
Stage6:IntimacyVSIsolation
Early Adulthood(20s30s).Individualsfacethedevelopmentaltaskof
forming intimate relationships with others. Erikson described intimacy
asfindingonesself,yetlosingonesself,inanotherperson
Stage7:GenerativityVSStagnation
Middle Adulthood (40s50s).
A chief concern is to assist theyounger
generationindevelopingandleadingusefullives
Stage8:IntegrityVSDespair
Late Adulthood (60s).
Individuals look back and evaluate what they
have done with their lives. The retrospective glances can be either
positive(integrity)ornegative(despair)
A special concern of adults in their 50s, is the challenge of understanding lifes
meaning

 Researchershavefoundthatremainingactiveincreasesthelikelihoodthatolder
adultswillbehappyandhealthy
Older adults often reduce their general social affiliations and instead, are
motivatedtospendmoretimewithclosefriendsandfamily
Older adults also experience more positive emotion, are happier and more
satisfied,withtheirlivesthanyoungeradults
Many adults can sustain or even improve their functioning s they age. Researchers
today widely view adult development as a selfmotivated process, limited only by the
individualsimagination
HumanDevelopmentandHealthandWellness
Copingwithlifesdifficultiesisonewayinwhichadultsmaydevelop
Taking an active approach to developing ones self may be an important motivator in
development
Piagets concept of assimilation
and accommodation have been applied to the
processofdevelopingthroughdifficulttimes
An individual may experience meaning in life by applying his or her current
understandingoftheworld(
assimilation)
In contrast, he may find that some experiences require a revision of that
understanding(
accommodation
)
In adulthood, people have the opportunity to
pursue new goals that represent important life
themes,suchas
leavingalegacyforthefuture

Chapter12:Personality
PSYCHODYNAMICPERSPECTIVES
SIGMUNDFREUDSPSYCHOANALYTICTHEORY
Freud developed psychoanalysis through his work with patients suffering from
hysterical
symptoms(physicalsymptomswithnophysicalcause)
Representconflictsbetweensexualdriveandduty
Freudian theory states that most personality includesunconsciouscomponentsof
id,ego,and
superego
Id:
Consistsofunconsciousdrivesandistheindividualsreservoirofsexualenergy
Ego:
TheFreudianstructureofpersonalitythatdealswiththedemandsofreality
Superego:
Servesastheharshinternaljudgeofourbehavioroftencalledconscience
Theego
usesvariousdefensemechanismstoreduce
anxiety
Repression
The master defense mechanism the ego pushes the unacceptable impulses out
ofawareness,backintotheunconsciousmind
Example:
A young girl was sexually abusedbyheruncle.Asanadult,
shecantrememberanythingaboutthetraumaticexperience

 Rationalization
Theegoreplacesalessacceptablemotivewithamoreacceptableone
Example:
A college student does not get into the fraternity of his
choice. He tells himself that the fraternity is very exclusive and that a
lotofstudentscouldnotgetin
Displacement
The ego shifts feelings toward an unacceptable object to another, more
acceptablesubject
Example: A woman cant take her anger out on herboss,soshegoes
homeandtakesitoutonherhusband
Sublimation
Replacesanunacceptableimpulsewithasociallyacceptableone
Example:
A man with strong sexual urges becomes an artist who
paintsnudes
Projection
Attributespersonalshortcomings,problems,andfaultsontoothers
Example:
A man who has a strong desire to haveanaffairaccuseshis
wifeofflirtingwithothermen
ReactionFormation
Transformsanunacceptablemotiveintoitsopposite
Example:
A woman who fears her sexual urges becomes a religious
zealot
Denial
Refusestoacknowledgeanxietyproducingrealities
Example:
A man wont acknowledge thathehascancereventhougha
teamofdoctorshasdiagnosedhiscancer
Regression
Seekssecurityofanearlierdevelopmentalperiodinthefaceofstress
Example:
Awomanreturnshometohermothereverytimesheandher
husbandhaveabigargument
FreudianPsychosexualStagesofPersonalityDevelopment
st
OralStage(1
18months)
Infants pleasure centers on the mouth. Chewing, sucking, and biting are the
chiefsourcesofpleasurethatreducetensionintheinfant
AnalStage(1836months)
During a time when most children are experiencing toilet training, the childs
greatest pleasure involves the anus and urethra and their functions. There is
pleasureingoingandholdingit,aswellas,intheexperienceofcontrolover
onesparentsindecidingwhentodoeither
PhallicStage(36years)
Pleasure focuses on the genitals as the child discovers that selfstimulation is
enjoyable
Has special importance in personality development because it triggers the

Oedipuscomplex
Oedipus complex:
A boys intense desire to replace his father and
enjoytheaffectionsofhismother
Recognizes that his father might punish him for these incestuous
wishes,specificallybycastratinghim
Castration anxiety: Intense fear of being mutilated by his father. To
reduce this conflict, the castration anxiety is repressed into the
unconscious and serves as the foundation for the development of the
superego
In the case of girls,
Freud claims that they cannot developasuperego
in the same sense as the boys as they do not experience the powerful
force ofcastrationanxiety,andtheseresultsin
penisenvy. Heasserted
thattheonlyhopeforwomansmoraldevelopmentwaseducation
LatencyPeriod(6yearspuberty)
After the drama ofthephallicstage,thechildsetsasideallinterestinsexuality.
Though we now consider these years extremely important to development,
Freud felt that this was a time in which
no psychosexual development
occurred
GenitalStage(adolescenceandadulthood
Time of sexual reawakening, a point when the source of sexual pleasureshifts
to someone outside the family. Freud felt that human beings are inevitably
subject to intense conflict, reasoning that everyone, no matter how healthy or
welladjusted, still has an id pressing for expression. Adulthood, even in the
best of circumstances, still involves reliving the unconscious conflicts of
childhood
Freud argues that the individual may become stuck in any of these developmental stages ifhe
orsheisunderindulgedoroverindulgedatagivenstage.
Fixation:
Occurs when a particular psychosexual stage colors an individuals adult
personality
Example:
An
anal retentive
person (someone who is obsessively neat and
organized)isfixatedattheanalstage
KARENHORNEYSSOCIOCULTURALAPPROACH
Rejected the classical psychoanalytic concept that anatomy is destiny and cautioned thatsome
ofFreudsmostpopularideaswereonlyhypotheses
Arguedthatsocioculturalinfluencesonpersonalitydevelopmentshouldbeconsidered
In light of
Freuds penis envy theory, she pointed out that women might envy the
penis not
because of these unconscious issuesbutbecauseofthestatusthatsocietybestowsonthose
whohaveone
Also suggested that
both sexes envy the attributes of the other
, with men coveting
womensreproductivecapacities
Believedthatthe
needforsecurity,notforsex,istheprimemotive
inhumanexistence

