Vous êtes sur la page 1sur 207

�sterhus, S., W.R. Turrell, S. J�nsson, and B.

Hansen, 2005: Measured volume,


heat, and salt fluxes from the Atlantic to the Arctic Mediterranean. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 32, L07603, doi:10.1029/2004GL022188.
A�mann, R., 1902: �ber die Existenz eines w�rmeren Luftstromes in der H�he von 10
bis 15 km. Sitzungsbericht der K�niglich-Preu�ischen Akademie der Wissenschaften
zu Berlin, Sitzung der physikalisch-mathematischen Klasse vom 1. 92Mai 1902, XXIV,
1�10.
Abaurrea, J., and J. Asin, 2005: Forecasting local daily precipitation patterns in
a climate change scenario. Clim. Res., 28, 183�197.
Abbot, C.G., 1910: The solar constant of radiation. Smithsonian Institution Annual
Report, p. 319.
Abbs, D.J., 2004: A high resolution modelling study of the effect of climate
change on the intensity of extreme rainfall events. In: Staying Afloat: Floodplain
Management Authorities of NSW 44th Annual Conference: Conference Proceedings,
Coffs Harbour, NSW. Floodplain Management Authorities of New South Wales,
Tamworth, pp. 17�24.
Abdalati, W., et al., 2001: Outlet glacier and margin elevation changes: Near-
coastal thinning of the Greenland ice sheet. J. Geophys. Res., 106(D24),
33729�33741.
Abdalati, W., et al., 2004: Elevation changes of ice caps in the Canadian Arctic
Archipelago. J. Geophys. Res., 109, F04007, doi:10.1029/2003JF000045.
Abdul-Razzak, H., and S.J. Ghan, 2002: A parametrization of aerosol activation: 3.
Sectional representation. J. Geophys. Res., 107(D3), 4026,
doi:10.1029/2001JD000483.
Abel, S.J., E.J. Highwood, J.M. Haywood, and M.A. Stringer, 2005: The direct
radiative effect of biomass burning aerosol over southern Africa. Atmos. Chem.
Phys. Discuss., 5, 1165�1211.
Abel, S.J., et al., 2003: Evolution of biomass burning aerosol properties from an
agricultural fire in southern Africa. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30(15), 1783,
doi:10.1029/2003GL017342.
Abramopoulos, F., C. Rosenzweig, and B. Choudhury, 1988: Improved ground hydrology
calculations for global climate models (GCMs): Soil water movement and
evapotranspiration. J. Clim., 1, 921�941.
Achard, F., et al., 2004: Improved estimates of net carbon emissions from land
cover change in the tropics for the 1990s. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 18, GB2008,
doi:10.1029/2003GB002142.
Achatz, U., and J.D. Opsteegh, 2003: Primitive-equation-based low-order models
with seasonal cycle, Part II: Application to complexity and nonlinearity of large-
scale atmospheric dynamics. J. Atmos. Sci., 60, 478�490.
AchutaRao, K., and K.R. Sperber, 2002: Simulation of the El Ni�o Southern
Oscillation: Results from the coupled model intercomparison project. Clim. Dyn.,
19, 191�209.
AchutaRao, K., and K.R. Sperber, 2006: ENSO simulation in coupled ocean-atmosphere
models: Are the current models better? Clim. Dyn., 27, 1�15.
AchutaRao, K., et al., 2004: An Appraisal of Coupled Climate Model Simulations.
UCRL-TR-202550, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA, 197 pp.
AchutaRao, K.M. et al., 2006: Variability of ocean heat uptake: Reconciling
observations and models, J. Geophys. Res., 111, C05019, doi:10.1029/2005JC003136.
ACIA, 2004: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment (ACIA): Impacts of a Warming Arctic.
Cambridge University Press, New York, NY, 140 pp.
ACIA, 2005: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment. Cambridge University Press, New
York, 1042 pp.
Ackerman, A.S, M.P. Kirkpatrick, D.E. Stevens, and O.B. Toon, 2004: The impact of
humidity above stratiform clouds on indirect aerosol climate forcing. Nature, 432,
1014�1017.
Ackerman, A.S., et al., 2000a: Reduction of tropical cloudiness by soot. Science,
288, 1042�1047.
Ackerman, A.S., et al., 2000b: Effects of aerosols on cloud albedo: evaluation of
Twomey�s parametrization of cloud susceptibility using measurements of ship
tracks. J. Atmos. Sci., 57, 2684�2695.
Ackerman, A.S., M.P. Kirkpatrick, D.E. Stevens, and O.B. Toon, 2004: The impact of
humidity above stratiform clouds on indirect climate forcing. Nature, 432,
1014�1017.
Ackerman, T., and G. Stokes, 2003: The Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Program.
Phys. Today, 56, 38�44.
Ackley, S., P. Wadhams, J.C. Comiso, and A.P. Worby, 2003: Decadal decrease of
Antarctic sea ice extent inferred from whaling records revisited on the basis of
historical and modern sea ice records. Polar Res., 22(1), 19�25.
Adam, J.C., and D.P. Lettenmeier, 2003: Adjustment of global gridded precipitation
for systematic bias. J. Geophys. Res., 108, 4257�4272.
Adams, J., J. Constable, A. Guenther, and P. Zimmerman, 2001: An estimate of
natural volatile organic compound emissions from vegetation since the last glacial
maximum. Chemosphere, 3, 73�91.
Adams, J.B., M.E. Mann, and C.M. Ammann, 2003: Proxy evidence for an El Nino-like
response to volcanic forcing. Nature, 426(6964), 274�278.
Adams, N., 2004: A numerical modelling study of the weather in East Antarctica and
the surrounding Southern Ocean. Weather Forecasting, 19, 653�672.
Adams, P.J. and J.H. Seinfeld, 2002: Predicting global aerosol size distributions
in general circulation models. J. Geophys. Res., 107(D19), 4370,
doi:10.1029/2001JD001010.
Adams, P.J., et al., 2001: General circulation model assessment of direct
radiative forcing by the sulfate-nitrate-ammonium-water inorganic aerosol system.
J. Geophys. Res., 106, 1097�1111.
Adkins, J.F., et al., 1998: Deep-sea coral evidence for rapid change in
ventilation of the deep North Atlantic 15,400 years ago. Science, 280, 725�728.
Adkins, J.F., K. McIntyre, and D.P. Schrag, 2002: The salinity, temperature, and
d18O of the glacial deep ocean. Science, 298, 1769�1773.
Adler, R.F., et al., 2003: The version-2 Global Precipitation Climatology Project
(GPCP) monthly precipitation analysis (1979-present). J. Hydrometeorol., 4,
1147�1167.
Agassiz, L., 1837: Discours d�ouverture sur l�ancienne extension des glaciers.
Soci�t� Helv�tique des Sciences Naturelles, Neufch�tel.
Agnew, T. and S. Howell, 2003: The use of operational ice charts for evaluating
passive microwave ice concentration data. Atmos.-Ocean, 41(4), 317�331.
Agnew, T., H. Le, and T. Hirose, 1997: Estimation of large-scale sea-ice motion
from SSM/I 85.5 GHz imagery. Ann. Glaciol., 25, 305�311.
AIACC (Assessments of Impacts and Adaptations to Climate Change in Multiple
Regions and Sectors), 2004: AIACC Regional Study AS07: Southeast Asia Regional
Vulnerability to Changing Water Resource and Extreme Hydrological Events due to
Climate Change. Progress Report: Period Year-end 2003. 8 pp.,
http://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/aiacc/progress/AS07_Jan04.pdf.
Ainsworth, E.A., and S.P. Long, 2005: What have we learned from 15 years of free-
air CO2 enrichment (FACE)? A meta-analytic review of the responses of
photosynthesis, canopy. New Phytol., 165(2), 351�371.
Albrecht, B., 1989: Aerosols, cloud microphysics and fractional cloudiness.
Science, 245, 1227�1230.
Albrecht, B.A., et al., 1995: The Atlantic Stratocumulus Transition Experiment �
ASTEX. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 76, 889�904.
Aldrian, E., and R. Dwi Susanto, 2003:Identification of three dominant rainfall
regions within Indonesia and their relationship to sea surface temperature. Int.
J. Climatol., 23(12), 1435�1452.
Aldrian, E., et al., 2004a: Long term simulation of the Indonesian rainfall with
the MPI Regional Model. Clim. Dyn., 22(8), 794�814, doi:10.1007/s00382-004-0418-9.
Aldrian, E.,et al., 2004b: Modelling Indonesian rainfall with a coupled regional
model.Clim. Dyn., 25(1), 1�17, doi:10.1007/s00382-004-0483-0.Anderson, C.J., et
al., 2003: Hydrological processes in regional climate model simulations of the
Central United States flood of June-July 1993. J. Hydrometeorol., 4, 584�598.
Alexander, L.V., et al., 2006: Global observed changes in daily climate extremes
of temperature and precipitation. J. Geophys. Res., 111, D05109,
doi:10.1029/2005JD006290.
Alexander, M.A., et al., 2004: The atmospheric response to realistic Arctic sea
ice anomalies in an AGCM during winter. J. Clim., 17, 890�905.
Alexeev, V.A., 2003: Sensitivity to CO2 doubling of an atmospheric GCM coupled to
an oceanic mixed layer: a linear analysis. Clim. Dyn., 20, 775�787.
Alexeev, V.A., et al., 1998: Modelling of the present-day climate by the INM RAS
atmospheric model �DNM GCM�. Institute of Numerical Mathematics, Moscow, Russia,
200 pp.
Alexeev, V.A., P.L. Langen, and J.R. Bates, 2005: Polar amplification of surface
warming on an aquaplanet in �ghost forcing� experiments without sea ice feedbacks.
Clim. Dyn., 24, 655�666.
Allan, R.J., and T.J. Ansell, 2006: A new globally-complete monthly historical
gridded mean sea level pressure data set (HadSLP2): 1850-2004. J. Clim., 19,
5816�5842.
Allan, R.P., and A. Slingo, 2002: Can current climate forcings explain the spatial
and temporal signatures of decadal OLR variations? Geophys. Res. Lett., 29(7),
1141, doi:10.1029/2001GL014620.
Allan, R.P., M.A. Ringer, and A. Slingo, 2003: Evaluation of moisture in the
Hadley Centre Climate Model using simulations of HIRS water vapour channel
radiances. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 129, 3371�3389.
Allan, R.P., M.A. Ringer, J.A. Pamment, and A. Slingo, 2004: Simulation of the
Earth�s radiation budget by the European Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasts
40-year Reanalysis (ERA40). J. Geophys. Res., 109, D18107,
doi:10.1029/2004JD004816.
Allan, R.P., V. Ramaswamy, and A. Slingo, 2002: A diagnostic analysis of
atmospheric moisture and clear-sky radiative feedback in the Hadley Centre and
Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (GFDL) climate models. J. Geophys. Res.,
107(D17), 4329, doi:10.1029/2001JD001131.
Allan, W., et al., 2005: Interannual variations of 13C in tropospheric methane:
Implications for a possible atomic chlorine sink in the marine boundary layer. J.
Geophys. Res., 110, doi:10.1029/2004JD005650.
Allard, M., B. Wang, and J.A. Pilon, 1995: Recent cooling along the southern shore
of Hudson Strait Quebec, Canada, documented from permafrost temperature
measurements. Arctic and Alpine Res., 27, 157�166.
Allen, D., K. Pickering, and M. Fox-Rabinovitz, 2004: Evaluation of pollutant
outflow and CO sources during TRACE-P using model-calculated, aircraft-based, and
Measurements of Pollution in the Troposphere (MOPITT)-derived CO concentrations.
J. Geophys. Res., 109, D15S03, doi:10.1029/2003JD004250.
Allen, M.R., 1999: Do-it-yourself climate prediction. Nature, 401, 627.
Allen, M.R., 2003: Liability for climate change. Nature, 421, 891�892.
Allen, M.R., and D.A. Stainforth, 2002: Towards objective probabilistic climate
forecasting. Nature, 419, 228.
Allen, M.R., and P.A. Stott, 2003: Estimating signal amplitudes in optimal
fingerprinting, Part I: Theory. Clim. Dyn., 21, 477�491.
Allen, M.R., and S.F.B. Tett, 1999: Checking for model consistency in optimal
fingerprinting. Clim. Dyn., 15, 419�434.
Allen, M.R., and W.J. Ingram, 2002: Constraints on future changes in climate and
the hydrologic cycle. Nature, 419, 224�232.
Allen, M.R., D.J. Frame, J.A. Kettleborough, and D.A. Stainforth, 2006a: Model
error in weather and climate forecasting. In: Predictability of Weather and
Climate [Palmer, T., and R. Hagedorn (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, New
York, NY, pp. 391�427.
Allen, M.R., et al., 2000: Quantifying the uncertainty in forecasts of
anthropogenic climate change. Nature, 407, 617�620.
Allen, M.R., et al., 2006b: Observational constraints on climate sensitivity. In:
Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change [Schellnhuber, H.J., et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge
University Press, New York, NY, pp. 281�289.
Allen, M.R., J.A. Kettleborough, and D.A. Stainforth, 2002: Model error in weather
and climate forecasting. In: ECMWF Predictability of Weather and Climate Seminar
[Palmer, T.N. (ed.)]. European Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasts, Reading,
UK, http://www.ecmwf.int/publications/library/do/references/list/209.
Alley, R.B., and A.M. Agustsdottir, 2005: The 8k event: cause and consequences of
a major Holocene abrupt climate change. Quat. Sci. Rev., 24, 1123�1149.
Alley, R.B., and P.U. Clark, 1999: The deglaciation of the northern hemisphere: A
global perspective. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., 27, 149�182.
Alley, R.B., et al., 1993: Abrupt increase in Greenland snow accumulation at the
end of the Younger Dryas event. Nature, 362, 527�529.
Alley, R.B., et al., 1997: Holocene climatic instability: A large, widespread
event 8200 years ago. Geology, 25, 483�486.
Alley, R.B., et al., 2002: Abrupt Climate Change: Inevitable Surprises. US
National Research Council Report, National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 230 pp.
Alley, R.B., et al., 2003: Abrupt climate change. Science, 299(5615), 2005�2010.
Alley, R.B., P.U. Clark, P. Huybrechts, and I. Joughin, 2005a: Ice-sheet and sea-
level changes. Science, 310, 456�460.
Alley, R.B., S. Anandakrishnan, and P. Jung, 2001: Stochastic resonance in the
North Atlantic. Paleoceanography, 16, 190�198.
Alley, R.B., T.K. Dupont, B.R. Parizek, and S. Anandakrishnan, 2005b: Access of
surface meltwater to beds of sub-freezing glaciers: Preliminary insights. Ann.
Glaciol., 40, 8�14.
Alverson, K.D., R.S. Bradley, and T.F. Pedersen (eds.), 2003: Paleoclimate, Global
Change and the Future. ?International Geosphere Biosphere Programme Book Series,
Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 221 pp.
Alves, O., M.A. Balmaseda, D. Anderson, and T. Stockdale, 2004: Sensitivity of
dynamical seasonal forecast to ocean initial conditions. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc.,
130, 647�667.
Amann, M., et al., 2004: The RAINS Model. Documentation of the Model Approach
Prepared for the RAINS Peer Review 2004. International Institute for Applied
Systems Analysis, Laxenburg, Austria, 156 pp.
Ammann, C.M., G.A. Meehl, W.M. Washington, and C.S. Zender, 2003: A monthly and
latitudinally varying volcanic forcing dataset in simulations of 20th century
climate. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30, 1657.
Amundrud, T.L., H. Mailing, and R.G. Ingram, 2004: Geometrical constraints on the
evolution of ridged sea ice. J. Geophys. Res., 109, C06005,
doi:10.1029/2003JC002251.
Andersen, C., N. Ko�, A. Jennings, and J.T. Andrews, 2004: Non uniform response of
the major surface currents in the Nordic Seas to insolation forcing: implications
for the Holocene climate variability. Paleoceanography, 19, 1�16.
Anderson, D.M., J.T. Overpeck, and A.K. Gupta, 2002: Increase in the Asian
southwest monsoon during the past four centuries. Science, 297(5581), 596�599.
Anderson, T.L., et al., 2003: Climate forcing by aerosols: a hazy picture.
Science, 300, 1103�1104.
Anderson, T.L., et al., 2005a. Testing the MODIS satellite retrieval of aerosol
fine-mode fraction. J. Geophys. Res., 110, D18204, doi:10.1029/2005JD005978.