 Reasoned that an individual

whose needs for security are met, should be able to
develophisorhercapacitiestothefullestextent
Viewed
psychological health as allowing the person to
express talents and abilities
freelyandspontaneously

CARLJUNGSANALYTICALTHEORY
Shared Freudsinterestintheunconscious,buthebelievedthatFreudunderplayedunconscious
mindsroleinpersonality
Collective consciousness:
Theimpersonal,deepestlateroftheunconsciousmind,sharedbyall
humanbeingsbecauseoftheircommonancestralpast
The experience of a common past have made a deep permanent impression on the
humanmind
Contains
archetypes:
emotionally laden ideas and images that have richandsymbolic
meaning for all people. Essentially predispositions to respond to the environment in
particularways
Emergeinart,literature,religion,anddreams
Helppeopleunderstandthemselves
Anima:
Anassertivemasculineside
Animus:
Passivefeminineside
Persona:
The public mask that we all wear during social

interactions. Jung believed that it is essential because it allows us

tokeepwhowereallyarehiddenfromothers

ALFREDADLERSINDIVIDUALPSYCHOLOGY
Individual psychology:
People are motivated by purposes and goals.
Perfection, not
pleasure,isthekeymotivatorinhumanlife
Argues that people have the ability to take their genetic inheritance and their
environmental experiences and
act upon them creatively to become thepersonthey
wanttobe
Striving for superiority is our response to the uncomfortable feelings of inferiority that we
experience as infants and young children, when we interactwithbigger,morepowerfulpeople
likeadults
Compensation:
Individuals attempt to overcome imagined or real inferiorities or
weaknesses by developing ones own abilities. Adler believed that compensation is
normal.
Believed that birth order could influence how successfully a person could strive for
superiority
Adler believed that firstborns are more likely to suffer from psychological

disordersandtoengageincriminalbehavior
Youngestchildrenalsoarepotentiallyintroublebecauseastheyaremostlikely
tobespoilt
Middleborn are in the most advantageous situation because they have older
siblingsasbuiltininspirationforsuperioritystriving
Adler believed no one was doomedbybirthorder.Sensitiveparentscouldhelp
childrenatanyplaceinthefamilytonegotiatetheirneedsforsuperiority
EVALUATIONOFPSYCHODYNAMICPERSPECTIVE
Weaknesses
Overrelianceonreportsfromthepast
Overemphasisontheunconsciousmind
Strengths
Recognizingtheimportanceofchildhood
Conceptualizingdevelopmentthroughstages
Callingattentiontotheroleofunconsciousprocessesinbehavior

HUMANISTICPERSPECTIVES
Humanistic perspectives:
Stress a persons capacity for personal growth and positive human
qualities
MASLOWSAPPROACH
Perceives humanistic psychology as
third force psychology because it stressed neither
Freudiandrivesnorthestimulusresponseprinciplesofbehaviorism
Selfactualization:
Motivationtodeveloponesfullpotentialasahumanbeing
Selfactualizers would be tolerant of others, have a gentle sense of humor, and be
likely to pursue the greater good. Also, maintain a capacity for peak experiences
(spiritualinsight)
CriticsofMaslowslistofselfactualizersarguethat:
Maslow focused on highly successful individuals who he thought represented the best
of the human species in a
particular historical context
, his selfactualizers were
limitedtothosewhohadopportunitiesforsuccessinthatsetting
Named considerably more men than women and most of them were from
WesternculturesandofEuropeanancestry
ROGERSAPPROACH
Believed that we are all born with the raw ingredients of a fulfilling life, we simply need the
rightconditionstothrive.
Allhumanswillflourishintheappropriateenvironment
RevealsdifferencesbetweenRogersviewsofhumannatureandFreuds
A sunflower seed does not have to be shaped away fromitsdarknaturaltendenciesby

social constraints, nor does ithavetoreachadifficultcompromisebetweenitsviletrue

impulses and reality.
Given the appropriate environment, it will grow into a
beautifulflower
Rogers believed that each person is
born with natural capacities for growth and
fulfillment
We are all endowed with an innate sense,
a gut feeling
, that allows us to
evaluatewhetheranexperienceisgoodorbadforus
ExplainingUnhappiness
Problem arises when our need for positive regard from others is not met
unconditionally
Unconditional Positive regard: Being accepted, valued, and treated positively
regardless

ofonesbehavior
Conditions of worth:
Standards that we must live up to in order to receive positive
regardfromothers
According to Rogers, people who are central to our lives condition us to
move away from our genuine feelings,toearntheirlovebypursuinggoalsthat
theyvalue,evenifthosegoalsdonotreflectourdeepestwishes
Selfconcept:
Our conscious representation of whoweareandwhowewishto
become,duringchildhood
Conditions of worth
become part of who we think we ought to be. A
personwhodedicateshimselftosuchgoalsmightbeverysuccessfulby
outwardappearancesbutmightfeelutterlyunfulfilled
PromotingOptimalFunctioning
To remedy this situation, Rogers believed that the person must reconnect withhistrue
feelingsanddesires.Mustexperiencear/sthatincludes
3essentialqualities:
UnconditionalPositiveregard
Even when a persons behavior is inappropriate, obnoxious, or
unacceptable, he still needs the respect, comfort, and love of others.
This can be found later on in life in friendships and/or romantic r/s or
therapy

Empathy
Individuals become more fulfilled by interacting with people who are
empathic toward them. Empathy involvesbeingasensitivelistenerand
understandinganotherstruefeelings
Genuineness
Means being open with ones feelings and dropping all pretenses and
facades
For Rogers, we can helpotherssimplybybeingpresentforthemasthe
authenticindividualswereallyare
CRITICISMOFHUMANISTICPERSPECTIVES

 Strengths
Emphasize the way we perceive ourselves and the world around us is an essential
element in personality. Their emphasis on conscious experience has given us theview
thatpersonalitycontainsawellofpotentialthatcanbedevelopedtoitsfullest
Weaknesses
Toooptimisticabouthumannatureandoverestimatepeoplesfreedomandrationality
Do not hold individuals accountable for their behaviors as humanists state that all
negativebehaviorisseenasemergingoutofnegativesituations
TRAITPERSPECTIVES
Trait theories: Emphasize that personality consists of
traits (broad, enduring dispositions
thatleadtocharacteristicresponses)
ALLPORT
Rejected the notion that the unconscious was central to an understanding of personality. He
believed that
to understand healthy people, focus should be placed
on their lives in the
present
In defining personality, Allport stressed each persons uniqueness and capacity to adapt tothe
environmentandtheunitthatshouldbeusedtounderstandpersonalityisthetrait
Defined
traits as mental structures inside a person that cause behavior to be similar
evenindifferentsituations.
LexicalApproach
If a trait is important to people in real life, it ought to be represented in the natural
languagepeopleusetotalkaboutoneanother
The more important a trait is, the more likely it isthatitshouldberepresented
byasingleword
With advances in statistical methods and theadventofcomputers,thelexicalapproach
becameunwieldy
FactorAnalysis
Allowedresearcherstoidentifywhichtraitsgotogetherintermsofhowtheyarerated
An important characteristic: It relies onthescientisttointerpretthemeaningof
the factors, and the researcher must make some decisions about how many
factorsareenoughtoexplainallthedata
5FACTORMODEL
Thecurrentdominantperspectiveinpersonalitypsychology
O
pennesstoExperience
ImaginativeVSPractical
InterestedinvarietyVSRoutine
IndependentVSConforming
C
onscientiousness
OrganizedVSDisorganized

 CarefulVSCareless
DisciplinedVSImpulsive
E
xtraversion
SociableVSRetiring
FunlovingVSSomber
EnergeticVSReserved
A
greeableness
SoftheartedVSRuthless
TrustingVSSuspicious
HelpfulVSUncooperative
N
euroticism(EmotionalInstability)
CalmVSAnxious
SecureVSInsecure
SelfSatisfiedVSSelfpitying
EVALUATINGTRAITPERSPECTIVE
Strengths
Studyingpeopleintermsoftheirtraitshavevalue
Weaknesses
Focussesonbroaddimensionsandnotattendingtoeachpersonsuniqueness
PERSONOLOGICALANDLIFESTORYPERSPECTIVES
MURRAYSPERSONOLOGYPERSPECTIVE
Personology:
Studyofthewholeperson
Believed that to understand a person, we have to knowthatpersonshistory,including
thephysical,psychological,andsociologicalaspectsofthepersonslife
Believedthatourmotivesarelargelyunknowntous
DevelopedtheThematicApperceptionTest(TAT)
Analyzes the unconscious motives that are revealed in imaginative
stories
Need for achievement
: An enduring concern for attaining excellence andovercoming
obstacles
Need for affiliation
: An enduring concern for establishing and maintaining
interpersonalconnections
Needforpower
:Anenduringconcernforhavingimpactonthesocialworld
MCADAMSLIFESTORYAPPROACH
Believedthatourlifestoryisourveryidentity
Intimacymotive:
Enduringconcernforwarminterpersonalencountersfortheirownsake
Revealedinthewarm,positiveinterpersonalimageryinthestoriesthatpeopletell
Relatetopositiveoutcomes

 Relies on narrative accounts of experiences as a means of understanding how individuals

createmeaninginlifeevents
Psychobiography:
Means of inquiry in which the personalitypsychologistattemptstoapplya
personalitytheorytoasinglepersonslife
EVALUATINGTHEPERSONOLOGICALANDLIFESTORYPERSPECTIVES
Strengths
Provides researchers with
an extraordinarily rich opportunity to learn about
someoneslives
Weaknesses
Lifestorystudiesare
difficultandtimeconsuming
For these to beworthwhile,they
musttellussomethingwecouldnothavefoundout
inmucheasierway
Prone to the biases of the scholars who conduct them and
may nor serve the
scientificgoalofgeneralizability
SOCIALCOGNITIVEPERSPECTIVES
Emphasize
consciousawareness,beliefs,expectations,andgoals
While incorporating principles from behaviorism, it also
explores the persons ability to
reasontothinkaboutthepast,presentandfutureandtoreflectontheself.
How
behavioristailoredtothediversityofsituations
inwhichpeoplefindthemselves
BANDURASSOCIALCOGNITIVETHEORY
He took the basictenetsofbehaviorismandaddedarecognitionoftheroleofmentalprocesses
indeterminingbehavior
While
Skinner saw behaviorascausedbythesituation
,Bandurapointedoutthatthe
person can cause situations
,andsometimesthe
verydefinitionofthesituationitself
dependsonthepersonsbeliefsaboutit
Social cognitive theory: States that behavior, environment, and cognitive factors are
all
important
inunderstandingpersonality
ReciprocalDeterminism:
Thewaythevariousfactorsinteracttocreatepersonality
ObservationalLearning
Believe that we acquire a wide range of behaviors, thoughts, and feelingsbywatching
othersbehaviorandthatourobservationsstronglyshapeourpersonality
PersonalControl
Emphasize that we can regulate and control our own behavior despite our changing
environment
Senseofbehavioralcontrol
Internallocusofcontrol
Comingfrominsidetheperson
Externallocusofcontrol
Comingfromoutsidetheperson