Anderson, T.L., et al., 2005b: An �A-Train� strategy for quantifying direct
climate forcing by anthropogenic aerosols. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 86,
1795�1809.
Andersson, H.C., 2002: Influence of long-term regional and large-scale atmospheric
circulation on the Baltic sea level. Tellus, A54, 76�88.
Andreae, M.O., and P. Merlet, 2001: Emission of trace gases and aerosols from
biomass burning. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 15, 955�966.
Andreae, M.O., C.D. Jones, and P.M. Cox, 2005: Strong present-day aerosol cooling
implies a hot future. Nature, 435(7046), 1187�1190.
Andreae, M.O., et al., 2004: Atmospheric science: smoking rain clouds over the
Amazon. Science, 303(5662), 1337�1341.
Andreae, M.O., et al., 2004: Smoking rain clouds over the Amazon. Science, 303,
1337�1342.
Andreev, A., and S. Watanabe, 2002: Temporal changes in dissolved oxygen of the
intermediate water in the subarctic North Pacific. Geophys. Res. Lett., 29(14),
1680, doi:10.1029/2002GL015021.
Andres, R.J., G. Marland, T. Boden, and S. Bischof, 2000: Carbon dioxide emissions
from fossil fuel consumption and cement manufacture, 1751-1991, and an estimate of
their isotopic composition and latitudinal distribution. In: The Carbon Cycle
[Wigley, T.M.L., and D.S. Schimel (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
UK, pp. 53�62.
Andrie, C., et al., 2003: Variability of AABW properties in the equatorial channel
at 35 degrees W. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30(5), 8007, doi:10.1029/2002GL015766.
Andronova, N.G., and M.E. Schlesinger, 2000: Causes of global temperature changes
during the 19th and 20th centuries. Geophys. Res. Lett., 27(14), 2137�2140.
Andronova, N.G., and M.E. Schlesinger, 2001: Objective estimation of the
probability density function for climate sensitivity. J. Geophys. Res., 106,
22605�22612.
Andronova, N.G., et al., 1999: Radiative forcing by volcanic aerosols from 1850 to
1994. J. Geophys. Res., 104, 16807�16826.
Andronova, N.G., et al., 2007: The concept of climate sensitivity: History and
development. In: Human-Induced Climate Change: An Interdisciplinary Assessment
[Schlesinger, M., et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, in
press.
Andronova, N.G., M.E. Schlesinger, and M.E. Mann, 2004: Are reconstructed pre-
instrumental hemispheric temperatures consistent with instrumental hemispheric
temperatures? Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L12202, doi:10.1029/2004GL019658.
Angeles, M.E., J.E. Gonzalez, D.J. Erickson, and J.L. Hern�ndez, 2007: Predictions
of future climate change in the Caribbean region using global general circulation
modelsInt. J. Climatol., 27, 555-569, doi:10.1002/joc.1416.
Angert, A., et al., 2004: CO2 seasonality indicates origins of post-Pinatubo sink.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 31(11), L11103, doi:10.1029/2004GL019760.
Angert, A., et al., 2005: Drier summers cancel out the CO2 uptake enhancement
induced by warmer springs. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 102, 10823�10827.
Annamalai, H., K. Hamilton, and K.R. Sperber, 2007: South Asian summer monsoon and
its relationship with ENSO in the IPCC AR4 simulations. J. Clim., 20, 1071-1083.
Annan, J.D., and J.C. Hargreaves, 2006: Using multiple observationally-based
constraints to estimate climate sensitivity. Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L06704,
doi:10.1029/2005GL025259.
Annan, J.D., et al., 2005b: Efficiently constraining climate sensitivity with
palaeoclimate observations. Scientific Online Letters on the Atmosphere, 1,
181�184.
Annan, J.D., J.C. Hargreaves, N.R. Edwards, and R. Marsh, 2005a: Parameter
estimation in an intermediate complexity earth system model using an ensemble
Kalman filter. Ocean Modelling, 8, 135�154.
Antic, S., R. Laprise, B. Denis, and R. de Elia, 2005: Testing the downscaling
ability of a one-way nested regional climate model in regions of complex
topography. Clim. Dyn., 23, 473�493.
Antonov, J.I., S. Levitus, and T.P. Boyer, 2002: Steric sea level variations
during 1957-1994: Importance of salinity. J. Geophys. Res., 107(C12), 8013,
doi:10.1029/2001JC000964.
Antonov, J.I., S. Levitus, and T.P. Boyer, 2005: Steric variability of the world
ocean, 1955-2003. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32(12), L12602, doi:10.1029/2005GL023112.
Antu�a, J.C., et al., 2003: Spatial and temporal variability of the stratospheric
aerosol cloud produced by the 1991 Mount Pinatubo eruption. J. Geophys. Res., 108,
4624, doi:10.1029/2003JD003722.
Anyah, R., and F. Semazzi, 2004: Simulation of the sensitivity of Lake Victoria
basin climate to lake surface temperatures. Theor. Appl. Climatol., 79(1�2),
55�69.
Aoki, S., M. Yoritaka, and A. Masuyama, 2003: Multidecadal warming of subsurface
temperature in the Indian sector of the Southern Ocean. J. Geophys. Res., 108(C4),
8081, doi:10.1029/JC000307.
Aoki, S., N.L. Bindoff, and J.A. Church, 2005a: Interdecadal water mass changes in
the Southern Ocean between 30E and 160E. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L07607,
doi:10.1029/2004GL022220.
Aoki, S., S.R. Rintoul, S. Ushio, and S. Watanabe, 2005b: Freshening of the Ad�lie
Land Bottom water near 140�E. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L23601,
doi:10.1029/2005GL024246.
Arakawa, A., 2004: The cumulus parameterization problem: Past, present, and
future. J. Clim., 17, 2493�2525.
Arakawa, A., and W.H. Schubert, 1974: Interaction of a cumulus cloud ensemble with
the large-scale environment, Part I. J. Atmos. Sci., 31, 674�701.
Arakawa, O., and A. Kitoh, 2005: Rainfall diurnal variation over the Indonesian
Maritime Continent simulated by 20km-mesh GCM. Scientific Online Letters on the
Atmosphere, 1, 109�112.
Arblaster, J.M., and G.A. Meehl, 2006: Contributions of external forcing to
Southern Annular Mode trends. J. Clim., 19, 2896�2905.
Archer, D., 2005: The fate of fossil fuel CO2 in geologic time. J. Geophys. Res.,
110(C9), C09S05, doi:10.1029/2004JC002625.
Archer, D., and A. Ganopolski, 2005: A movable trigger: Fossil fuel CO2 and the
onset of the next glaciation. Geochem. Geophys. Geosystems, 6, Q05003.
Archer, D., and B. Buffett, 2005: Time-dependent response of the global ocean
clathrate reservoir to climatic and anthropogenic forcing. Geochem. Geophys.
Geosystems, 6, Q03002, doi:10.1029/2004GC000854.
Archer, D., H. Kheshgi, and E. Maier-Reimer, 1998: Dynamics of fossil fuel CO2
neutralization by marine CaCO3. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 12(2), 259�276.
Archer, D.A., A. Winguth, D. Lea, and N. Mahowald, 2000: What caused the
glacial/interglacial atmospheric pCO2 cycles? Rev. Geophys., 12, 159�189.
Arellano, A.F. Jr., et al., 2004: Top-down estimates of global CO sources using
MOPITT measurements. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L01104, doi:10.1029/ 2003GL018609.
Arendt, A.A., et al., 2002: Rapid wastage of Alaska glaciers and their
contribution to rising sea level. Science, 297, 382�386.
Ariztegui, D., et al., 2000: Paleoclimate and the formation of sapropel S1:
inferences from Late Quaternary lacustrine and marine sequences in the central
Mediterranean region. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol., 158, 215�240.
Armstrong, R.A., et al., 2002: A new, mechanistic model for organic carbon fluxes
in the ocean based on the quantitative association of POC with ballast minerals.
Deep-Sea Res. II, 49, 219�236.
Armstrong, R.L. and M.J. Brodzik, 2001: Recent Northern Hemisphere snow extent: A
comparison of data derived from visible and microwave satellite sensors. Geophys.
Res. Lett., 28, 3673�3676.
Arnell, N., D. Hudson, and R. Jones, 2003: Climate change scenarios from a
regional climate model: Estimating change in runoff in southern Africa. J.
Geophys. Res., 108(D16), 4519, doi:10.1029/2002JD002782.
Arnfield, A.J.,�2003: Two decades of urban climate research: a review of
turbulence, exchanges of energy and water, and the urban heat island. Int. J.
Climatol., 23, 1�26.�
Arora, V.K., 2001: Assessment of simulated water balance for continental-scale
river basins in an AMIP 2 simulation. J. Geophys. Res., 106, 14827�14842.
Arora, V.K., and G.J. Boer, 2001: Effects of simulated climate change on the
hydrology of major river basins. J. Geophys. Res., 106, 3335�3348.
Arora, V.K., and G.J. Boer, 2003: A representation of variable root distribution
in dynamic vegetation models. Earth Interactions, 7, 1�19.
Arora, V.K., and G.J. Boer, 2005: A parameterization of leaf phenology for the
terrestrial ecosystem component of climate models. Global Change Biol., 11(1),
39�59.
Arora, V.K., and G.J. Boer, 2006: Simulating competition and coexistence between
plant functional types in a dynamic vegetation model. Earth Interactions, 10,
Paper 10, 30 pp., doi:10.1175/EI170.1.
Arrhenius, S., 1896: On the influence of carbonic acid in the air upon the
temperature on the ground, Philos. ?Mag., 41, 237�276.
Arzel, O., T. Fichefet, and H. Goosse, 2006: Sea ice evolution over the 20th and
21st centuries as simulated by the current AOGCMs. Ocean Modelling, 12, 401�415.
Asano, S., et al., 2002: Two case studies of winter continental-type water and
mixed-phased stratocumuli over the sea. II: Absorption of solar radiation. J.
Geophys. Res., 107(D21), 4570, doi:10.1029/2001JD001108.
Ashok, K., Z.Y.Guan, and TYamagata, 2001: Impact of the Indian Ocean Dipole on the
relationship between the Indian monsoonrainfall and ENSOGeophys. Res. Lett.,28,
4499�4502.
Ashrit, R.G., A. Kitoh, and S. Yukimoto, 2005: Transient response of ENSO-monsoon
teleconnection in MRI.CGCM2 climate change simulations. J. Meteorol. Soc. Japan,
83, 273�291.
Ashrit, R.G., H. Douville, and K. Rupa Kumar, 2003: Response of the Indian monsoon
and ENSO-monsoon teleconnection to enhanced greenhouse effect in the CNRM coupled
model. J. Meteorol. Soc. Japan, 81, 779�803.
Ashrit, R.G., K. Rupa Kumar, and K. Krishna Kumar, 2001: ENSO-monsoon
relationships in a greenhouse warming scenario. Geophys. Res. Lett., 29,
1727�1730.
Augustine, J.A., and F. Caracena, 1994: Lower-tropospheric precursors to nocturnal
MCS development over central United States. Weather Forecasting, 9, 116�135.
Aumont, O., et al., 2001: Riverine-driven interhemispheric transport of carbon.
Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 15, 393�405.
Austin, J., and N. Butchart, 2003: Coupled chemistry-climate model simulations for
the period 1980 to 2020: Ozone depletion and the start of ozone recovery. Q. J. R.
Meteorol. Soc., 129, 3225�3249.
Austin, J., and R.J. Wilson, 2006: Ensemble simulations of the decline and
recovery of stratospheric ozone. J. Geophys. Res., 111, D16314,
doi:10.1029/2005JD006907.
Austin, J., et al., 2003: Uncertainties and assessments of chemistry-climate
models of the stratosphere. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 3, 1�27.
Avissar, R., and D. Werth, 2005: Global hydroclimatological teleconnections
resulting from tropical deforestation. JHydrometeorol., 6, 134�145.
Avissar, R., P.L. Silva Dias, M.A.F. Silva Dias, and C. Nobre, 2002: The Large-
scale Biosphere-Atmosphere Experiment in Amazonia (LBA): Insights and future
research needs. J. Geophys. Res., 107(D20), 8034, doi:10.1029/2002JD002507.
Aw, J., and M.J. Kleeman, 2003: Evaluating the first-order effect of intraannual
air pollution on urban air pollution. J. Geophys. Res., 108, 4365,
doi:10.1029/2002JD002688.
Ayers, G.P., 2005: �Air pollution and climate change: has air pollution suppressed
rainfall over Australia?� Clean Air and Environmental Quality, 39, 51�57.
B�ning, C.W., et al., 1995: An overlooked problem in model simulations of the
thermohaline circulation and heat transports in the Atlantic Ocean. J. Clim., 8,
515�523.
B�nisch, G., et al., 1997: Long-term trends of temperature, salinity, density, and
transient tracers in the central Greenland Sea. J. Geophys. Res., 102,
18553�18571.
Babko, O., D.A. Rothrock, and G.A. Maykut, 2002: Role of rafting in the mechanical
redistribution of sea ice thickness. J. Geophys. Res., 107, 3113,
doi:10.1029/1999JC000190.
Bacastow, R.B., and C.D. Keeling, 1981: Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration
and the observed airborne fraction. In: Carbon Cycle Modelling [Bolin, B. (ed.)].
SCOPE 16. John Wiley and Sons, New York, pp. 103�112.
Bader, J., and M. Latif, 2003: The impact of decadal-scale Indian Ocean sea
surface temperature anomalies on Sahelian rainfall and the North Atlantic
Oscillation. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30(22), 2169.
Bagnoud, N., A.J. Pitman, B.J. McAvaney, and N.J. Holbrook, 2005: The contribution
of the land surface energy balance complexity to differences in means, variances
and extremes using the AMIP-II methodology. Clim. Dyn., 25, 171�188.
doi:10.1007/S00382-005-0004-9.
Bahr, D.B., M.F. Meier, and S.D. Peckham, 1997: The physical basis of glacier
volume-area scaling. J. Geophys. Res., 102, 20355�20362.
Bailey, D.A., A.H. Lynch, and T.E. Arbetter, 2004: The relationship between
synoptic forcing and polynya formation in the Cosmonaut Sea, II: Polynya
simulation. J. Geophys. Res, 109, doi:10.1029/2003JC001838.
Bailey, D.A., and A.H. Lynch, 2000: Development of an Antarctic regional climate
system model: Part 2. Station validation and surface energy balance. J. Clim., 13,
1351�1361.
Baker, D.F., et al., 2006: TransCom 3 inversion intercomparison: impact of
transport model errors on the interannual variability of regional CO2 fluxes,
1988-2003. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 20, GB1002, doi:1010.1029/2004GB002439.
Baker, M., and R.J. Charlson, 1990: Bistability of CCN concentrations and
thermodynamics in the cloud-topped boundary layer. Nature, 345, 142�145.
Baker, T.R., et al., 2004: Increasing biomass in Amazonian forest plots. Philos.
Trans. R. Soc. London Ser. B, 359, 353�365.
Bakke, J., et al., 2005b: Glacier fluctuations, equilibrium-line altitudes and
palaeoclimate in Lyngen, northern Norway, during the Late glacial and Holocene.
The Holocene, 15(4), 518�540.
Bakke, J., S.O. Dahl, and A. Nesje, 2005a: Late glacial and early Holocene
palaeoclimatic reconstruction based on glacier fluctuations and equilibrium-line
altitudes at northern Folgefonna, Hardanger, western Norway. J. Quat. Sci., 20(2),
179�198.
Balachandran, N.K., and D. Rind, 1995: Modeling the effects of UV-variability and
the QBO on the troposphere-stratosphere system. Part I: The middle atmosphere. J.
Clim., 8, 2058�2079.
Baldocchi, D., et al., 2001: FLUXNET: A new tool to study the temporal and spatial
variability of ecosystem-scale carbon dioxide, water vapor, and energy flux
densities. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 82, 2415�2434.
Baldwin, M.P., and T.J. Dunkerton, 1999: Downward propagation of the Arctic
Oscillation from the stratosphere to the troposphere. J. Geophys. Res., 104,
30937�30946.
Baldwin, M.P., and T.J. Dunkerton, 2001: Stratospheric harbingers of anomalous
weather regimes. Science, 244, 581�584.
Baldwin, M.P., et al., 2001: The quasi-biennial oscillation. Rev. Geophys., 39,
179�229.
Baldwin, M.P., et al., 2003: Stratospheric memory and skill of extended-range
weather forecasts. Science, 301, 636�640.
Baliunas, S., and R. Jastrow, 1990: Evidence for long-term brightness changes of
solar-type stars. Nature, 348, 520�522.
Balkanski, Y., et al., 2004: Global emissions of mineral aerosol: formulation and
validation using satellite imagery. In: Emission of Atmospheric Trace Compounds
[Granier, C., P. Artaxo, and C.E. Reeves (eds.)]. Kluwer, Dordrecht, pp. 239�267.
Ballantyne, A.P., et al., 2005: Meta-analysis of tropical surface temperatures
during the Last Glacial Maximum. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L05712,
doi:10.1029/2004GL021217.
Balmaseda, M.A., M.K. Davey, and D.L.T. Anderson, 1995: Decadal and seasonal
dependence of ENSO prediction skill. J. Clim., 8, 2705�2715.
Balzter H., et al., 2005: Impact of the Arctic Oscillation pattern on interannual
forest fire variability in Central Siberia. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L14709,
doi:10.1029/2005GL022526.
Bamber, J.L., R.L. Layberry, and S.P. Gogineni, 2001: A new ice thickness and bed
data set for the Greenland ice sheet, 1. Measurement, data reduction, and errors.
J. Geophys. Res., 106, 33733�33780.
Bamber, J.L., W. Krabill, V. Raper, and J. Dowdeswell, 2004: Anomalous recent
growth of part of a large Arctic ice cap: Austfonna, Svalbard. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 31(12), L12402, doi: 10.1029/2004GL019667.
Bamzai, A.S., 2003: Relationship between snow cover variability and Arctic
Oscillation Index on a hierarchy of time scales. Int. J. Climatol., 23, 131�142.
Bange, H.W., S. Rapsomanikis, and M.O. Andreae, 1996: Nitrous oxide in coastal
waters. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 10(1), 197�207.
Banks, H., R.A. Wood, and J.M. Gregory, 2002: Changes to Indian Ocean subantarctic
mode water in a coupled climate model as CO2 forcing increases. J. Phys.
Oceanogr., 32, 2816�2827.
Banks, H.T., et al., 2000: Are observed decadal changes in intermediate water
masses a signature of anthropogenic climate change? Geophys. Res. Lett., 27,
2961�2964.
Bao, Y., A. Brauning, and S. Yafeng, 2003: Late Holocene temperature fluctuations
on the Tibetan Plateau. Quat. Sci. Rev., 22(21), 2335�2344.
Baran, A.J., and J.S. Foot, 1994: A new application of the operational sounder
HIRS in determining a climatology of sulfuric acid aerosol from the Pinatubo
eruption. J. Geophys. Res., 99(D12), 25673�25679.
Barber, D.C., et al., 1999: Forcing of the cold event of 8,200 years ago by
catastrophic drainage of Laurentide lakes. Nature, 400, 344�347.
Barbosa, P.M., et al., 1999: An assessment of vegetation fire in Africa
(1981�1991): Burned areas, burned biomass, and atmospheric emissions. Global
Biogeochem. Cycles, 13, 933�950.
Bard, E., G. Raisbeck, F. Yiou, and J. Jouzel, 2000: Solar irradiance during the
last millennium based on cosmogenic nucleides. Tellus, 52B, 985�992.
Barford, C.C., et al., 2001: Factors controlling long and short term sequestration
of atmospheric CO2 in a mid-latitude forest. Science, 294(5547), 1688�1691.
Baringer, M.O., and J.C. Larsen, 2001: Sixteen years of Florida Current transport
at 27� N. Geophys. Res. Lett., 28(16), 3179�3182.
Barkstrom, B., et al., 1989: Earth Radiation Budget Experiment (ERBE) archival and
April 1985 results. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 70, 1254�1262.
Barlage, M., and X. Zeng, 2004: Impact of observed vegetation root distribution on
seasonal global simulations of land surface processes. J. Geophys. Res., 109,
D09101, doi:10.1029/2003JD003847.
Barnes, J.E., and D.J. Hoffman, 1997: Lidar measurements of stratospheric aerosol
over Mauna Loa Observatory. Geophys. Res. Lett., 24(15), 1923�1926.
Barnett, D.N., et al., 2006: Quantifying uncertainty in changes in extreme event
frequency in response to doubled CO2 using a large ensemble of GCM simulations.
Clim. Dyn., 26, 489�511.
Barnett, T.P., 1995: Monte Carlo climate forecasting. J. Clim., 8, 1005�1022.
Barnett, T.P., D.W. Pierce, and R. Schnur, 2001: Detection of anthropogenic
climate change in the world�s oceans. Science, 292, 270�274.
Barnett, T.P., et al., 1999: Detection and attribution of recent climate change: A
status report. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 80, 2631�2660.
Barnett, T.P., et al., 1999: Origins of midlatitude Pacific decadal variability.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 26, 1453�1456.
Barnett, T.P., et al., 2005: Penetration of a warming signal in the world�s
oceans: human impacts. Science, 309, 284�287.
Barnett, T.P., J.C. Adam, and D.P. Lettenmeier, 2005: Potential impacts of
awarming climate on water availability in snow-dominated regions. Nature,
438,303�309, doi:10.1038/nature04141.82511-825179.
Barnola, J.-M., D. Raynaud, Y.S. Korotkevich, and C. Lorius, 1987: Vostok ice core
provides 160,000-year record of atmospheric CO2. Nature, 329, 408�414.
Barnston, A.G., and P.T. Schickedanz, 1984: The effect of irrigation on warm
season precipitation in the southern Great Plains. J. Appl. Meteorol., 23,
865�888.
Barrows, T.T., and S. Juggins, 2005: Sea-surface temperatures around the
Australian margin and Indian Ocean during the Last Glacial Maximum. Quat. Sci.
Rev., 24, 1017�1047.
Bartholome, E., and A.S. Belward, 2005: GLC2000: a new approach to global land
cover mapping from Earth observation data. Int. J. Remote Sens., 26, 1959�1977.
Bartlett, M.G., D.S. Chapman, and R.N. Harris, 2004: Snow and the ground
temperature record of climate change. J. Geophys Res., 109, F04008,
doi:10.1029/2004JF000224.
Bartman, A.G., W.A. Landman, and C.J. de W. Ratenbach, 2003: Recalibration of
general circulation model output to Austral summer rainfall over Southern Africa.
Int. J. Climatol., 23, 1407�1419.
Bates, J.J., and D.L. Jackson, 2001: Trends in upper-tropospheric humidity.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 1695�1698.
Bates, N.R., A.C. Pequignet, R.J. Johnson, and N. Gruber, 2002: A short-term sink
for atmospheric CO2 in subtropical mode water of the North Atlantic Ocean. Nature,
420(6915), 489�493.
Bates, T.S., et al., 2006: Aerosol direct radiative effects over the northwest
Atlantic, northwest Pacific, and North Indian Oceans: estimates based on in situ
chemical and optical measurements and chemical transport modelling. Atmos. Chem.
Phys. Discuss., 6, 175�362.
Battle, M., et al., 1996: Atmospheric gas concentrations over the past century
measured in air from firn at the South Pole. Nature, 383(6597), 231�235.
Battle, M., et al., 2000: Global carbon sinks and their variability inferred from
atmospheric O2 and d13C. Science, 287(5462), 2467�2470.
Bauer, E., A. Ganopolski, and M. Montoya, 2004: Simulation of the cold climate
event 8200 years ago by meltwater outburst from Lake Agassiz. Paleoceanography,
19, PA3014, doi:10.1029/2004PA001030.
Bauer, E., M. Claussen, V. Brovkin, and A. Huenerbein, 2003: Assessing climate
forcings of the Earth system for the past millennium. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30(6),
1276.
Bauer, M., A.D. Del Genio, and J.R. Lanzante, 2002: Observed and simulated
temperature humidity relationships: sensitivity to sampling and analysis. J.
Clim., 15, 203�215.
Bauer, M., and A.D. Del Genio, 2006: Composite analysis of winter cyclones in a
GCM: Influence on climatological humidity. J. Clim., 19, 1652�1672. .
Bauer, S.E., and D. Koch, 2005: Impact of heterogeneous sulfate formation at
mineral dust surfaces on aerosol loads and radiative forcing in the Goddard
Institute for Space Studies general circulation model. J. Geophys. Res., 110,
D17202, doi:10.1029/2005JD005870.
Bauman, J.J., P.B. Russell, M.A. Geller, and P. Hamill, 2003: A stratospheric
aerosol climatology from SAGE II and CLAES measurements: 2. Results and
comparisons, 1984-1999. J. Geophys. Res., 108(D13), 4383,
doi:10.1029/2002JD002993.
Beaugrand, G., and P.C. Reid, 2003: Long-term changes in phytoplankton,
zooplankton and salmon related to climate. Global Change Biol., 9(6), 801�817.
Becker, A., and H. Bugmann (eds.), 1997: Predicting Global Change Impacts on
Mountain Hydrology and Ecology: Integrated Catchment Hydrology/Altitudinal
Gradient Studies. IGBP Report 43, International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme,
Stockholm.
Beckmann, B.R., and T.A. Buishand, 2002: Statistical downscaling relationship for
precipitation in the Netherlands and North Germany. Int. J. Climatol., 22, 15�32.
Beer, J., S. Tobias, and N. Weiss, 1998: An active sun throughout the Maunder
Minimum. Sol. Phys., 181(1), 237�249.
Beerling, D.J., 1999: New estimates of carbon transfer to terrestrial ecosystems
between the last glacial maximum and the Holocene. Terra Nova, 11(4), 162�167.
Beersma, J.J., and T.A. Buishand, 2003: Multi-site simulation of daily
precipitation and temperature conditional on atmospheric circulationClim. Res.,
25, 121�133.
Beheng, K.D., 1994: A parametrization of warm cloud microphysical conversion
process. Atmos. Res., 33, 193�206.
Beirle, S., et al., 2004: Estimate of nitrogen oxide emissions from shipping by
satellite remote sensing. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L18102,
doi:10.1029/2004GL020312.
Bekki, S., K. Law, and J. Pyle, 1994: Effect of ozone depletion on atmospheric CH4
and CO concentrations. Nature, 371, 595�597.
Belchansky, G. I., D.C. Douglas, V.A. Eremeev, and N.G. Platonov, 2005: Variations
in the Arctic�s multiyear sea ice cover: A neural network analysis of SMMR-SSM/I
data, 1979-2004. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L09605, doi:10.1029/2005GL022395.
Belkin, I.M., 2004: Propagation of the �Great Salinity Anomaly� of the 1990s
around the northern North. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L08306,
doi:10.1029/2003GL019334.
Bell, J.L., L.C. Sloan, and M.A. Snyder, 2004: Changes in extreme climatic events:
A future climate scenario. J. Clim., 17(1), 81�87.
Bell, T.L., M.-D. Chou, R.S. Lindzen, and A.Y. Hou, 2002: Comments on �Does the
Earth have an adaptive infrared iris?� Reply. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 83,
598�600.
Bellamy, P.H., et al., 2005: Carbon losses from all soils across England and Wales
1978�2003. Nature, 437, 245248.
Bellouin, N., O. Boucher, D. Tanr�, and O. Dubovik, 2003: Aerosol absorption over
the clear-sky oceans deduced from POLDER-1 and AERONET observations. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 30(14), 1748, doi:10.1029/2003GL017121.
Bellouin, N., O. Boucher, J. Haywood, and M.S. Reddy, 2005: Global estimates of
aerosol direct radiative forcing from satellite measurements. Nature, 438,
1138�1141.
Beltrami, H., 2002: Paleoclimate: Earth�s long-term memory. Science, 297(5579),
206�207.
Beltrami, H., and E. Bourlon, 2004: Ground warming patterns in the Northern
Hemisphere during the last five centuries. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 227(3�4),
169�177.
Beltrami, H., J.E. Smerdon, H.N. Pollack, and S. Huang, 2002: Continental heat
gain in the global climate system. Geophys. Res. Lett., 29,
doi:10.1029/2001GL014310.
Bender, M., et al., 1996: Variability in the O-2/N-2 ratio of southern hemisphere
air, 1991-1994: Implications for the carbon cycle. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 1,
9�21.
Benestad, R.E., 2002a: Empirically downscaled temperature scenarios for Northern
Europe based on a multi-model ensemble. Clim. Res., 21(2), 105�125.
Benestad, R.E., 2002b: Empirically downscaled multimodel ensemble temperature and
precipitation scenarios for Norway. J. Clim., 15, 3008�3027.
Benestad, R.E., 2004a: Tentative probabilistic temperature scenarios for Northern
Europe. Tellus, 56A(2), 89�101.
Benestad, R.E., 2004b: Empirical-statistical downscaling in climate modeling. Eos,
85(42),417.
Benestad, R.E., 2005: A review of the solar cycle length estimates. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 32, L15714, doi:10.1029/2005GL023621.
Benestad, R.E., 2005: Climate change scenarios for northern Europe from multi-
model IPCC AR4 climate simulations. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L17704,
doi:10.1029/2005GL023401.
Bengtsson, L., 1996: The climate response to the changing greenhouse gas
concentration in the atmosphere. In: Decadal Climate Variability, Dynamics And
Variability [][Anderson, D.L.T., and J. Willebrand(eds.)]]. NATO ASI Series 44,
Springer, Berlin, 493 pp.
Bengtsson, L., K.I. Hodges, and E. Roeckner, 2006: Storm tracks and climate
change. J. Clim., 19, 3518�3543.
Bengtsson, L.,V.A. Semenov, and O.M. Johannessen, 2004: The early twentieth-
century warming in the Arctic - a possible mechanism. J. Clim., 17, 4045�4057.
Bengtsson, L.K., I. Hodges, and E. Roeckner, 2006: Storm tracks and climate
change. J. Clim., 19, 3518�3543.
Beniston, M., 2004: The 2003 heat wave in Europe: A shape of things to come? An
analysis based on Swiss climatological data and model simulations. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 31, L02202.
Beniston, M., and P. Jungo, 2001: Shifts in the distributions of pressure,
temperature and moisture in the alpine region in response to the behavior of the
North Atlantic Oscillation. Theor. Appl. Climatol., 71, 29�42.
Beniston, M., et al., 2007: Future extreme events in European climate: An
exploration of regional climate model projections. Clim.
Change,doi:10.1007/s10584-006-9226-z.
Beniston, M., F. Keller, B. Koffi, and S. Goyette, 2003: Estimates of snow
accumulation and volume in the Swiss Alps under changing climatic conditions.
Theor. Appl. Climatol., 76, 125�140.
Benner R., et al., 1992: Bulk chemical characteristics of dissolved organic matter
in the ocean. Science, 255, 1561�1564.
Bergamaschi, P., et al., 2005: Inverse modelling of national and European CH4
emissions using the atmospheric zoom model TM5. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 5, 2431�2460.
Bergamaschi, P., M. Braeunlich, T. Marik, and C.A.M. Brenninkmeijer. 2000:
Measurements of the carbon and hydrogen isotopes of atmospheric methane at Izana,
Tenerife: Seasonal cycles and synoptic-scale variations. J. Geophys. Res., 105,
14531�14546.
Berger, A., 1977: Long-term variations of earth�s orbital elements. Celestial
Mechanics, 15(1), 53�74.
Berger, A., 1978: Long-term variations of caloric solar radiation resulting from
the earth�s orbital elements. Quat. Res., 9, 139�167.
Berger, A., 1988: Milankovitch theory and climate. Rev. Geophys., 26, 624�657.
Berger, A., and M.F. Loutre, 2002: An exceptionally long interglacial ahead?
Science, 297, 1287�1288.
Berger, A., M.F. Loutre, and H. Gall�e, 1998: Sensitivity of the LLN climate model
to the astronomical and CO2 forcings over the last 200 kyr. Clim. Dyn., 14,
615�629.
Berger, A.L., and M.F. Loutre, 1991: Insolation values for the climate of the last
10 million years. Quat. Sci. Rev., 10, 297�317.
Berger, A.L., and M.F. Loutre, 2002: An exceptionally long interglacial ahead?
Science, 297, 1287�1288.
Berger, A.L., and M.F. Loutre, 2003: Climate 400,000 years ago, a key to the
future? In: Earth�s Climate and Orbital Eccentricity [Droxler, A.W., R.Z. Poore,
and L.H. Burckle (eds.)]. American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, pp. 17�26.
Berggren, W.A., D.V. Kent, C.C.I. Swisher, and M.P. Aubry, 1995: Geochronology,
Time Scales and Global Stratigraphic Correlation [W.A. Berggren (ed)]. Special
Publication No. 54, Society for Sedimentary Geology, Tulsa, OK, 386 pp.