 Feeling a strong sense of personal control is vital to many aspects of performance,

wellbeing,andphysicalhealth
Selfefficacy
Thebeliefthatonecanmasterasituationandproducepositivechange
Related to positive developments such as problemsolving andbecomingmore
sociable
Influenceswhetherpeopleeventrytodevelophealthyhabits
Related to whether people initiate psychotherapy to deal with their problems and the
chancesofwhetheritsucceeds
MISCHELSCONTRIBUTIONS
Critiqueofconsistency
Mischel concluded that there was
no evidence for crosssituational consistency in
behavior
Thus,
no evidence for the existence of personality as it had been previously
conceptualizedbyAllportintermsofthe
traittheory
Mischel asserted that behavioris
discriminative
apersonlooksateachsituationand
respondsaccordingly
Situationism:
The idea that personality and behavior often vary considerably
fromonecontexttoanother
Personality psychologists responded to Mischels attack in several ways and showed
that it is not a matter of
whether personality predicts behavior but
when and how it
doesso
The narrower and more limited a trait is, the
more likely it will predict
behavior
Some people are more consistent on some traits, whileothersareconsistenton
othertraits
Personality traits exert a stronger influence on an individuals behavior
when
situationalinfluencesarelesspowerful
A powerful situation is one thatcontains
manyclearcuesabouthowa
personissupposedtobehave
Adaptive behavior might involve
sometimes being inconsistent
and
sometimestailoringbehaviortothesituation

CAPStheory
His revised approach to personality is concerned with
stability (or coherence) in the
patternofbehavior
overtime
,notwith
consistencyacrossdifferingsituations
Studiedhow
behaviorsinverydifferentsituationshaveacoherentpattern
Conceptualized personality as a set of interconnected
cognitive affective
processingsystems
(CAPS)
Our thoughts and emotions about ourselves and the world affect out
behaviorandbecomelinkedinwaysthatmattertobehavior

 Concerned with how personality works,

not what it is.
The unique
patternofflexibilityiswhatpersonalityisallabout
Focusses on
how peoplebehaveindifferentsituationsandhowthey
uniquelyinterpretsituationalfeatures
EVALUATINGSOCIALCOGNITIVEPERSPECTIVES
Strengths
Has fostered a scientific climate for understanding personality that highlights the
observationofbehavior
Emphasizes the influence of
cognitive processes in explaining personality and
suggeststhatpeoplehavetheabilitytocontroltheirenvironment
Weaknesses
Too concerned withchangeandsituationalinfluences.Doesnotpayadequatetributeto
theenduringqualitiesofpersonality
Ignorestherolebiologyplaysinpersonality
In its attempt to incorporate both the situation and the individual into its view of
personality, it tends to lead to
very specificpredictions
foreachpersoninanygiven
situation,makinggeneralizationsimpossible
BIOLOGICALPERSPECTIVE
PERSONALITYANDTHEBRAIN
Thebrainisclearlyimportantinpersonalityasinotherpsychologicalphenomena.
Great deal of research is currently addressing the ways in which brain activity is associated
withvariouspersonalitytraits
An extraverted personsleftprefrontalcortexismoreresponsivetopositivestimuliand
thatthesameareinneuroticindividualsismoreresponsivetonegativestimuli
Amygdalae in extraverts are more responsive to seeing happy faces than are those in
introverts
EYESENCKSRETICULARACTIVATIONSYSTEMTHEORY
Reticular activation system (RAS) is the name given to the
reticular formation and its
connections
Eysenck posited that all of us share an
optimal arousal level a level at which
we feel
comfortablyengagedwiththeworld
However, he proposed that the RAS of extraverts and introverts differswithrespectto
thebaselinelevelofarousal
According to him, these outward differences in behavior reflect different arousal
regulationstrategies
Extravertswakeupinthemorningunderaroused
belowtheoptimallevel
Introvertsstartoutabovetheoptimallevel
From this perspective, we can
understand the traits of extraversion/introversion
as

characteristic patterns of behavior that aim to regulate arousal around our

baseline
GRAYSREINFORCEMENTSENSITIVITYTHEORY
On the basis of animal learning principles, Gray posited that two neurological systems,
the
behavioral activation system (BAS) and the behavioral inhibition system (BIS), could be
viewedasunderlyingpersonality
BAS
Sensitive to rewards in the environment, predisposes one to
feelings of positive
emotion
,andunderliesthetraitof
extraversion
An organism sensitive to rewards is more likely to
learn associations between
behaviors and rewards and therefore, to show a characteristic pattern of
seekingout
rewardingopportunities
BIS
Sensitive to punishments and is involved in avoidance learning it predisposes the
individualto
feelingsoffear
andunderliesthe
traitofneuroticism
An organism with a heightened sensitivity to punishers in the environment is more
likely to
learn associations between behaviors
and negative consequences and
therefore,toshowacharacteristicpatternof
avoidingsuchconsequences
THEROLEOFNEUROTRANSMITTERS
Dopamine:
a
feel good neurotransmitter vital to
learning that certain behaviors are
rewarding
andtosendingthemessagetodoitagain!
Alsoafactorin
BASorextraversion
Early encounters with
warm caregivers and positive life
experience
s can
promotethe
growthofdopamineproducingcells

andreceptors
Make the brain
especially sensitive to rewards
, setting the
neurochemicalstageforextraversion
The r/s between the neurotransmitter
serotonin and
neuroticism (stronger than that of
dopamineandextraversion)
Neuroticism is especially related to a certain serotonin transporter gene and to the
bindingofserotonininthethalamus
Individualswhohave
lesscirculatingserotonin
are
morepronetonegativemood
Serotonin is also implicated in
aggressive behavior as well as in the experience of
depression

PERSONALITYANDBEHAVIORALGENETICS
Thestudyoftheinheritedunderpinningsofbehavioralcharacteristics
Even
aspectsofpersonalitythatarenottraitsrevealsomegeneticinfluence
Research has shown that autobiographical memories about ones childhood and early
familyexperiencesareinfluencedbygenetics