Bergstrom, R.W., P. Pilewskie, B. Schmid, and P.B. Russell, 2003: Estimates of the
spectral aerosol single scattering albedo and aerosol radiative effects during
SAFARI 2000. J. Geophys. Res., 108(D13), 8474, doi:10.1029/2002JD002435.
Berliner, L.M., R.A. Levine, and D.J. Shea, 2000: Bayesian climate change
assessment. J. Clim., 13, 3805�3820.
Berner, R.A., 1998: The carbon cycle and CO2 over Phanerozoic time: the role of
land plants. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London Ser. B, 353(1365), 75�81.
Berner, R.A., and Z. Kothavala, 2001: GEOCARB III: A revised model of atmospheric
CO2 over phanerozoic time. Am. J. Sci., 301(2), 182�204.
Berner, W., H. Oeschger, and B. Stauffer, 1980: Information on the CO2 cycle from
ice core studies. Radiocarbon, 22, 227�235.
Bernie, D., S.J. Woolnough, J.M. Slingo, and E. Guilyardi, 2005: Modelling diurnal
and intraseasonal variability of the ocean mixed layer. J. Clim., 15, 1190�1202.
Berntsen, T.K., et al., 2005: Climate response to regional emissions of ozone
precursors; sensitivities and warming potentials. Tellus, 4B, 283�304.
Berntsen, T.K., et al., 2006: Abatement of greenhouse gases: does location matter?
Clim. Change, 74, 377�411.
Berry, E.X., 1967: Cloud droplet growth by collection. J. Atmos. Sci., 24,
688�701.
Bersch, M., 2002: North Atlantic Oscillation-induced changes of the upper layer
circulation in the northern North Atlantic Ocean. J. Geophys. Res., 107(C10),
3156, doi:10.1029/JC000901.
Berson, A., and R. S�ring, 1901: Ein ballonaufstieg bis 10 500m. Illustrierte
Aeronautische Mitteilungen, Heft 4, 117�119.
Berthelot, M., et al., 2002: Global response of the terrestrial biosphere to CO2
and climate change using a coupled climate-carbon cycle model. Global Biogeochem.
Cycles, 16, 1084.
Bertler, N.A.N., P.J. Barrett, P.A. Mayewski, and R.L. Fogt, 2004: El Ni�o
suppresses Antarctic warming. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L15207,
doi:10.1029/2004GL020749.
Bertram, T.H., et al., 2005: Satellite measurements of daily variations in soil
NOx emissions. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L24812, doi:10.1029/2005GL024640.
Bertrand, C., J.P. Van Ypersele, and A. Berger, 2002: Are natural climate forcings
able to counteract the projected global warming. Clim. Change, 55, 413�427.
Bertrand, C., M.F. Loutre, and A. Berger, 2002a: High frequency variations of the
Earth�s orbital parameters and climate change. Geophys. Res. Lett., 29,
doi:10.1029/2002GL015622.
Bertrand, C., M.F. Loutre, M. Crucifix, and A. Berger, 2002b: Climate of the last
millennium: a sensitivity study. Tellus, 54A(3), 221�244.
Betts, A.K., 1998: Climate-convection feedbacks: ? Some further issues. Clim.Dyn.,
39(1), 35�38.
Betts, A.K., 2004: Understanding hydrometeorology using global models. Bull. Am.
Meteorol. Soc., 85, 1673�1688.
Betts, A.K., 2006: Radiative scaling of the nocturnal boundary layer and the
diurnal temperature range. J. Geophys. Res., 111, D07105,
doi:10.1029/2005JD006560.
Betts, A.K., J. Ball, and J. McCaughey, 2001: Near-surface climate in the boreal
forest. J. Geophys. Res., 106, 33529�33541.
Betts, R., et al., 2004: The role of ecosystem-atmosphere interactions in
simulated Amazonian precipitation decrease and forest dieback under global change
warming. Theor. Appl. Climatol., 78(1�3), 157�175.
Betts, R.A., 2000: Offset of the potential carbon sink from boreal forestation by
decreases in surface albedo. Nature, 408(6809), 187�189.
Betts, R.A., 2001: Biogeophysical impacts of land use on present-day climate:
near-surface temperature change and radiative forcing. Atmos. Sci. Lett., 2(1�4),
doi:1006/asle.2001.0023.
Betts, R.A., and M.J. Best, 2004: Relative impact of radiative forcing, landscape
effects and local heat sources on simulated climate change in urban areas. BETWIXT
Technical Briefing Note No. 6, Met Office, Exeter, UK, 15 pp.
Betts, R.A., et al., 2004: The role of ecosystem-atmosphere interactions in
simulated Amazonian precipitation decrease and forest dieback under global climate
warming. Theor. Appl. Climatol., 78, 157�175.
Betts, R.A., P.D. Falloon, K.K. Goldewijk, and N. Ramankutty, 2007: Biogeophysical
effects of land use on climate: model simulations of radiative forcing and large-
scale temperature change. Agric. For. Meteorol., 142, 216-233.
Betts, R.A., P.M. Cox, S.E. Lee, and F.I. Woodward, 1997: Contrasting
physiological and structural vegetation feedbacks in climate change simulations.
Nature, 387, 796�799.
Bey, I., et al., 2001: Global modeling of tropospheric chemistry with assimilated
meteorology: model description and evaluation. J. Geophys. Res., 106(D19),
23073�23096.
Bi, D.H., W.F. Budd, A.C. Hirst, and X.R. Wu, 2001: Collapse and reorganisation of
the Southern Ocean overturning under global warming in a coupled model. Geophys.
Res. Lett., 28, 3927�3930.
Bianchi, G., and I.N. McCave, 1999: Holocene periodicity in north Atlantic climate
and deep ocean flow south of Iceland. Nature, 397, 515�518.
Biasutti, M., and A. Giannini, 2006: Robust Sahel drying in response to late 20th
century forcings. Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L11706, doi:10.1029/2006GRL026067.
Biasutti, M., D.S. Battisti, and E.S. Sarachik, 2003: The annual cycle over the
tropical Atlantic, South America, and Africa. J. Clim., 16(15), 2491�2508.
Bigelow, N., et al., 2003: Climate change and Arctic ecosystems: 1. Vegetation
changes north of 55 degrees N between the last glacial maximum, mid-Holocene, and
present. J. Geophys. Res., 108, doi:10.1029/2002JD002558.
Bigelow, N.H., et al., 2003: Climate change and Arctic ecosystems: 1. Vegetation
changes north of 55 degrees N between the last glacial maximum, mid-Holocene, and
present. J. Geophys. Res., 108(D19), 8170, doi:10.1029/2002JD002558.
Bigg, E.K., C. Leck, and L. Tranvik, 2004: Particulates of the surface microlayer
of open water in the central Arctic Ocean in summer. Mar. Chem., 91(1�4), 131�141.
Bigler, M., et al., 2002: Sulphate record from a northeast Greenland ice core over
the last 1200 years based on continuous flow analysis. Ann.Glaciol., 35, 250�256.
Billups, K., J.E.T. Channell, and J. Zachos, 2002: Late Oligocene to early Miocene
geochronology and paleoceanography from the subantarctic South Atlantic.
Paleoceanography, 17(1), 1004, doi:10.1029/2000PA000568.
Bindoff, N.L., and T.J. McDougall, 2000: Decadal changes along an Indian Ocean
section at 32S and their interpretation. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 30(6), 1207�1222.
Bindschadler, R., 1998: Future of the West Antarctic ice sheet. Science, 282,
428�429.
Biner, S., D. Caya, R. Laprise and L. Spacek, 2000: Nesting of RCMs by imposing
large scales. In: Research Activities in Atmospheric and Oceanic Modelling. WMO/TD
No. 987, Report No. 30, World Meteorological Organization, Geneva, pp. 7.3�7.4.
Bingen, C., D. Fussen, and F. Vanhellemont, 2004: A global climatology of
stratospheric aerosol size distribution parameters derived from SAGE II data over
the period 1984-2000: 2. Reference data. J. Geophys. Res., 109, D06202,
doi:10.1029/2003JD003511.
Birchfield, G.E., H. Wang, and M. Wyant, 1990: A bimodal climate response
controlled by water vapor transport in a coupled ocean-atmosphere box model.
Paleoceanography, 5, 383�395.
Bird, M.I., J. Lloyd, and G.D. Farquhar, 1994: Terrestrial carbon storage at the
LGM. Nature, 371(6498), 566�566.
Birks, H.H., and B. Ammann, 2000: Two terrestrial records of rapid climatic change
during the glacial-Holocene transition (14,000-9,000 calendar years B.P.) from
Europe. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 97, 1390�1394.
Bitz, C.M., and G.H. Roe, 2004: A mechanism for the high rate of sea-ice thinning
in the Arctic Ocean. J. Clim., 18, 3622�3631.
Bitz, C.M., and W.H. Lipscomb, 1999: An energy-conserving thermodynamic sea ice
model for climate study. J. Geophys. Res., 104, 15669�15677.
Bitz, C.M., et al., 2006: The influence of sea ice on ocean heat uptake in
response to increasing CO2. J. Clim., 19, 2437�2450.
Bitz, C.M., G. Flato, and J. Fyfe, 2002: Sea ice response to wind forcing from
AMIP models. J. Clim., 15, 523�535.
Bitz, C.M., M.M., Holland, A.J. Weaver, and M. Eby, 2001: Simulating the ice-
thickness distribution in a coupled climate model. J. Geophys. Res., 106,
2441�2463.
Bj�rk, G., et al., 2002: Return of the cold halocline layer to the Amundsen Basin
of the Arctic Ocean: Implications for the sea ice mass balance. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 29(11), 1513, doi:10.1029/2001GL014157.
Bjerknes, J., 1964: Atlantic air-sea interaction. Adv. Geophys., 10, 1�82.
Bjerknes, J., 1969: Atmospheric teleconnections from the equatorial Pacific. Mon.
Weather Rev., 97, 163�172.
Black, E., et al., 2004: Factors contributing to the summer 2003 European
heatwave. Weather, 59, 217�223.
Blake, D., and F. Rowland, 1988: Continuing worldwide increase in tropospheric
methane, 1978 to 1987. Science, 239, 1129�1131.
Blake, D.R., et al., 1982: Global increase in atmospheric methane concentrations
between 1978 and 1980. Geophys. Res. Lett., 9, 477�480.
Blake, N.J., et al., 2001: Large-scale latitudinal and vertical distributions of
NMHCs and selected halocarbons in the troposphere over the Pacific Ocean during
the March-April 1999 Pacific Exploratory Mission (PEM-Tropics B). J. Geophys.
Res., 106, 32627�32644.
Blankenship, C.B., and T.T Wilheit, 2001: SSM/T-2 measurements of regional changes
in three-dimensional water vapour fields during ENSO events. J. Geophys. Res.,
106, 5239�5254.
Bleck, R., 2002: An oceanic general circulation model framed in hybrid isopycnic-
Cartesian coordinates. Ocean Modelling, 4, 55�88.
Bleck, R., C. Rooth, D. Hu, and L.T. Smith, 1992: Salinity-driven thermocline
transients in a wind- and thermohaline-forced isopycnic coordinate model of the
North Atlantic. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 22, 1486�1505.
Blenckner, T. and D. Chen, 2003: Comparison of the impact of regional and North-
Atlantic atmospheric circulation on an aquatic ecosystem. Clim. Res., 23, 131�136.
Blunier, T., and E.J. Brook, 2001: Timing of millennial-scale climate change in
Antarctica and Greenland during the last glacial period. Science, 291, 109�112.
Blunier, T., et al., 1993: Atmospheric methane record from a Greenland ice core
over the last 1000 years. Geophys. Res. Lett., 20(20), 2219�2222.
Blunier, T., et al., 1995: Variations in atmospheric methane concentration during
the Holocene epoch. Nature, 374(6517), 46�49.
Blunier, T., et al., 1998: Asynchrony of Antarctic and Greenland climate change
during the last glacial period. Nature, 394, 739�743.
Bluth, G.J.S., et al., 1992: Global tracking of the SO2 clouds from the June 1991
Mount Pinatubo eruptions. Geophys. Res. Lett., 19(2), 151�154,
doi:10.1029/91GL02792.
Bluth, G.J.S., W.I. Rose, I.E. Sprod, and A.J. Krueger, 1997: Stratospheric
loading of sulfur from explosive volcanic eruptions. J. Geol., 105, 671�683.
Boberg, F., and H. Lundstedt, 2002: Solar wind variations related to fluctuations
of the North Atlantic Oscillation. Geophys. Res. Lett., 29(15),
doi:10.1029/2002GL014903.
Bodeker, G.E., H. Shiona, and H. Eskes, 2005: Indicators of Antarctic ozone
depletion. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 5, 2603�2615.
Boer, G.J., and B. Yu, 2003a: Climate sensitivity and climate state. Clim. Dyn.,
21, 167�176.
Boer, G.J., and B. Yu, 2003b: Climate sensitivity and response. Clim. Dyn., 20,
415�429.
Boer, G.J., and B. Yu, 2003c: Dynamical aspects of climate sensitivity. Geophys.
Res. Lett., 30, 1135.
Boer, R., and A. Faqih, 2004: Current and Future Rainfall Variability in
Indonesia. AIACC Technical Report 021,
http://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/aiacc/progress/AS21_Jan04.pdf.
Boersma, K.F., H.J. Eskes, E.W. Meijer, and H.M. Keider, 2005: Estimates of
lightning NOx production from GOME satellite observations. Atmos. Chem. Phys.
Discussions, 5, 3047�3104.
Bogdanova, E.G, B.M. Ilyin, and I.V. Dragomilova, 2002: Application of a
comprehensive bias correction model to application of a comprehensive bias
correction model to stations. J. Hydrometeorol., 3, 700�713.
Bogner, J.E., R.L. Sass, and B.P. Walter, 2000: Model comparisons of methane
oxidation across a management gradient: Wetlands, rice production systems, and
landfill. Global Biogeochem. Cycles., 14, 1021�1033.
Bohaty, S.M., and J.C. Zachos, 2003: Significant Southern Ocean warming event in
the late middle Eocene. Geology, 31(11), 1017�1020.
Bojariu, R., and F. Giorgi, 2005: The North Atlantic Oscillation signal in a
regional climate simulation for the European region. Tellus, 57A(4), 641�653.
Bolin, B., and E. Eriksson, 1959: Changes in the carbon dioxide content of the
atmosphere and sea due to fossil fuel combustion. In: The Atmosphere and Sea in
Motion [Bolin, B. (ed.)]. Rossby Memorial Volume. Rockefeller Institute, New York,
NY, pp. 130�142.
Bonan, G.B., 1998: The land surface climatology of the NCAR land surface model
(LSM 1.0) coupled to the NCAR Community Climate Model (CCM3). J. Clim., 11,
1307�1326.
Bonan, G.B., 2001: Observational evidence for reduction of daily maximum
temperature by croplands in the midwest United States. J. Clim., 14, 2430�2442.
Bonan, G.B., et al., 2003: A dynamic global vegetation model for use with climate
models: concepts and description of simulated vegetation dynamics. Global Change
Biol., 9, 1543�1566.
Bonan, G.B., K.W. Oleson, M. Vertenstein, and S. Levis, 2002: The land surface
climatology of the Community Land Model coupled to the NCAR Community Climate
Model.�J. Clim., 15, 3123�3149.
Bond, G., et al., 1992: Evidence for massive discharges of icebergs into the
glacial Northern Atlantic. Nature, 360, 245�249.
Bond, G., et al., 1993: Correlations between climate records from North Atlantic
sediments and Greenland ice. Nature, 365, 143�147.
Bond, G., et al., 1997: A pervasive millennial-scale cycle in the North Atlantic
Holocene and glacial climates. Science, 278, 1257�1266.
Bond, G., et al., 2001: Persistent solar influence on North Atlantic climate
during the Holocene. Science, 294, 2130�2136.
Bond, T.C., 2001: Spectral dependence of visible light absorption by carbonaceous
particles emitted from coal combustion. Geophys. Res. Lett., 28(21), 4075�4078.
Bond, T.C., and H. Sun, 2005: Can reducing black carbon emissions counteract
global warming? Environ. Sci. Technol., 39, 5921�5926.
Bond, T.C., et al., 1999: Light absorption by primary particle emissions from a
lignite burning plant. Environ. Sci.Technol., 33, 3887�3891.
Bond, T.C., et al., 2004: A technology-based global inventory of black and organic
carbon emissions from combustion. J. Geophys. Res., 109, D14203,
doi:10.1029/2003JD003697.
Bond, W.J., G.F. Midgley, and F.I. Woodward, 2003: The importance of low
atmospheric CO2 and fire in promoting the spread of grasslands and savannas.
Global Change Biol., 9, 973�982.
Bony, S., and J.-L. Dufresne, 2005: Marine boundary layer clouds at the heart of
cloud feedback uncertainties in climate models. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L20806,
doi:10.1029/2005GL023851.
Bony, S., and K.A. Emanuel, 2001: A parameterization of the cloudiness associated
with cumulus convection: Evaluation using TOGA COARE data. J. Atmos. Sci., 58,
3158�3183.
Bony, S., and K.A. Emanuel, 2005: On the role of moist processes in tropical
intraseasonal variability: cloud-radiation and moisture-convection feedbacks. J.
Atmos. Sci., 62, 2770�2789.
Bony, S., et al., 2004: On dynamic and thermodynamic components of cloud changes.
Clim. Dyn., 22, 71�86.
Bony, S., et al., 2006: How well do we understand and evaluate climate change
feedback processes? J. Clim., 19, 3445�3482.
Bony, S., K.-M. Lau, and Y.C. Sud, 1997: Sea surface temperature and large-scale
circulation influences on tropical greenhouse effect and cloud radiative forcing.
J. Clim., 10, 2055�2077.
Boo, K.-O., W.-T. Kwon, and H.-J. Baek, 2006: Change of extreme events of
temperature and precipitation over Korea using regional projection of future
climate change. Geophys. Res. Lett., 33(1), L01701, doi:10.1029/2005GL023378.
Boo, K.-O., W.-T. Kwon, and J.-K. Kim, 2005: Vegetation changes in the regional
surface climate over East Asia due to global warming using BIOME4. Il Nuovo
Cimento, 27(4), 317�327.
Booij, M.J., 2002: Extreme daily precipitation in western Europe with climate
change at appropriate spatial scales. Int. J. Climatol., 22, 69�85.
Boone, A., et al., 2004: The Rhone-Aggregation land surface scheme intercomparison
project: An overview. J. Clim., 17, 187�208.
Boone, A., V. Masson, T. Meyers, and J. Noilhan, 2000: The influence of the
inclusion of soil freezing on simulations by a soil-vegetation-atmosphere transfer
scheme. J. Appl. Meteorol., 39(9), 1544�1569.
Booth, R.K., et al., 2005: A severe centennial-scale drought in mid-continental
North America 4200 years ago and apparent global linkages. The Holocene, 15,
321�328.
Bopp, L., et al., 2002: Climate-induced oceanic oxygen fluxes: Implications for
the contemporary carbon budget. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 16,
doi:10.1029/2001GB001445.
Bopp, L., et al., 2004: Will marine dimethyl sulfide emissions amplify or
alleviate global warming? A model study. Can. J. Fish Aquat. Sci., 61(5), 826�835.
Bopp, L., et al., 2005: Response of diatoms distribution to global warming and
potential implications � a global model study. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32(19),
L19606, doi:10.1029/2005GL023653.
Bopp, L., K.E. Kohlfeld, C. Le Qu�r�, and O.O. Aumont, 2002: Dust impact on marine
biota and atmospheric CO2 in glacial periods. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 66(15A),
A91, Suppl. 1, Aug. 2002.
Bordoni, S., et al., 2004: The low-level circulation of the North American Monsoon
as revealed by QuikSCAT. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L10109,
doi:10.1029/2004GL020009.
Borges, A.V., 2005: Do we have enough pieces of the jigsaw to integrate CO2 fluxes
in the coastal ocean? Estuaries, 28, 3�27.
Born, M., H. Dorr, and I. Levin, 1990: Methane consumption in aerated soils of the
temperate zone. Tellus , 42B, 2�8.
Bortz, S.E., and M.J. Prather, 2006: Ozone, water vapor, and temperature in the
upper tropical troposphere: Variations over a decade of MOZAIC Measurements. J.
Geophys. Res., 111, D05305, doi:10.1029/2005JD006512.
Bosilovich, M.G., S.D. Schubert, and G.K. Walker, 2005: Global changes of the
water cycle intensity. J. Clim., 18, 1591�1608.
Boucher, O., 1999: Air traffic may increase cirrus cloudiness. Nature, 397, 30�31.
Boucher, O., and D. Tanr�, 2000: Estimation of the aerosol perturbation to the
Earth�s radiative budget over oceans using POLDER satellite aerosol retrievals.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 27(8), 1103�1106.
Boucher, O., and J. Haywood, 2001: On summing the components of radiative forcing
of climate change. Clim. Dyn., 18, 297�302.
Boucher, O., and M. Pham, 2002: History of sulfate aerosol radiative forcings.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 29(9), 22�25.
Boucher, O., and U. Lohmann, 1995: The sulfate-CCN-cloud albedo effect: a
sensitivity study using two general circulation models. Tellus, 47B, 281�300.
Boucher, O., G. Myhre, and A. Myhre, 2004: Direct human influence of irrigation on
atmospheric water vapour and climate. Clim. Dyn., 22, 597�604.
Boucher, O., H. Le Treut, and M.B. Baker, 1995: Precipitation and radiation
modeling in a general circulation model: introduction of cloud microphysical
processes. J. Geophys. Res., 100(D8), 16395�16414.
Boulanger, J.P., F. Martinez, and E.C. Segura, 2006: Projection of future climate
change conditions using IPCC simulations, neural networks and Bayesian statistics.
Part 1: Temperature mean state and seasonal cycle in South America. Clim. Dyn.,
27, 233�259.
Bouligand, R., and P.A. Pirazzoli, 1999: Les surcotes et les d�cotes marines �
Brest, �tude statistique et �volution. Oceanol. Acta, 22(2), 153�166.
Bounoua, L., et al., 2002: Effects of land cover conversion on surface climate.
Clim. Change, 52, 29�64.
Bousquet, P., et al., 2000: Regional changes in carbon dioxide fluxes of land and
oceans since 1980. Science, 290(5495), 1342�1346.
Bousquet, P., et al., 2005: Two decades of OH variability as inferred by an
inversion of atmospheric transport and chemistry of methyl chloroform. Atmos.
Chem. Phys., 5, 1679�1731.
Bouwman, A.F., L.J.M. Boumans, and N.H. Batjes, 2001: Global Estimates of Gaseous
Emission of NH3, NO and N2O from Agricultural Land. Food and Agriculture
Organisation, Rome, 57 pp.
Bouwman, A.F., L.J.M. Boumans, and N.H. Batjes, 2002: Modeling global annual N2O
and NO emissions from fertilized fields. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 16(4), 1080,
doi:10.1029/2001GB001812.
Boville, B.A., and W.J. Randel, 1992: Equatorial waves in a stratospheric GCM:
Effects of resolution. J. Atmos. Sci., 49, 785�801.
Bowen, G.J., et al., 2002: Mammalian dispersal at the Paleocene/Eocene boundary.
Science, 295(5562), 2062�2065.
Bowen, G.J., et al., 2004: A humid climate state during the Palaeocene/Eocene
thermal maximum. Nature, 432(7016), 495�499.
Bower, K.N., et al., 1994: A parametrization of warm clouds for use in atmospheric
general circulation models. J. Atmos. Sci., 51, 2722�2732.
Bowling, L.C., et al., 2003: Simulation of high latitude hydrological processes in
the Torne-Kalix basin: PILPS Phase 2(e) 1: Experiment description and summary
intercomparisons. Global Planet. Change, 38, 1�30.
Box, J.E., et al., 2006: Greenland ice sheet surface mass balance variability
(1988-2004) from calibrated Polar MM5 output. J. Clim., 19, 2783�2800.
Boyd, P.W., et al., 2004: The decline and fate of an iron-induced subarctic
phytoplankton bloom. Nature, 428, 549�553.
Boyer, T.P., et al., 2002: World ocean database 2001, Volume 2: Temporal
distribution of bathythermograph profiles. In: NOAA Atlas NESDIS 43 [Levitus, S.
(ed.)]. Vol. 2. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 119 pp, CD-ROMs.
Boyer, T.P., et al., 2005: Linear trends in salinity for the World Ocean, 1955-
1998. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L01604.
Boyer, T.P., J.I. Antonov, S. Levitus, and R. Locarnini, 2005: Linear trends of
salinity for the world ocean, 1955-1998. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L01604,
doi:1029/2004GL021791.
Boyle, E.D., 1988: The role of vertical chemical fractionation in controlling late
quaternary atmospheric carbon dioxide. J. Geophys. Res., 93(C12), 15701�15714.
Boyle, J.S., et al., 2005: Diagnosis of Community Atmospheric Model 2 (CAM2) in
numerical weather forecast configuration at Atmospheric Radiation Measurement
(ARM) sites. J. Geophys. Res., 110, doi:10.1029/2004JD005042.
BP, 2006: Quantifying Energy: BP Statistical Review of World Energy June 2006. BP
p.l.c., London, 45 pp., http://www.bp.com/productlanding.do?
categoryId=6842&contentId=7021390.
Brabson, B.B., D.H. Lister, P.D. Jones, and J.P. Palutikof, 2005: Soil moisture
and predicted spells of extreme temperatures in Britain. J. Geophys. Res., 110,
D05104, doi:10.1029/2004JD005156.
Braconnot, P., et al., 2002: How the simulated change in monsoon at 6 ka BP is
related to the simulation of the modern climate: results from the Paleoclimate
Modeling Intercomparison Project. Clim. Dyn., 19(2), 107�121.
Braconnot, P., et al., 2004: Evaluation of PMIP coupled ocean-atmosphere
simulations of the Mid-Holocene. In: Past Climate Variability through Europe and
Africa, Vol. 6 [Battarbee, R.W., F. Gasse, and C.E. Stickley (eds)], Springer,
Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 515�534.
Braconnot, P., O. Marti, S. Joussaume, and Y. Leclaninche, 2000: Ocean feedbacks
in response to 6 kyr insolation. J. Clim., 13, 1537�1553.
Braconnot, P., S. Joussaume, O. Marti, and N. de Noblet, 1999: Synergistic
feedbacks from ocean and vegetation on the African monsoon response to mid-
Holocene insolation. Geophys. Res. Lett., 26, 2481�2484.
Bradford, D.F., 2001: Global change: time, money and tradeoffs. Nature, 410,
649�650, doi:10.1038/35070707.
Bradley, R.S., 1999: Climatic variability in sixteenth-century Europe and its
social dimension - Preface. Clim. Change, 43(1), 1�2.
Bradley, R.S., F.T. Keimig, and H.F. Diaz, 2004: Projected temperature changes
along the American cordillera and the planned GCOS network. Geophys. Res. Lett.,
31, L16210, doi:10.1029/2004GL020229.
Bradley, R.S., K.R. Briffa, J. Cole, and T.J. Osborn, 2003b: The climate of the
last millennium. In: Paleoclimate, Global Change and the Future [Alverson, K.D.,
R.S. Bradley, and T.F. Pedersen (eds.)]. Springer, Berlin, pp. 105�141.
Bradley, R.S., M.K. Hughes, and H.F. Diaz, 2003a: Climate in Medieval time.
Science, 302(5644), 404�405.
Braganza, K., et al., 2003: Simple indices of global climate variability and
change: Part I - Variability and correlation structure. Clim. Dyn., 20, 491�502.
Braganza, K., et al., 2004: Simple indices of global climate variability and
change: Part II - Attribution of climate change during the 20th century. Clim.
Dyn., 22, 823�838.
Braithwaite, R.J., and S.C.B. Raper, 2002: Glaciers and their contribution to sea
level change. Phys. Chem. Earth, 27, 1445�1454.
Braithwaite, R.J., Y. Zhang, and S.C.B. Raper, 2003: Temperature sensitivity of
the mass balance of mountain glaciers and ice caps as a climatological
characteristic. Z. Gletscherk. Glazialgeol., 38, 35�61.
Bralower, T.J., 2002: Evidence of surface water oligotrophy during the Paleocene-
Eocene thermal maximum: Nannofossil assemblage data from Ocean Drilling Program
Site 690, Maud Rise, Weddell Sea. Paleoceanography, 17(2), 1023,
doi:10.1029/2001PA000662.
Brandefelt, J., and E. K�ll�n, 2004: The response of the Southern Hemisphere
atmospheric circulation to an enhanced greenhouse gas forcing. J. Clim., 17,
4425�4442.
Brankart, J.M., and N. Pinardi, 2001: Abrupt cooling of the Mediterranean
Levantine Intermediate Water at the beginning of the 1980s: Observational evidence
and model simulation. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 31(8), 2307�2320.
Branstetter, M.L., 2001: Development of a Parallel River Transport Algorithm and
Application to Climate Studies. PhD Dissertation, University of Texas, Austin, TX.
Brasseur, G., 1993: The response of the middle atmosphere to long term and short
term solar variability: A two dimensional model. J. Geophys. Res., 28,
23079�23090.
Brasseur, G., and C. Granier, 1992: Mount Pinatubo aerosols, chlorofluorocarbons
and ozone depletion. Science, 257, 1239�1242.
Brasseur, G.P, and E. Roeckner, 2005: Impact of improved air quality on the future
evolution of climate. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L23704, doi:10.1029/2005GL023902.
Brasseur, G.P, et al., 2005: Impact of climate change on the future chemical
composition of the global troposphere. J. Clim., 19, 3932�3951
Brasseur, G.P., et al., 1998: Past and future changes in global tropospheric
ozone: impact on radiative forcing. Geophys. Res. Lett., 25(20), 3807�3810.
Brazdil, R., 1992: Reconstructions of past climate from historical sources in the
Czech lands. In: Climatic Variations and Forcing Mechanisms of the Last 2000 Years
[Jones, P.D., R.S. Bradley, and J. Jouzel (eds.)]. Springer Verlag, Berlin and
Heidelberg, 649 pp.
Brenguier, J.L., et al., 2000a: Radiative properties of boundary layer clouds:
droplet effective radius versus number concentration. J. Atmos. Sci., 57, 803�821.
Brenguier, J.L., et al., 2000b: An overview of the ACE-2 CLOUDYCOLUMN closure
experiment. Tellus, 52B, 815�827.
Brenguier, J.L., H. Pawlowska, and L. Schuller, 2003: Cloud microphysical and
radiative properties for parametrization and satellite monitoring of the indirect
effect of aerosol on climate. J. Geophys. Res., 108(D15), 8632,
doi:10.1029/2002JD002682.
Breshears, D.D., et al., 2005: Regional vegetation die-off in response to global-
change-type drought. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 102, 15144�15148.
Bretherton, C.S., and D.S. Battisti, 2000: An interpretation of the results from
atmosphericgeneral circulation models forced by the time history of the observed
sea surface temperaturedistribution. Geophys. Res. Lett., 27, 767�770.
Brewer, P.G., et al., 1983: A climatic freshening of the deep North Atlantic
(north of 50� N) over the past 20 years. Science, 222, 1237�1239.
Briegleb, B.P., et al., 2004: Scientific Description of the Sea Ice Component in
the Community Climate System Model, Version Three. Technical Note TN-463STR, NTIS
#PB2004-106574, National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, CO, 75 pp.
Briffa, K.R., 2000: Annual climate variability in the Holocene: interpreting the
message of ancient trees. Quat. Sci. Rev., 19(1�5), 87�105.
Briffa, K.R., and T.J. Osborn, 1999: Perspectives: Climate warming - Seeing the
wood from the trees. Science, 284(5416), 926�927.
Briffa, K.R., and T.J. Osborn, 2002: Paleoclimate - Blowing hot and cold. Science,
295(5563), 2227�2228.
Briffa, K.R., et al., 2001: Low-frequency temperature variations from a northern
tree ring density network. J. Geophys. Res., 106(D3), 2929�2941.
Briffa, K.R., T.J. Osborn, and F.H. Schweingruber, 2004: Large-scale temperature
inferences from tree rings: a review. Global Planet. Change, 40(1�2), 11�26.
Brigham-Grette, J., and D.M. Hopkins, 1995: Emergent marine record and
paleoclimate of the last interglaciation along the northwest Alaskan coast. Quat.
Res., 43, 159�173.
Broccoli, A.J., et al., 2003: Twentieth-century temperature and precipitation
trends in ensemble climate simulations including natural and anthropogenic
forcing. J. Geophys. Res., 108(D24), 4798.
Broccoli, A.J., N.-C. Lau, and M.J. Nath, 1998: The cold ocean-warm land pattern:
Model simulation and relevance to climate change detection. J. Clim., 11,
2743�2763.