 Genes and environment are often intertwined

, it is verydifficulttoteaseapartwhether,and
how,genesorexperienceexplainsenduringpatternsofbehavior
Most traits are probably influenced by multiple genes
, making the task of identifying
specificmolecularlinksverychallenging
EVALUATINGTHEBIOLOGICALPERSPECTIVES
Biologycanbetheeffect,notthecause,ofpersonality
If traits predispose individuals to particular, consistent behaviors, thoughts, and
emotional responses, traits may play a roleinforgingparticularlyhabituallyused
pathwaysinthebrain
Personality may not only be influenced by the brain, it
may also play a role in the
brainsverystructureandfunctions
PERSONALITYASSESSMENT
Selfreporttestsassesspersonalitybyaskingparticipantsabouttheirpreferencesandbehaviors.
Oneproblemisthetendencyfor
individualstorespondinsocially

desirableways
Empirically keyed tests
avoid social desirability problems by using items that distinguish
betweengroupsevenifwedonotknowwhytheitemsdoso
Mostpopulartestforassessingthe
big5traits
isthe
NEOPIR
Usesselfreportitemstomeasureeachofthetraits
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is the most widely used empirically
keyedpersonalitytest
Projectivetests:
Designedtoassessunconsciousaspectsofpersonality
Present individuals with an
ambiguous stimulus
, such as an inkblot, and
askthemto
tell

astoryaboutit
Bases on the assumption that individuals will project their personalities onto these
stimuli
ThematicApperceptionTest(TAT)
Other assessment methods include
behavioral observation, reports from peers, and
psychophysiologicalandneuropsychologicalmeasures
PERSONALITYANDHEALTHANDWELLNESS
Conscientiousness and personal control relate
to health and longevity through their
associationwith
healthylifestylechoices
OptimismandSelfefficacy
isalsorelatedtotheabilitytomakepositivelifechanges
Type A behavior pattern:
Set of characteristics that may put an individual at risk for the
developmentofheartdisease
Behaviorincludes:hostility,timeurgency,andcompetitiveness
TypeB:
Moreeasygoingstyle
Personality traits that are related to healthandwellnesscanalsobe
thoughtofasstates
.Thus,
even if you are low on these wellness traits
, you can still benefit by
seeking out statesthat

fosterpositiveattributes
CHAPTER13:SOCIALPSYCHOLOGY
Social cognition:
Area of social psychology that explores how peopleselect,interpret,remember,and
usesocialinformation
PERSONPERCEPTION
Referstotheprocessesbywhichweusesocialstimulitoformimpressionsofothers
Stereotype
A
generalization about a groups characteristics that does not consider any
variationsfromoneindividualtoanother
A
natural extension of the limitsonhumancognitiveprocessingand
ourrelianceon
conceptsincognitiveprocessing
Simplify the task of understanding people by classifying them as members of
groupsorcategorieswithwhichwearefamiliar
One way that stereotypes can influence individuals is through the
selffulfilling
prophecy
Expectations cause individuals to act in ways that serve
to make the
expectationscometrue
Shows the potential power of stereotypes and other sources of expectationson
humanbehavior
Example:Attractiveindividuals
Attractive people may receive differential treatment from others
throughout theirlives.This
specialtreatmentincreasesthelikelihood
that they might well develop enhanced social skills and be more
selfconfidentthanothers
FirstImpressions
Can have lasting effects
primacy effec
t: peoples tendency to attend to and
rememberwhattheylearntfirst
Attribution:
the process by which
we come to understand the causes of others
behaviorandformanimpression
ofthemasindividuals
ATTRIBUTION
Attribution theory:
views people as
motivated to discover the underlying causes of
behavioraspartoftheireffort
tomakesenseofthebehavior
Internal/Externalcauses
Interna
l (all causes
inside and specific
to the person
, such as his traits and
abilities).
Externa
l(allcauses
outsideoftheperson)
Example:
DidBethget
anAforthetestcozshessmartorcozthetestwaseasy?

Stable/Unstablecauses
Is the cause
relatively enduring and permanent, or is it temporary
?

Example:
Did Aaron blow up at his girlfriend coz hesahostileguyorcozhe
wasinabadmoodthatday?
Controllable/Uncontrollablecauses
Weperceivethat
peoplehavepoweroversomecircumstances(likepreparing
deliciousfoodforapicnic),
butnotothers
(rainonthepicnicday)
AttributionalErrorsandBiases
Thepersonwho
producesthebehavior
tobeexplained
actor
Oftenexplaintheirownbehaviorintermsof
externalcauses
Thepersonwho
offersacausalexplanation
ofthe
actorsbehavior
observer
Frequentlyexplaintheactorsbehaviorintermsof
internalcauses
Fundamental Attribution Error: Observers overestimate the importance of
internal traits and underestimate the importance of external situations when they
seekexplanationsofanactorsbehavior
HeuristicsinSocialInformationProcessing
Heuristics:cognitiveshortcutsthatallowustomakedecisionsrapidly
Helpful tools for navigating the complex social landscape, although they can lead to
mistakes
False consensus effect:
Overestimation of the degree to which everybody else thinks
oractsthewaywedo
Both the
fundamental attribution error and the false consensus effect reflect the
vast amount of
information we have about ourselves relativetothemorelimitedinformationthatwehaveabout
otherpeople.
Thesesuggestthespecialplaceoftheselfinsocialinformationprocessing
THESELFASASOCIALOBJECT
The self is special not only because we have
direct access to these private experiences but
alsobecause
wevalueourselves
Selfesteem
: The degree to which we have
positive or negative feelings about
ourselves
Individuals with high selfesteem possess a variety of
positive illusions rosy views of
themselvesthatarenotnecessarilyrootedinreality
Thinkofourselvesasaboveaverageonanumberofvaluedcharacteristics
Relatedtoheightenedwellbeing
Alsoaffectsourattributionaboutourownbehavior
Highesteemed individuals tend to give themselves breaks when it comes to
judgingtheirownbehavior
Selfserving bias:
Tendency
to take credit for our successes and to
deny responsibility for
ourfailures


SELFOBJECTIFICATION
Referstothetendencytoseeonesselfprimarilyasanobjectinotherseyes
Womenhavebeensocializedtothinkofthemselvesandtheirphysicalbodiesasobjects
inthesocialworld
Making women aware of their status as sexual objects can induce body image concerns,
shame,andrestrictedeating
Associatedwithlowerselfesteemandhigherlevelsofdepression
STEREOTYPETHREAT
Not only influence our views of others but also sometimes influence the feelings and
performanceofindividualsinstereotypedgroups
Stereotype threat:
An individuals fastacting, selffulfilling fear of being judged based on a
negativestereotypeabouthisorhergroup
A person who experiences stereotype threat is wellawareofstereotypicalexpectationsforhim
orherasamemberofthegroup
SOCIALCOMPARISON
Social Comparison:
The process by which we evaluate our thoughts, feelings,behaviors,and
abilitiesinrelationtootherpeople
Help us to evaluate ourselves, tells us what our distinctive characteristics are,andaids
usinbuildinganidentity
When
no objective means are available to evaluate our opinions and abilities, we compare
ourselves with others, and we are most likely to
compare with others who are most similar
tous
Downwardsocialcomparisons
Comparisonswiththosewhomweconsiderinferiortous
Individuals under threat (from negative feedback or low selfesteem), try to
feelbetterby
comparingthemselveswithotherswhoarelessfortunate
ATTITUDES
Ourfeelings,opinions,andbeliefsaboutpeople,objects,andideas
Social psychologists are interested in how attitudes relate to behavior in whether and
howattitudescanchange
Conditions
underwhichattitudesguideactions
Whenthepersons
attitudesarestrong
When the person has strong awareness of his attitudes
and when the person
rehearsesandpracticesthem
Example: A person who has been asked
to give a speechaboutthebenefitsof
recycling is more likely to recycle than is an individual with the same attitude

aboutrecycling
whohasnotputtheideaintowordsor

defineditinpublic
Whenthepersonhasa
vestedinterest
People
are more likely to act on attitudes when the issue at stake is
somethingthat
willaffectthempersonally
CognitiveDissonanceTheory
A concept. developed by
Festinger
, is an
individuals psychological discomfort
(dissonance)causedbytwoinconsistentthoughts
We feel uneasy when we notice an
inconsistency in what
we believe and
whatwedo(
feelinglikeahypocrite)
Canreducecognitivedissonanceby
changingourbehaviortofitoutattitudesor
vice
versa
Effortjustification:
Rationalizingtheamountofeffortweputintosomething
Explains an individuals strong feelings of loyaltytowardagroupafter
enduring experiences
if its this tough to get into, it must be
worthit
SelfPerceptionTheory
According to
Bem, individuals
make inferences about their attitudes by perceiving
theirbehavior
Behaviorscancauseattitudes
When we arequestionedaboutourattitudes,wethinkbacktoourbehaviorsfor
information
Especiallylikely
todosowhen
ourattitudesarenotcompletelyclear
PERSUASION
Involvestryingtochangesomeonesattitude,andoftenhisbehavioraswell
CarlHovlandsElementsofPersuasion
Thecommunicator(source)
Trustworthiness, expertise, power, attractiveness, likeability, and similarityare
allcredibilitycharacteristics
Themedium
Television is generally a more powerful medium than print sources for
changingattitudes
Thetarget(audience)
Age and attitude strength are two characteristics that determine whether a
message will be effective. Younger people are more likely to change their
attitudesthanolderones.Weakerattitudesareeasiertochange
Themessage
Some involve strong logical arguments, and others focus on excitingemotions
suchasfearandangerintheaudience
ElaborationLikelihoodModel
Centralroute:
Engagingsomeonethoughtfullywithasound,logicalargument
More persuasive when people have the
ability and the motivation to pay

attentiontothefacts
Peripheral route:
Nonmessage factors such as the
sources credibility and
attractivenessoremotional
appeals
Effective when people
arenotpayingcloseattentionor
donothavethetime
orenergytothink
aboutwhatthecommunicatorissaying
SuccessfulPersuasion
Footinthedoortechnique
Involves making a
smaller request at the beginning
, and saving the
biggest
demandforthelast
Relies on the notion that in agreeing to the smaller offer, the customer has
createdarelationshipwiththeseller
,expressingsomeleveloftrust
Doorintheface

strategy
Making the
biggest pitch at the beginning
, which the customer willprobably
reject,andthenmakinga
smaller,concessionarydemand
Relies on the fact that the customer will feel
a sense of reciprocity and
obligation
ResistingPersuasion
Inoculation: When individuals arewarnedthattheyaregoingtobehitwithpersuasive
appealsandaregivenargumentstohelpthemresistthesepitches,theyareabletodoso
ALTRUISM
Anunselfishinterestinhelpinganotherperson
Incontrasttoaltruism,is
egoism
Involvesgivingtoanotherpersonto
gainselfesteem
Topresentonesselfaspowerful,competent,orcaring
To avoid c
ensur
e, both from ones self and from society, for failing to live up to
expectations
May also entail
reciprocity: helping another person because we want to
increase the
chancesthatthepersonwillreturnthefavorsomeday
Involves an
expression of trus
t for another person, as well as
feelings of
obligationandguilt
EvolutionaryViewsofAltruism
Altruistic acts of kindness also
occur in other species not a mystery but an
importantadaptation
Helping is
especially likelytooccuramongfamilymemberspromote
thesurvival
offamilysgenes
Mille
r suggested that altruismmaybean
expressionoftruehumannaturehumans
are
notnecessarilyselfcentered
PsychologicalFactorsinAltruism
MoodandHelping
Happypeoplearemorelikelytohelp

others
thanunhappypeople
Adults,especially,understandthathelpingpeoplecanbea
moodbooster

 Feelings of elevation:
the feelings we have when we see someone else do a
gooddeed
increasesthechancesthatwewilldosomethingkindourselves
Helping others as an
effective and meaningful way of coping with
posttraumaticexperiences
EmpathyandHelping
Empathy:
apersons
feelingofonenesswiththeemotional

stateofanother
Thekeytoaltruismisthe
extentofourempathy
SocioculturalFactorsinAltruism
MarketEconomy
Decentralized system featuring the free exchange of products and services
betweenproducersandconsumers
Require individuals to extend the principle of reciprocity to strangers coz
normalflowofbusinessrequiresacertaindegreeoftrust
Example:
Shopping online. Assume that the sellers will not take
advantageofyourcreditcardinfo
EstablishedReligions
Tendtoshareanemphasisonthe
GoldenRule
andon
treatingothersfairly
Gender
Women
aremorelikelythanmentohelpwhenthecontextinvolves
nurturing
Men are more likely to help in situations in which
a perceived danger is
present (Picking up ahitchhiker)andalso,thoseinwhich
theyfeelcompetent
tohelp
(helpingsomeonechangeaflattire)
BystanderEffect
The tendency of an individual who observes an emergency to help decreases
whenotherpeoplearepresentthanwhentheobserverisalone
Difference is due to
diffusion of responsibility among witnesses and the
tendencytolooktothebehaviorofothers

forcuesaboutwhattodo
MediaInfluences
Listening to music with prosocial lyrics can promote kindness and watching
television shows with positive content has been associated with prosocial
behavior
AGGRESSION
Referstosocialbehaviorwhoseobjectiveisto
harmsomeone,eitherphysicallyorverbally
BiologicalInfluencesinAgression
EvolutionaryViews
Certainstimulirelease
innateaggressiveresponse