Brock, C.A., et al., 2004: Particle characteristics following cloud-modified
transport from Asia to North America. J. Geophys. Res., 109, 1�17.
Broecker, W.S., 1991: Keeping global change honest. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 5,
191�195.
Broecker, W.S., 1997: Thermohaline circulation, the Achilles heel of our climate
system: will man-made CO2 upset the current balance? Science, 278, 1582�1588.
Broecker, W.S., and E. Clark, 2003: Holocene atmospheric CO2 increase as viewed
from the seafloor. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 17(2), doi:10.1029/2002GB001985.
Broecker, W.S., and G.H. Denton, 1989: The role of ocean-atmosphere
reorganizations in glacial cycles. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 53, 2465�2501.
Broecker, W.S., and G.M. Henderson, 1998: The sequence of events surrounding
Termination II and their implications for the cause of glacial-interglacial CO2
changes. Paleoceanography, 13, 352�364.
Broecker, W.S., and T.-H. Peng, 1982: Tracers in the Sea. ELDIGIO Press, New York,
NY, 689 pp.
Broecker, W.S., and T.-H. Peng, 1986: Carbon cycle: 1985 � glacial to interglacial
changes in the operation of the global carbon cycle. Radiocarbon, 28, 309�327.
Broecker, W.S., and T. Takahashi, 1978: Neutralization of fossil fuel CO2 by
marine calcium carbonate. In: The Fate of Fossil Fuel CO2 in the Ocean [Andersen,
N.R., and A. Malahoff (eds.)]. Plenum Press, New York, NY, pp. 213�248.
Broerse, A.T.C., et al., 2003: The cause of bright waters in the Bering Sea in
winter. Continental Shelf Res., 23, 1579�1596.
Brogniez, H., R. Roca, and L. Picon, 2005: Evaluation of the distribution of
subtropical free tropospheric humidity in AMIP-2 simulations using METEOSAT water
vapour channel data. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L19708, doi:10.1029/2005GL024341.
Brohan, P., et al., 2006: Uncertainty estimates in regional and global observed
temperature changes: a new dataset from 1850. J. Geophys. Res., 111, D12106,
doi:10.1029/2005JD006548.
Broll, G., C. Tarnocai, and J. Gould, 2003: Long-term high Arctic ecosystem
monitoring in Quttinirpaaq National Park, Ellesmere Island, Canada. In:
Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Permafrost, 21-25 July 2003,
Zurich, Switzerland [Phillips, M., S.M. Springman, and L.U. Arenson (eds.)]. A.A.
Balkema, Lisse, the Netherlands, pp. 89�94.
Bromirski, P.D., R.E. Flick, and D.R. Cayan, 2003: Storminess variability along
the California coast: 1858-2000. J. Clim., 16, 982�993.
Bromwich, D.H., A.J. Monaghan, and Z. Guo, 2004a: Modeling the ENSO modulation of
Antarctic climate in the late 1990s with the PolarMM5. J. Clim., 17, 109�132.
Bromwich, D.H., A.J. Monaghan, K.W. Manning, and J.G. Powers, 2004b: Real-time
forecasting for the Antarctic: An evaluation of the Antarctic Mesoscale Prediction
System (AMPS). Mon. Weather Rev., 133, 579�603.
Bromwich, D.H., and R.L. Fogt, 2004: Strong trends in the skill of the ERA-40 and
NCEP/NCAR Reanalyses in the high and middle latitudes of the Southern Hemisphere,
1958-2001. J. Clim., 17, 4603�4619.
Bromwich, D.H., et al., 2000: ECMWF analyses and reanalyses depiction of ENSO
signal in Antarctic precipitation. J. Clim., 13, 1406�1420.
Brook, E.J., et al., 2000: On the origin and timing of rapid changes in
atmospheric methane during the last glacial period. Global Biogeochem. Cycles,
14(2), 559�572.
Brooks, C.E.P., 1922: The Evolution of Climate. [Preface by Simpson, G.C.] Benn
Brothers, London, 173 pp.
Brooks, K., et al., 2005: Late-Quaternary lowstands of Lake Bosumtwi, Ghana:
evidence from high-resolution seismic-reflection and sediment-core data.
Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol., 216(3�4), 235�249.
Brovkin, V., et al., 1999: Modelling climate response to historical land cover
change. Global EcolBBiogeogr., 8, 509�517.
Brovkin, V., et al., 2002: Carbon cycle, vegetation and climatic dynamics in the
Holocene: Experiments with the CLIMBER-2 model. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 16,
1139, doi:10.1029/2001GB001662.
Brovkin, V.M., et al., 2004. Role of land cover changes for atmospheric CO2
increase and climate change during the last 150 years. Global Change Biol., 10,
1253�1266.
Brovkin, V.M., et al., 2006: Biogeophysical effects of historical land cover
changes simulated by six earth system models of intermediate complexity. Clim.
Dyn., 26(6), 587�600.
Brown, J., K.M. Hinkel, and F.E. Nelson, 2000: The Circumpolar Active Layer
Monitoring (CALM) program: research design and initial results. Polar Geogr.,
24(3), 166�258.
Brown, R.D., 2000: Northern hemisphere snow cover variability and change, 1915-97.
J. Clim., 13, 2339�2355.
Brown, R.D., and P. Cot�, 1992: Interannual variability of landfast ice thickness
in the Canadian high Arctic, 1950-1989. Arctic, 45, 273�284.
Brown, S., and A.E. Lugo, 1982: The storage and production of organic-matter in
tropical forests and their role in the global carbon-cycle. Biotropica, 14(3),
161�187.
Brown, T.J., B.L. Hall, and A.L. Westerling, 2004: The impact of twenty-first
century climate change on wildland fire danger in the western United States: an
applications perspective. Clim. Change, 62, 365�388.
Bryan, F., 1986: High-latitude salinity effects and interhemispheric thermohaline
circulations. Nature, 323, 301�304.
Bryan, F.O., et al., 2006: Response of the North Atlantic thermohaline circulation
and ventilation to increasing carbon dioxide in CCSM3. J. Clim., 19, 2382�2397.
Bryan, K., 1969: A numerical method for the study of the circulation of the world
ocean. J. Comput. Phys., 4, 347�376.
Bryan, K., and M.J. Spelman, 1985: The ocean�s response to a CO2-induced warming.
J. Geophys. Res., 90, 679�688.
Bryan, K., S. Manabe, and R.C. Pacanowski, 1975: A global ocean-atmosphere climate
model. Part II. The oceanic circulation. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 5, 30�46.
Bryden, H.L., E.L. McDonagh, and B.A. King, 2003: Changes in ocean water mass
properties: Oscillations or trends? Science, 300, 2086�2088.
Bryden, H.L., et al., 1996: Decadal changes in water mass characteristics at 24
degrees N in the subtropical North Atlantic Ocean. J. Clim., 9(12), 3162�3186.
Bryden, H.L., H.R. Longworth, and S.A. Cunningham, 2005: Slowing of the Atlantic
meridional overturning circulation at 25�N. Nature, 438, 655�657,
doi:10.1038/nature04385.
Bryson, R.A., and G.J. Dittberner, 1976: A non-equilibrium model of hemispheric
mean surface temperature. J. Atmos. Sci., 33, 2094�2106.
Bryson, R.A., and G.J. Dittberner, 1977: Reply. J. Atmos. Sci., 34, 1821�1824.
Br�on, F-M., and M. Doutriaux-Boucher, 2005: A comparison of cloud droplet radii
measured from space. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens., 43, 1796�1805,
doi:10.1109/TGRS.2005.852838.
Br�on, F.-M., D. Tanr�, and S. Generoso, 2002: Aerosol effect on cloud droplet
size monitored from satellite. Science, 295, 834�838.
Br�uning, A., and B. Mantwill, 2004: Summer temperature and summer monsoon history
on the Tibetan plateau during the last 400 years recorded by tree rings. Geophys.
Res. Lett., 31(24), L24205, doi:10.1029/2004GL020793.
Buddemeier, R.W., J.A. Kleypas, and R.B. Aronson, 2004: Coral Reefs and Global
Climate Change. Pew Centre on Global Climate Change, Arlington, VA, 44 pp.
Budyko, M.I., 1969: The effect of solar radiation variations on the climate of the
Earth. Tellus, 21, 611�619.
Buffett, B., and D. Archer, 2004: Global inventory of methane clathrate:
sensitivity to changes in the deep ocean. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 227, 185�199.
Bugnion, V., and P.H. Stone, 2002: Snowpack model estimates of the mass balance of
the Greenland ice sheet and its changes over the twenty-first century. Clim. Dyn.,
20, 87�106.
Buishand, T.A., M.V. Shabalova, and T. Brandsma, 2004: On the choice of the
temporal aggregation level for statistical downscaling of precipitation. J. Clim.,
17, 1816�1827.
Buizza, R., M. Miller, and T.N. Palmer, 1999: Stochastic representation of model
uncertainties in the ECMWF ensemble prediction system. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc.,
125, 2887�2908.
Burger, G., and U. Cubasch, 2005: Are multiproxy climate reconstructions robust?
Geophys. Res. Lett., 32(23), doi:10.1029/2005GL024155.
Burke, E.J., S.J. Brown, and N. Christidis, 2006: Modelling the recent evolution
of global drought and projections for the twenty-first century with the Hadley
Centre climate model. J. Hydrometeorol., 7, 1113�1125.
Burkhardt, S., I. Zondervan, and U. Riebesell, 1999: Effect of CO2 concentration
on C:N:P ratio in marine phytoplankton: a species comparison. Limnol. Oceanogr.,
44(3), 683�690.
Burrows, W.H., et al., 2002: Growth and carbon stock change in eucalypt woodlands
in northeast Australia: ecological and greenhouse sink implications. Global Change
Biol., 8, 769�784.
Busuioc, A., and H. von Storch, 2003: Conditional stochastic model for generating
daily precipitation time series. Clim. Res., 24, 181�195.
Busuioc, A., D. Chen, and C. Hellstr�m, 2001: Performance of statistical
downscaling models in GCM validation and regional climate change estimates:
application for Swedish precipitation. IntJ. Climatol., 21(5), 557�578.
Busuioc, A., F. Giorgi, X. Bi, and M. Ionita, 2006: Comparison of regional climate
model and statistical downscaling simulations of different winter precipitation
change scenarios over Romania. Theor. Appl. Climatol.,86, 101�120.
Butchart, N., and A.A. Scaife, 2001: Removal of chlorofluorocarbons by increased
mass exchange between the stratosphere and troposphere in a changing climate.
Nature, 410, 799�802.
Butchart, N., et al., 2006: Simulations of anthropogenic change in the strength of
the Brewer�Dobson circulation. Clim. Dyn., 27, doi:10.1007/s00382-006-0162-4.
Butler, T.M., I. Simmonds, and P.J. Rayner, 2004: Mass balance inverse modeling of
methane in the 1990s using a chemistry transport model. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 4,
2561�2580.
Buys Ballot, C.H.D., 1872: Suggestions on a Uniform System of Meteorological
Observations. Publication No. 37, Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute,
Utrecht, 56 pp.
Cabanes, C., A. Cazenave, and C. Le Provost, 2001: Sea level change from Topex-
Poseidon altimetry for 1993-1999 and possible warming of the southern oceans.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 28(1), 9�12.
Caesar, J., L. Alexander, and R. Vose, 2006: Large-scale changes in observed daily
maximum and minimum temperatures, 1946-2000. J. Geophys. Res., 111, D05101,
doi:10.1029/2005JD006280.
Cai, M., 2005: Dynamical amplification of polar warming. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32,
L22710, doi:10.1029/2005GL024481.
Cai, W., 2006: Antarctic ozone depletion causes an intensification of the Southern
Ocean super-gyre circulation. Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, doi:1029/2005GL024911.
Cai, W., et al., 2003b: Climate Change in Queensland under Enhanced Greenhouse
Conditions. Annual Report, 2003. CSIRO Atmospheric Research, Aspendale, Vic., 74
pp, http://www.longpaddock.qld.gov.au/ClimateChanges/pub/CSIRO2003.html#end.
Cai, W., P.H. Whetton, and D.J. Karoly, 2003a: The response of the Antarctic
Oscillation to increasing and stabilized atmospheric CO2. J. Clim., 16, 1525�1538.
Cai, W.J., and P.H. Whetton, 2000: Evidence for a time-varying pattern of
greenhouse warming in the Pacific Ocean. Geophys. Res. Lett., 27(16), 2577�2580.
Cai, W.J., P.H. Whetton, and D.J. Karoly, 2003: The response of the Antarctic
Oscillation to increasing and stabilized atmospheric CO2. J. Clim., 16, 1525�1538.
Caillon, N., et al., 2003: Timing of atmospheric CO2 and Antarctic temperature
changes across Termination III. Science, 299, 1728�1731.
Caires, S., V.R. Swail, and X.L. Wang, 2006: Projection and analysis of extreme
wave climate. J. Clim., 19, 5581�5605.
Cakmur, R.V., et al., 2006: Constraining the magnitude of the global dust cycle by
minimizing the difference between a model and observations. J. Geophys. Res., 111,
doi:10.1029/2005JD005791.
Caldeira, K., and M.E. Wickett, 2003: Anthropogenic carbon and ocean pH. Nature,
425(6956), 365�368.
Callendar, G.S., 1938: The artificial production of carbon dioxide and its
influence on temperature. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 64, 223�237.
Callendar, G.S., 1961: Temperature fluctuations and trends over the Earth. Q. J.
R. Meteorol. Soc., 87, 1�12.
Calov, R., A. Ganopolski, V. Petoukhov, and M. Claussen, 2002: Large-scale
instabilities of the Laurentide ice sheet simulated in a fully coupled climate-
system model. Geophys. Res. Lett., 29, 2216, doi:10.1029/2002GL016078.
Calov, R., et al., 2002: Large-scale instabilities of the Laurentide ice sheet
simulated in a fully coupled climate-system model. Geophys. Res. Lett., 29(24),
2216, doi:10.1029/2002GL016078.
Calov, R., et al., 2005: Transient simulation of the last glacial inception. Part
II: Sensitivity and feedback analysis. Clim. Dyn., 24, 563�576.
Camargo, S., A.G. Barnston, and S.E. Zebiak, 2005: A statistical assessment of
tropical cyclone activity in atmospheric general circulation models. Tellus, 57A,
589�604.
Camberlin, P., F. Chauvin, H. Douville, and Y. Zhao, 2004: Simulated ENSO-tropical
rainfall teleconnections in present-day and under enhanced greenhouse gases
conditions. Clim. Dyn., 23, 641�657.
Caminade, C., L. Teray, and E. Maisonnave, 2006: West African monsoon system
response to greenhouse gase and sulphate aerosol forcing under two emission
scenarios. Clim. Dyn., 26, 531�547.
Campbell, J.R., et al., 2003: Micropulse Lidar observations of tropospheric
aerosols over northeastern South Africa during the ARREX and SAFARI-2000 dry
season experiments. J. Geophys. Res., 108(D13), 8497, doi:10.1029/2002JD002563.
Cane, M., et al., 2006: Progress in paleoclimate modeling. J. Clim., 19,
5031�5057.
Cane, M.A., 2005: The evolution of El Ni�o, past and future. Earth Planet. Sci.
Lett., 230(3�4), 227�240.
Cane, M.A., S.C. Dolan, and S.E. Zebiak, 1986: Experimental forecasts of the El
Ni�o. Nature, 321, 827�832.
Cannon, A., and P. Whitfield, 2002: Downscaling recent streamflow conditions in
British Columbia, Canada using ensemble neural network models. J. Hydrol.,
259(1�4), 136�151.
Cao, M., K. Gregson, and S. Marshall, 1998: Global methane emission from wetlands
and its sensitivity to climate change. Atmos. Environ., 32, 3291�3299.
CAPE Last Interglacial Project Members, 2006: Last Interglacial Arctic warmth
confirms polar amplification of climate change. Quat. Sci. Rev., 25(13�14),
1383�1400.
Carleton, A.M., 2003: Atmospheric teleconnections involving the Southern Ocean. J.
Geophys. Res., 108, 8080, doi:10.1029/2000JC000379.
Carmack, E.C., et al., 1995: Evidence for warming of Atlantic Water in the
southern Canadian Basin of the Arctic-Ocean - Results from the Larsen-93
Expedition. Geophys. Res. Lett., 22(9), 1061�1064.
Carnell, R., and C. Senior, 1998: Changes in mid-latitude variability due to
increasing greenhouse gases and sulphate aerosols. Clim. Dyn., 14, 369�383.