Survival of the fittest
Early in human evolution the
survivors were
probablyaggressiveindividuals
GeneticBasis
More difficult to demonstrate in humans than animals and may depend on the
typeofaggressionstudied

 Twin studies have shown that

physical aggression thatis
proactiveinnature
may be
more influenced by genes
, but more
reactiveandsocialaggression(
e.gstartingrumours),maybemore
susceptibletoenvironmentaleffects
Geneticinfluences
maybestrongerformalesthanfemales

NeurobiologicalFactors
Aggressive behavior often results when areas such as the limbic system are
stimulatedbyelectriccurrents
Murderers may differ from others in
deficits inthefunctioningofthefrontal
lobes of the brain the areas most involved in executive functions such as
planningandselfcontrol
Neurotransmitters (lower levels of serotonin) have been linked to aggressive
behavior
Testosterone is influenced by experience and how together theymighthelpto
explainaggression
PsychologicalInfluencesinAggression
FrustratingandAversiveCircumstances
Frustrationaggression hypothesis states that frustration (the blocking of an
individualsattemptstoreachagoal)ALWAYSleadstoaggression
However,
abroadrangeofaversiveexperiencescancauseaggression
Physicalpain,personalinsults,crowdingandunpleasantevents
CognitiveDeterminants
Aspectsoftheenvironmentmayprime
ustobehaveaggressively
Berkowitz showed that the
mere presence of a weapon may prime
hostilethoughtsandproduceaggression
Unfair treatment or being the subject of intentional hurt may also
causeaggressiveresponses
ObservationalLearning
Individuals learn aggression through
reinforcement and observational
learning
SocioculturalInfluencesinAggression
Culturalvariationsandcultureofhonor
Morecommoninsomeculturesthanothers
Crime rates tend to behigherincountriesandcommunitieswithaconsiderable
gapbetweentherichandpoor
In cultures of honor,
a mans reputation is thoughttobeanessentialaspect
of his economic survival. Insults to a mans honor as
diminishing his
reputation
and
viewviolenceasawaytocompensate
fortheloss
MediaViolence
Violence seems so alluring on TV and in the movies is that is usually is
portrayedunrealistically
There is
no one cause of any social behavior. Aggression has
multiple
determinants

 Perhaps the strongest indicator of aggression is

witnessing it in ones
ownfamily
Violent pornography does have a
small effect on male sexualaggressionand
isrelatedto
moreacceptingattitudesaboutviolencetowardswomen
Reinforces the
rape myth the false belief that women desire
coercivesex

ReducingAggression
Social cognitive theorists believe that people whoactaggressivelyare
oftenrewarded
for their aggression and that
individuals learn to be aggressiveby
watchingothers
behaveaggressively(
BandurasObservationalLearning
)
Strategies have been geared towards
decreasing rewards for aggression and to
lessen
exposureofit
Parenting strategies include
encouraging children to develop empathy
towardsothers
and
morecloselymonitoringadolescentsactivities
SOCIALINFLUENCE
Conformity
Achangeinapersonsbehaviortocoincidemorecloselywithagroupstandard
Canbeapowerfulwaytoincreasegroupcohesion
AschsExperiment
Shows that the pressure to conform is strong even when they have clearcut
informationdisputingtheothers
InformationalSocialInfluence
Theinfluenceotherpeoplehaveonusbecausewewanttoberight
Social groupcanprovideuswithinformationthatwedidnotknowormayhelp
usseethingsinwaysthathadnotoccurredtous
Dependson:
Howconfidentweareinourownindependentjudgment
Howwellinformedweperceivethegrouptobe
NormativeSocialInfluence
Theinfluenceothershaveonusbecausewewantthemtolikeus
Wemightassumetheattitudesthatcharacterizethegroupsmembers
Obedience
Behaviorthatcomplieswiththeexplicitdemandsoftheindividualinauthority
Milgramsexperiment:
Morepeoplewoulddisobeyincertaincircumstances
Morecommonwhenparticipantscouldseeothersdisobey
When the authority figure was not perceived to be legitimate and was
notcloseby
Victimwasmadetoseemmorehuman
ExertingPersonalControl

 Aswegothroughlife,wearebothcomformistsandnoncomformists.
Our r/s to the social world is reciprocal. Individuals may try to control us, but we can
exertpersonalcontroloverouractionsandinfluenceothersinturn
GROUPINFLUENCE
Deindividuation
When being part of a group reduces personal identity and erodes a sense of personal
responsibility
Groupsgiveusanonymity
We may act in an uninhibited way because we believe thatnoonewillbeable
toidentifyus
KKK

actingingroups,wearingwhitehoodstoconcealidentity
SocialContagion
Imitativebehaviorinvolvingthespreadofactions,emotions,andideas
Examples: social fads, spread of unhealthy behaviors among adolescents such
assmokinganddrinking,andeatingdisordersamongwomen
GroupPerformance
SocialFacilitation
Whenanindividualperformanceimprovesbecauseofthepresenceofothers
The
arousal produces energy and facilitates our performance in
groups
If arousal is too high, we are
unable to learn new or difficult tasks
effectively
Improvesourperformanceon
welllearnedtasks
SocialLoafing
Each persons tendency to
exert less effort in a group because of
reduced
accountabilityforindividualeffort
Loweredgroupperformance
Thelargerthegroup,themorelikelythatanindividualcanloafwithout
detection
Waystodecreasesocialloafing
Makingindividualscontributionsmoreidentifiableandunique
Simplifyingtheevaluationofthesecontributions
Makingthegroupstaskmoreattractive
GroupDecisionMaking
RiskyShift
Tendency for a
group decision toberiskierthan
theaveragedecisionmade
bytheindividualgroupmembers
GroupPolarization
Solidification and further strengthening of an individuals position
as a
consequenceofagroupdiscussionorinteraction
During discussion, hear
new, more persuasive arguments that