Carpenter, L.J., 2003: Iodine in the marine boundary layer. Chem. Rev., 103,
4953�4962.
Carrasco, J.F., G. Casassa, and J. Quintana, 2005: Changes of the 0�C isotherm and
the equilibrium line altitude in central Chile during the last quarter of the XXth
century. Hydrolog. Sci. J., 50, 933�948.
Carril, A.F., C.G. Men�ndez, and A. Navarra, 2005: Climate response associated
with the Southern Annular Mode in the surroundings of Antarctic Peninsula: A
multimodel ensemble analysis. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L16713,
doi:10.1029/2005GL023581.
Carslaw, K.S., R.G. Harrison, and J. Kirkby, 2002: Atmospheric science: Cosmic
rays, clouds, and climate. Science, 298, 1732�1737.
Carton, J., B. Giese, and S. Grodsky, 2005: Sea level rise and the warming of the
oceans in the Simple Ocean Data Assimilation (SODA) ocean reanalysis. J. Geophys.
Res., 110, C09006, doi:1029/2004JC002817.
Cassano, J.J., P. Uotila, and A. Lynch, 2006: Changes in synoptic weather patterns
in the polar regions in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, Part 1: Arctic.
Int. J. Climatol., 26, 1027�1049.
Cassou, C., L. Terray, J.W. Hurrell, and C. Deser, 2004: North Atlantic winter
climate regimes: Spatial asymmetry, stationarity with time, and oceanic forcing.
J. Clim., 17, 1055�1068.
Castanheira, J.M., and H.-F. Graf, 2003: North Pacific�North Atlantic
relationships under stratospheric control? J. Geophys. Res., 108, 4036,
doi:10.1029/2002JD002754.
Castellano, E., et al., 2005: Holocene volcanic history as recorded in the sulfate
stratigraphy of the European Project for Ice Coring in Antarctica Dome C (EDC96)
ice core. J. Geophys. Res., 110, D06114, doi:10.1029/2004JD005259.
Cattle, H., and J. Crossley, 1995:�Modelling Arctic climate change.�Philos. Trans.
R. Soc. London Ser. A, 352, 201�213.
Cavalieri, D.J., 1992: The validation of geophysical products using multisensor
data. In: Microwave Remote Sensing of Sea Ice [Carsey, F.D. (ed.)]. Geophysical
Monograph 68, American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, pp 233�242.
Caya, D., and S. Biner, 2004: Internal variability of RCM simulations over an
annual cycle. Clim. Dyn., 22, 33�46.
Cayan, D.R., et al., 2001: Changes in the onset of spring in the western United
States. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 82, 399�415.
Cazenave, A., and R.S. Nerem, 2004: Present-day sea level change: observations and
causes. Rev. Geophys., 42(3), RG3001, doi:10.1029/2003RG000139.
Cazes Boezio, G., A.W. Robertson, and C.R. Mechoso, 2003: Seasonal dependence of
ENSO teleconnections over South America and relationships with precipitation in
Uruguay. J. Clim., 16(8), 1159�1176.
Cerling, T.E., 1991: Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere: Evidence from Cenozoic and
Mesozoic paleosols. Am. J. Sci., 291, 377�400.
Cess, R.D., 1975: Global climate change: an investigation of atmospheric feedback
mechanisms. Tellus, 27, 193�198.
Cess, R.D., et al., 1989: Interpretation of cloud-climate feedback as produced by
14 atmospheric general circulation models. Science, 245, 513�516.
Chaboureau, J.P., F. Guichard, J.L. Redelsperger, and J.P. Lafore, 2004: The role
of stability and moisture in the diurnal cycle of convection over land. Q. J. R.
Meteorol. Soc., 130, 3105�3117.
Chadwick, O.A., et al., 1999: Changing sources of nutrients during four million
years of ecosystem development. Nature, 397(6719), 491.
Chagnon, F.J.F., R.L. Bras, and J. Wang, 2004: Climatic shift in patterns of
shallow clouds over the Amazon. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31(24), L24212,
doi:10.1029/2004GL021188.
Chamberlain, T.C., 1906: On a possible reversal of deep-sea circulation and its
influence on geologic climates. J. Geol., 14, 371�372.
Chambers, D., J.C. Ries, C.K. Shum, and B.D. Tapley, 1998: On the use of tide
gauges to determine altimeter drift. J. Geophys. Res., 103(C6), 12885�12890.
Chambers, D.P., et al., 2002: Low-frequency variations in global mean sea level:
1950-2000. J. Geophys. Res., 107(C4), doi:10.1029/2001JC001089.
Chambers, J.Q., and S.E. Trumbore, 1999: An age-old problem. Trends Plant Sci.,
4(10), 385�386.
Chambers, J.Q., and W.L. Silver, 2004: Some aspects of ecophysiological and
biogeochemical responses of tropical forests to atmospheric change. Philos. Trans.
R. Soc. London Ser. B, 359(1443), 463�476.
Chambers, L.H., B. Lin, and D.F. Young, 2002: Examination of new CERES data for
evidence of tropical Iris feedback. J. Clim., 15, 3719�3726.
Chan, J.C.L., 2006: Comment on �Changes in tropical cyclone number, duration, and
intensity in a warming environment�. Science, 311, 1713.
Chan, J.C.L., and K.S. Liu, 2004: Global warming and western North Pacific typhoon
activity from an observational perspective. J. Clim., 17, 4590�4602.
Chan, W.L., and T. Motoi, 2005: Response of thermohaline circulation and thermal
structure to removal of ice sheets and high atmospheric CO2 concentration.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L07601, doi:10.1029/2004GL021951.
Chance, K., et al., 2000: Satellite observations of formaldehyde over North
America from GOME. Geophys. Res. Lett., 27, 3461�3464.
Chandler, M.A., D. Rind, and R.S. Thompson, 1994: Joint investigations of the
middle Pliocene climate II: GISS GCM Northern Hemisphere results. Global Planet.
Change, 9, 197�219.
Chang, F.-L., and Z. Li, 2005: A comparison of the global surveys of high, mid and
low clouds from satellite and general circulation models. In: Proceedings of the
Fifteenth Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) Science Team Meeting, Daytona
Beach, Florida, 14�18 March 2005. Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Program, US
Department of Energy, Washington, DC,
http://www.arm.gov/publications/proceedings/conf15/
Chao, B., 1994: Man-made lakes and global sea level. Nature, 370, 258.
Chapin, F.S. III, et al., 2005: Role of land-surface changes in arctic summer
warming. Science, 310, 657�660.
Chapman, D.S., M.G. Bartlett, and R.N. Harris, 2004: Comment on �Ground vs.
surface air temperature trends: Implications for borehole surface temperature
reconstructions� by M. E. Mann and G. Schmidt. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31(7), L07205,
doi:10.1029/2003GL019054.
Chapman, G.A., A.M. Cookson, and J.J. Dobias, 1996: Variations in total solar
irradiance during solar cycle 22. J. Geophys. Res., 101, 13541�13548.
Chapman, S.J., and M. Thurlow, 1996: The influence of climate on CO2 and CH4
emissions from organic soils. J. ?Agric. For. Meteorol., 79, 205�217.
Chapman, W.L., and J.E. Walsh, 2006: A synthesis of Antarctic temperatures. J.
Clim., 26, 1181�2119, doi:10.1002/joc.1305.
Chapman, W.L., and J.E. Walsh, 2007: Simulations of Arctic temperature and
pressure by global coupled models. J. Clim., 20, 609-632, doi: 10.1175/JCLI4026.1.
Chappellaz, J., et al., 1997: Changes in the atmospheric CH4 gradient between
Greenland and Antarctica during the Holocene. J. Geophys. Res., 102(D13),
15987�15997.
Chappellaz, J.A., I.Y. Fung, and A.M. Thompson, 1993: The atmospheric CH4 increase
since the last glacial maximum. Tellus, B45(3), 228�241.
Charles, C.D., D.E. Hunter, and R.G. Fairbanks, 1997: Interaction between the ENSO
and the Asian monsoon in a coral record of tropical climate. Science, 277(5328),
925�928.
Charles, S.P., B.C. Bates, I.N. Smith, and J.P. Hughes, 2004: Statistical
downscaling of daily precipitation from observed and modelled atmospheric fields.
HydrologProcess., 18(8), 1373�1394.
Charlson, R.J., J. Langner, and H. Rodhe, 1990: Sulfur, aerosol, and climate.
Nature, 22, 348.
Charney, J.G., et al., 1979: Carbon Dioxide and Climate: A Scientific Assessment.
National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC, 22 pp.
Chase, T.N., et al., 2000: Simulated impacts of historical land cover changes on
global climate in northern winter. Clim. Dyn., 16, 93�105.
Chase, T.N., J.A. Knaff, R.A. Pielke, and E. Kalnay, 2003: Changes in global
monsoon circulations since 1950. Natural Hazards, 29, 229�254.
Chauvin, F., J.-F. Royer, and M. D�qu�, 2006: Response of hurricane-type vortices
to global warming as simulated by ARPEGE-Climat at high resolution. Clim. Dyn.,
27, 377�399.
Chave, J., et al., 2003: Spatial and temporal variation of biomass in a tropical
forest: results from a large census plot in Panama. J. Ecol., 91, 240�252.
Chavez, F.P., J. Ryan, S.E. Lluch-Cota, and M. Niquen, 2003: From anchovies to
sardines and back: Multidecadal change in the Pacific Ocean. Science, 299(5604),
217�221.
Chelton, B., et al., 2001: Satellite altimetry. In: Satellite Altimetry and Earth
Sciences: A Handbook of Techniques and Applications [Fu, L.-L., and A. Cazenave
(eds.)]. Academic Press, San Diego, pp. 1�131.
Chen, A.A., and M.A. Taylor, 2002: Investigating the link between early season
Caribbean rainfall and the El Ni�o +1 yearInt. J. Climatol., 22, 87�106.
Chen, C.-T.A., K.-K. Liu, and R. MacDonald, 2003: Continental margin exchanges.
In: Ocean Biogeochemistry [Fasham, M.J.R. (ed.)]. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp.
53�97.
Chen, D., S.E. Zebiak, A.J. Busalacchi, and M.A. Cane, 1995: An improved procedure
for El Ni�o forecasting. Science, 269, 1699�1702.
Chen, D.L., and Y.M. Chen, 2003: Association between winter temperature in China
and upper air circulation over East Asia revealed by canonical correlation
analysis. Global Planet. Change, 37, 315�325.
Chen, J., B.E. Carlson, and A.D. Del Genio, 2002: Evidence for strengthening of
the tropical general circulation in the 1990s. Science, 295, 838�841.
Chen, M., D. Pollard, and E.J. Barron, 2003: Comparison of future climate change
over North America simulated by two regional climate models. J. Geophys. Res.,
108(D12), 4348, doi:10.1029/2002JD002738.
Chen, M., P. Xie, and J.E. Janowiak, 2002: Global land precipitation: a 50-yr
monthly analysis based on gauge observations. J. Hydrometeorol., 3, 249�266.
Chen, T.-C., and J.-H. Yoon, 2002: Interdecadal variation of the North Pacific
wintertime blocking. Mon. Weather Rev., 130, 3136�3143.
Chen, T.-C., J.-H. Yoon, K.J. St. Croix, and E.S. Takle, 2001: Suppressing impacts
of the Amazonian deforestation by the global circulation change. Bull. Am. Meteor?
ol. Soc., 82, 2209�2216.
Chen, T.-C., S.-Y. Wang, W.-R. Huang, and M.-C. Yen, 2004: Variation of the East
Asian summer monsoon rainfall. J. Clim., 17, 744�762.
Chen, Y.-H., and R.G. Prinn, 2005: Atmospheric modelling of high- and low-
frequency methane observations: Importance of interannually varying transport. J.
Geophys. Res., 110, D10303, doi:10.1029/2004JD005542.
Chen, Y.-H., and R.G. Prinn, 2006: Estimation of atmospheric methane emissions
between 1996-2001 using a 3D global chemical transport model. J. Geophys. Res.,
111, D10307, doi:10.1029/2005JD006058.
Chen, Y., and J.E. Penner, 2005: Uncertainty analysis for estimates of the first
indirect effect. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 5, 2935�2948.
Chiapello, I., C. Moulin, and J.M. Prospero, 2005: Understanding the long-term
variability of African dust transport across the Atlantic as recorded in both
Barbados surface concentrations and large-scale Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer
(TOMS) optical thickness. J. Geophys. Res., 110, D18S10, doi:10.1029/2004JD005132.
Chin, M., et al., 2002: Tropospheric aerosol optical thickness from GOCART model
and comparisons with satellite and sun photometer measurements. J. Atmos. Sci.,
59, 461�483.
Chinn, T.J.H., S. Winkler, M.J. Salinger, and N. Haakensen, 2005: Recent glacier
advances in Norway and New Zealand: a comparison of their glaciological and
meteorological causes. Geografiska Annaler, 87A(1), 141�157.
Chipperfield, M.P., W.J. Randel, G.E. Bodeker, and P. Johnston, 2003: Global
ozone: past and future. In: Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 2002 [Ennis,
C.A. (ed.)]. World Meteorological Organization, Geneva, pp. 4.1�4.90.
Chou, C., and J.D. Neelin, 2004: Mechanisms of global warming impacts of regional
tropical precipitation. J. Clim., 17, 2688�2701.
Chou, C., J.D. Neelin, J.-Y. Tu, and C.-T. Chen, 2007: Regional tropical
precipitation change mechanisms in ECHAM4/OPYC3 under global warming. J. Clim. 19,
4207-4223..
Chou, M.-D., P.-K. Chan, and M. Wang, 2002: Aerosol radiative forcing derived from
SeaWiFS-retrieved aerosol optical properties. J. Atmos. Sci., 59, 748�757.
Chou, M.-D., R.S. Lindzen, and A.Y. Hou, 2002: Reply to: �Tropical cirrus and
water vapor: An effective Earth infrared iris feedback?�. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 2,
99�101.
Chou, S.C., A.M.B. Nunes, and I.F.A. Cavalcanti, 2000: Extended range forecasts
over South America using the regional eta model. J. Geophys. Res., 105,
10147�10160.
Christensen, J.H., and O.B. Christensen, 2003: Severe summertime flooding in
Europe. Nature, 421, 805�806.
Christensen, J.H., et al., 2001: A synthesis of regional climate change
simulations � A Scandinavian perspective. Geophys. Res. Lett., 28(6), 1003�1006.
Christensen, J.H., T. Carter, and F. Giorgi, 2002: PRUDENCE employs new methods to
assess European climate change. Eos, 83, 147.
Christensen, J.H., T.R. Carter, M. Rummukainen, and G. Amanatidis, 2007:
Evaluating the performance and utility of regional climate models: the PRUDENCE
project. Clim. Change, doi:10.1007/s10584-006-9211-6.
Christensen, O.B., and J.H. Christensen, 2004: Intensification of extreme European
summer precipitation in a warmer climate. Global Planet. Change, 44, 107�117.
Christensen, T.R., A. Ekberg, L. Str�m, and M. Mastepanov, 2003: Factors
controlling large scale variations in methane emission from wetlands. Geophys.
Res. Lett., 30, 1414, doi:10.1029/2002GL016848.
Christensen, T.R., et al., 2004: Thawing sub-arctic permafrost: Effects on
vegetation and methane emissions. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31,
doi:10.1029/2003GL018680.
Christiansen, B., 1999: Radiative forcing and climate sensitivity: the ozone
experience. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 125, 3011�3035.
Christiansen, B., 2003: Evidence for nonlinear climate change: Two stratospheric
regimes and a regime shift. J. Clim., 16, 3681�3690.
Christidis, N., et al., 2005: Detection of changes in temperature extremes during
the second half of the 20th century. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L20716,
doi:10.1029/2005GL023885.
Christopher, S.A., and J. Zhang, 2004: Cloud-free shortwave aerosol radiative
effect over oceans: strategies for identifying anthropogenic forcing from Terra
satellite measurements. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L18101, doi:10.1029/2004GL020510.
Christopher, S.A., J. Zhang, Y.J. Kaufman, and L. Remer, 2006: Satellite-based
assessment of the top of the atmosphere anthropogenic aerosol radiative forcing
over cloud-free oceans. Geophys Res. Lett., 111, L15816, doi:10.1029/2005GL025535.
Christy, J.R., R.W. Spencer, and W.D. Braswell, 2000: MSU tropospheric
temperatures: Dataset construction and radiosonde comparison. J. Atmos. Ocean.