strengthenedyourinitialposition
Mightbeaproductofsocialcomparison
Influenced to take a stand
at least as strong as the most
extremeadvocatesposition
GroupThink
Impaired group decision making that occurs when
making the right
decisionislessimportantthanmaintaininggroupharmony
Symptoms:
Overestimatingthepowerandmoralityofonesgroup
Closemindedness
Lackofwillingnesstohearallsidesofanargument
Pressureforuniformity
Canoccurwhenever
groupsvalueconformityoveraccuracy
Canbepreventedif:
Avoidisolation
Allowtheairingofallsidesofanargument
Haveanimpartialleader
Includeoutsideexpertsinthedebate
Encourage members who are strongly identified with the group to
speakoutindissent
MajorityandMinorityInfluence
Majority exerts influence on group decision making through
both
informational influence (Greater opportunity to share their views) and
normativeinfluence(setgroupnorms)
Minoritycanonlywinthrough
informationalpressure
If present views consistentlyandconfidently,majorityismorelikelyto
listentotheminoritysperspectives
INTERGROUPRELATIONS
GroupIdentity:UsVSThem
SocialIdentity
Referstothewaywedefineourselvesintermsofourgroupmembership
Assumes some commonalities with others, as compared to the highly
individualizedpersonalidentity
TajfelsSocialIdentityTheory
States thatoursocialidentitiesareacrucialpartofourselfimageanda
valuablesourceofpositivefeelingsaboutourselves
Ingroup
: The group that an individual think they belong to. Has
specialvalueincomparisontoother
outgroups
Often focus more on the
differences between the two groups rather
thanthesimilarities
If we favor members of a group that was formed on suchtrivialbases,

is no wonder
we show intense ingroup favoritismwhendifferences
arenotsotrivial
Ethnocentrism
Tendencyto
favoronesownethnicgroup
overothergroups
Involves
assertingthegroupssuperiority
overothergroups
Implies that ethnic outgroups are
not simplydifferent,butworsethanones
group
Prejudice
An unjustified negative attitude toward an individual based on the individuals
membershipinaparticulargroup
ExplicitRacism
A persons conscious and openly shared attitude, which might be measured
usingaquestionnaire
ImplicitRacism
Attitudesthatexistonadeeper,hiddenlevel
Mustbemeasuredwithamethodthatdoesnotrequireawareness
Implicit Associations Test(IAT):acomputerizedsurveythatassesses
the ease with which a person can associate a Black or White person
withgoodthings
Based on the idea that preexisting biases may make it easier to
associatesomesocialstimuliwithpositiveratherthannegativeitems
CausesofPrejudice
Competitionbetweengroups,especiallywhenresourcesarescarce
Cultural Learning
: Children can adopt the prejudicial attitudes of their
familiesandfriends

evenbeforetheymeetanoutgroupmember
When people feelbadaboutthemselves,theymightbolstertheirselfesteemby
demeaningoutgroupmembers
Limitsonourinformationprocessingabilities
To simplify the
challenge of understandingothersbehavior
,people
use
categoriesorstereotypes
Discrimination
An
unjustified negative or harmful action toward a member of a group
simply
becausethepersonbelongstothatgroup
Occurs when
negative emotional reactions combine withprejudicialbeliefs
andaretranslatedintobehavior
WaystoImproveIntergroupRelations
Effective strategy is to set up taskoriented cooperation among individuals from
differentgroups
CLOSERELATIONSHIPS
Attraction
Proximity

 Physicalclosenessisastrongpredictorofattraction
Mereexposureeffect
The more we encounter someone or something, themoreprobableitis
that we will start liking the person even if we do not realize we have
seenitbefore
Acquaintance
More likely to like someone if we are
led to believe that we will be meeting
thatperson
anticipationoftheinteraction
If wefindoutthatsomeone
whomwedonotknowyetalreadylikesus
,itisa
suresignthatwe
willfindourselvesattractedtotheperson
Similarity
Weliketoassociatewithpeoplewhoaresimilartous
Ourfriendsandloversaremuchmorealikeus,thanunlikeus
ConsensualValidation
Our own attitudes and behavior are supported when someone elses
attitudesandbehavioraresimilartoours
Wetendtoshyawayfromtheunknown
Love
RomanticLove(passionatelove)
Lovewithstrongcomponentsof
sexualityandinfatuation
Oftenpredominatesinthe
earlypart
oftheloverelationship
Berscheid judges sexual desire to be
the most important ingredient of
romanticlove
AffectionateLove(companionatelove)
Occurs when individuals desire to havetheotherpersonnearand
haveadeep,
caringaffectionfortheperson
Growing belief that
early stagesoflovehavemoreromantic
ingredientsand
that
aslovematures,passiontendstogivewaytoaffection
ModelsofCloseRelationships
SocialExchangeTheory
Based on the notion that social relationships as involving an exchange of
goods,and
minimizingcostsandmaximizingbenefits
Exchangeofrewards
betweenactors
Mostimportantpredictorofar/ssuccessis
equity
Afeelingthateachisdoinghis/her
fairshare
Assertsthatthepartnerskeepamentalbalancesheet
InvestmentModel
Examines the ways that commitment, investment, and the availability of
attractivepartnerspredictsatisfactionandstabilityinr/s
Long term r/ s are likely to continue when
both partnersarecommittedtoit
and both have invested a great deal.
Also, r/s are more enduring whenthere
arefewtemptingalternativesforpartners

 Predictsawillingnesstosacrificeforaromanticpartner
SOCIALPSYCHOLOGYANDHEALTHANDWELLNESS
Socialisolation
isastrongriskfactorforarangeofphysicalillnessandevendeath
Loneliness
Relatedtoanumberofnegativehealthoutcomes
Impairedphysicalhealthandearlydeath
Oftenemergeswhenpeoplemakelifetransitions
Example,collegefreshmen
Strategiestoreduceloneliness
Participatinginactivitieswithothers
Takingtheinitiativetomeetnewpeople