Technol., 17, 1153�1170.
Chu, D.A., et al., 2002: Validation of MODIS aerosol optical depth retrieval over
land. Geophys. Res. Lett., 29(12), doi:10.1029/2001GL013205.
Chu, D.A., et al., 2005: Evaluation of aerosol properties over ocean from Moderate
Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) during ACE-Asia. J. Geophys. Res.,
110, D07308, doi:10.1029/2004JD005208.
Chuang, C.C., and J.E. Penner, 1995: Effects of anthropogenic sulfate on cloud
drop nucleation and optical properties. Tellus, 47B, 566�577.
Chuang, C.C., et al., 1997: An assessment of the radiative effects of
anthropogenic sulfate. J. Geophys. Res., 102(D3), 3761�3778.
Chuang, C.C., et al., 2002: Cloud susceptibility and the first aerosol indirect
forcing: Sensitivity to black carbon and aerosol concentrations. J. Geophys. Res.,
107(D21), 4564, doi:10.1029/2000JD000215.
Chuang, P.Y., 2003: Measurement of the timescale of hygroscopic growth for
atmospheric aerosols. J. Geophys. Res., 108(D9), 5�13.
Chuang, P.Y., R.M. Duvall, M.M. Shafer, and J.J. Schauer, 2005: The origin of
water soluble particulate iron in the Asian atmospheric outflow. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 32, doi:10.1029/2004GL021946.
Chung, C.E., V. Ramanathan, and J.T. Kiehl, 2002: Effects of the South Asian
absorbing haze on the northeast monsoon and surface-air heat exchange. J. Clim.,
15, 2462�2476.
Chung, C.E., V. Ramanathan, D. Kim, and I.A. Podgorny, 2005: Global anthropogenic
aerosol direct forcing derived from satellite and ground-based observations. J.
Geophys. Res., 110, D24207, doi:10.1029/2005JD006356.
Chung, E.S., B.J. Sohn, and V. Ramanathan, 2004: Moistening processes in the upper
troposphere by deep convection: a case study over the tropical Indian Ocean. J.
Meteorol. Soc. Japan, 82, 959�965.
Chung, S.H., and J.H. Seinfeld, 2002: Global distribution and climate forcing of
carbonaceous aerosols. J. Geophys. Res., 107, doi:10.1029/2001JD001397.
Chung, S.H., and J.H. Seinfeld, 2005: Climate response of direct radiative forcing
of anthropogenic black carbon. J. Geophys. Res., 110, D11102,
doi:10.1029/2004JD005441.
Church, J.A., and N.J. White, 2006: A 20th century acceleration in global sea-
level rise. Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L01602, doi:10.1029/2005GL024826.
Church, J.A., et al., 2001: Changes in sea level. In: Climate Change 2001: The
Scientific Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report
of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Houghton, J.T., et al. (eds.)].
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp.
663�693.
Church, J.A., et al., 2004: Estimates of the regional distribution of sea-level
rise over the 1950 to 2000 period. J. Clim., 17(13), 2609�2625.
Church, J.A., N.J. White, and J.M. Arblaster, 2005: Volcanic eruptions: their
impact on sea level and oceanic heat content. Nature, 438, 74�77.
Church, J.A., N.J. White, and J.R. Hunter, 2006: Sea level rise at tropical
Pacific and Indian Ocean islands. Global Planet. Change, 53(3), 155�168.
Chylek, P., and J. Wong, 1995: Effect of absorbing aerosols on global radiation
budget. Geophys. Res. Lett., 22(8), 929�931.
Chylek, P., and U. Lohmann, 2005: Ratio of the Greenland to global temperature
change: Comparison of observations and climate modeling results. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 32, L14705, doi:10.1029/2005GL023552.
Chylek, P., B. Henderson, and M. Mishchenko, 2003: Aerosol radiative forcing and
the accuracy of satellite aerosol optical depth retrieval. J. Geophys. Res.,
108(D24), 4764, doi:10.1029/2003JD004044.
Ciais, P., et al., 1995: Partitioning of ocean and land uptake of CO2 as inferred
by d13C measurements from the NOAA Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory
Global Air Sampling Network. J. Geophys. Res., 100(D3), 5051�5070.
Ciais, P., et al., 2005a: The potential for rising CO2 to account for the observed
uptake of carbon by tropical, temperate, and boreal forest biomes. In: The Carbon
Balance of Forest Biomes [Griffiths, H., and P. G. Jarvis (eds.)]. Taylor and
Francis, New York, pp. 109�150.
Ciais, P., et al., 2005b: Europe-wide reduction in primary productivity caused by
the heat and drought in 2003. Nature, 437(7058), 529�533.
Clair, T.A., J.M. Ehrman, and K. Higuchi, 1999: Changes in freshwater carbon
exports from Canadian terrestrial basins to lakes and estuaries under 2xCO2
atmospheric scenario. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 13(4), 1091�1097.
Claquin, T., et al., 2003: Radiative forcing of climate by ice-age atmospheric
dust. Clim. Dyn., 20, 193�202.
Claquin, T., M. Schulz, and Y. Balkanski, 1999: Modeling the mineralogy of
atmospheric dust. J. Geophys. Res., 104(D18), 22243�22256.
Clare, G.R., B.B. Fizharris, T.J.H. Chinn, and M.J. Salinger, 2002: Interannual
variation in end-of-summer snowlines of the Southern Alps of New Zealand, and
relationships with Southern Hemisphere atmospheric circulation and sea surface
temperature patterns. Int. J. Climatol., 22, 107�120.
Clark, D.A., 2002: Are tropical forests an important carbon sink? Reanalysis of
the long-term plot data. Ecol. Appl., 12, 3�7.
Clark, D.A., 2004: Sources or sinks? The responses of tropical forests to current
and future climate and atmospheric composition. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London Ser.
B, 359, 477�491.
Clark, D.B., C.M. Taylor, and A.J. Thorpe, 2004: Feedback between the land surface
and rainfall at convective length scales. J. Hydrometeorol., 5(4), 625�639.
Clark, M.P., M.C. Serreze, and D.A. Robinson, 1999: Atmospheric controls on
Eurasian snow extent. Int. J. Climatol., 19, 27�40.
Clark, P.U., N.G. Pisias, T.F. Stocker, and A.J. Weaver, 2002: The role of the
thermohaline circulation in abrupt climate change. Nature, 415, 863�869.
Clark, P.U., R.B. Alley, and D. Pollard, 1999: Northern hemisphere ice-sheet
influences on global climate change. Science, 286, 1103�1111.
Clark, R., S. Brown, and J. Murphy, 2006: Modelling northern hemisphere summer
heat extreme changes and their uncertainties using a physics ensemble of climate
sensitivity experiments. J. Clim., 19, 4418�4435.
Clarke, A.D., et al., 2004: Size distributions and mixtures of dust and black
carbon aerosol in Asian outflow: Physiochemistry and optical properties. J.
Geophys. Res., 109, D15S09, doi:10.1029/2003JD004378.
Clarke, G.K.C., D.W. Leverington, J.T. Teller, and A.S. Dyke, 2004:
Paleohydraulics of the last outburst flood from glacial Lake Agassiz and the 8200
BP cold event. Quat. Sci. Rev., 23, 389�407.
Claussen, M., 1998: On multiple solutions of the atmosphere-vegetation system in
present-day climate. Global Change Biol., 4, 549�559.
Claussen, M., 2005: Table of EMICs (Earth System Models of Intermediate
Complexity). ?�PIK Report 98, Potsdam-Institut f�r Klimafolgenforschung, Potsdam,
Germany, 55 pp, http://www.pik-potsdam.de/emics.
Claussen, M., and Gayler, V., 1997: The greening of Sahara during the mid-
Holocene: results of an interactive atmosphere-biome model. Global Ecol. Biogeogr.
Lett., 6, 369�377.
Claussen, M., C. Kutzbaki, V. Brovkin, and A. Ganapolski, 1999: Simulation of an
abrupt change in Saharan vegetation in the mid-Holocene. Geophys. Res. Lett., 26,
2037�2040.
Claussen, M., et al., 1999: Simulation of an abrupt change in Saharan vegetation
in the mid-Holocene. Geophys. Res. Lett., 26, 2037�2040.
Claussen, M., et al., 2002: Earth system models of intermediate complexity:
closing the gap in the spectrum of climate system models. Clim. Dyn., 18, 579�586.
Clayton, H.H., 1927: World Weather Records. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collection,
Volume 79, Washington, DC, 1196 pp.
Clement, A.C., A. Hall, and A.J. Broccoli, 2004: The importance of precessional
signals in the tropical climate. Clim. Dyn., 22, 327�341.
Clement, A.C., and M.A. Cane, 1999: A role for the tropical Pacific coupled ocean-
atmosphere system on Milankovitch and millennial timescales. Part I: A modeling
study of tropical Pacific variability. In: Mechanisms of Global Climate Change at
Millennial Time Scales [Clark, P.U., R.S. Webb, and L.D. Keigwin (eds.)]. American
Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, pp. 363�371.
Clement, A.C., M.A. Cane, and R. Seager, 2001: An orbitally driven tropical source
for abrupt climate change.�J. Clim., 14(11), 2369�2375.
Clement, A.C., R. Seager, and M.A. Cane, 2000: Suppression of El Nino during the
mid-Holocene by changes in the Earth�s orbit. Paleoceanography, 15(6), 731�737.
Clement, A.C., R. Seager, M.A. Cane, and S.E. Zebiak, 1996: An ocean dynamical
thermostat. J. Clim., 9(9), 2190�2196.
CLIMAP (Climate: Long-range Investigation, Mapping and Prediction), 1981: Seasonal
Reconstructions of the Earth�s Surface at the Last Glacial Maximum. Map Series
Technical Report MC-36, Geological Society of America, Boulder, CO.
Coakley, J.A. Jr., and C.D. Walsh, 2002: Limits to the aerosol indirect radiative
forcing derived from observations of ship tracks. J. Atmos. Sci., 59, 668�680.
Cobb, K.M., C.D. Charles, H. Cheng, and R.L. Edwards, 2003: El Nino/Southern
Oscillation and tropical Pacific climate during the last millennium. Nature,
424(6946), 271�276.
Cochrane, M.A., 2003: Fire science for rainforests. Nature, 421(6926), 913�919.
Coe, M.T., and S.P. Harrison 2002: The water balance of northern Africa during the
mid-Holocene: an evaluation of the 6 ka BPPMIP simulations. Clim. Dyn., 19(2),
155�166.
Coen, M.C., et al., 2004: Saharan dust events at the Jungfraujoch: detection by
wavelength dependence of the single scattering albedo and first climatology
analysis. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 4, 2465�2480.
Cogley, J.G., 2005: Mass and energy balances of glaciers and ice sheets. In:
Encyclopedia of Hydrological Sciences [Anderson, M. (ed.)]. John Wiley & Sons,
Ltd, Chichester, pp 2555�2573.
Cohan, D.S., et al., 2002: Impact of atmospheric aerosol light scattering and
absorption on terrestrial net primary productivity. Global Biogeochem. Cycles,
16(4), 25�34, 1090, doi:10.1029/2001GB001441.
Cole, J., 2003: Global change - Dishing the dirt on coral reefs. Nature,
421(6924), 705�706.
Cole, J.E., and E.R. Cook, 1998: The changing relationship between ENSO
variability and moisture balance in the continental United States. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 25(24), 4529�4532.
Cole, J.E., R.B. Dunbar, T.R. McClanahan, and N.A. Muthiga, 2000: Tropical Pacific
forcing of decadal SST variability in the western Indian Ocean over the past two
centuries. Science, 287(5453), 617�619.
Cole, V., et al., 1996: Agricultural options for mitigation of greenhouse gas
emissions. In: Climate Change 1995. Impacts, Adaptations and Mitigation of Climate
Change: Scientific-Technical Analyses [Watson, R.T, M.C. Zinyowera, R.H. Moss, and
D.J. Dokken (eds)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New
York, NY, USA, pp 745�771.
Collier, J.C., and K.P. Bowman, 2004: Diurnal cycle of tropical precipitation in a
general circulation model. J. Geophys. Res., 109, D17105,
doi:10.1029/2004JD004818.
Collier, J.C., K.P. Bowman, and G.R. North, 2004:A comparison of tropical
precipitation simulated by the community climate model with that measured by the
tropical rainfall measuring mission satellite. J. Clim., 17, 3319�3333.
Collins, M., 2000a: The El-Nino Southern Oscillation in the second Hadley Centre
coupled model and its response to greenhouse warming. J. Clim., 13, 1299�1312.
Collins, M., 2000b: Understanding uncertainties in the response of ENSO to
greenhouse warming. Geophys. Res. Lett., 27, 3509�3513.
Collins, M., and The CMIP Modelling Groups, 2005: El Ni�o- or La Ni�a-like climate
change? Clim. Dyn., 24, 89�104.
Collins, M., D. Frame, B. Sinha, and C. Wilson, 2002: How far ahead could we
predict El Ni�o? Geophys. Res. Lett., 29(10), 1492, doi:10.1029/2001GL013919.
Collins, M., et al., 2006: Towards quantifying uncertainty in transient climate
change. Clim. Dyn., 27, 127�147.
Collins, M., S.F.B. Tett, and C. Cooper, 2001: The internal climate variability of
HadCM3, a version of the Hadley Centre coupled model without flux adjustments.
Clim. Dyn., 17, 61�81.
Collins, W.D., et al., 2001: Simulating aerosols using a chemical transport model
with assimilation of satellite aerosol retrievals: Methodology for INDOEX. J.
Geophys. Res., 106(D7), 7313�7336.
Collins, W.D., et al., 2004: Description of the NCAR Community Atmosphere Model
(CAM3.0). Technical Note TN-464+STR, National Center for Atmospheric Research,
Boulder, CO, 214 pp.
Collins, W.D., et al., 2006: Radiative forcing by well-mixed greenhouse gases:
Estimates from climate models in the IPCC AR4. J. Geophys. Res., 111, D14317,
doi:10.1029/2005JD006713.
Collins, W.D., et al., 2006: The Community Climate System Model: CCSM3. J. Clim.,
19, 2122�2143.
Collins, W.J., D.S. Stevenson, C.E. Johnson, and R.G. Derwent, 1999: Role of
convection in determining the budget of odd hydrogen in the upper troposphere. J.
Geophys. Res., 104(D21), 26927�26942.
Collins, W.J., et al., 2003: Effect of stratosphere-troposphere exchange on the
future tropospheric ozone trend. J. Geophys.Res., 108(D12), 8528,
doi:10.1029/2002JD002617.
Collins, W.J., R.G. Derwent, C.E. Johnson, and D.S. Stevenson, 2002: The oxidation
of organic compounds in the troposphere and their global warming potentials. Clim.
Change, 52, 453�479.
Colman, R.A., 2001: On the vertical extent of atmospheric feedbacks. Clim. Dyn.,
17, 391�405.
Colman, R.A., 2003a: A comparison of climate feedbacks in general circulation
models. Clim. Dyn., 20, 865�873.
Colman, R.A., 2003b: Seasonal contributions to climate feedbacks. Clim. Dyn., 20,
825�841.
Colman, R.A., 2004: On the structure of water vapour feedbacks in climate models.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L21109, doi:10.1029/2004GL020708.
Comiso, J.C., 2000: Variability and trends in Antarctic surface temperatures from
in situ and satellite infrared measurements. J. Clim., 13, 1675�1696.
Comiso, J.C., 2002: A rapidly declining perennial sea ice cover in the Arctic.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 29, 1956�1959.
Comiso, J.C., 2003: Large scale characteristics and variability of the global sea
ice cover. In: Sea Ice - An Introduction to its Physics, Biology, Chemistry, and
Geology [Thomas, D. and G.S. Dieckmann (eds.)]. Blackwell Science, Oxford, UK, pp.
112�142.
Comiso, J.C., 2003: Warming trends in the Arctic from clear sky satellite
observations. J. Clim., 16(21), 3498�3510.
Conkright, M.E., et al., 2002: World ocean database 2001, Volume 1: Introduction.
In: NOAA Atlas NESDIS 42 [Levitus, S. (ed.). Vol. 1. U.S. Government Printing
Office, Washington, DC, 159 pp, CD-ROMs.
Connolley, W.M., and S.A. Harangozo, 2001: A comparison of five numerical weather
prediction analysis climatologies in southern high latitudes. J. Clim., 14, 30�44.
Conrad, R., 1996: Soil microorganisms as controllers of atmospheric trace gases
(H2, CO, CH4, OCS, N2O, and NO). Microbiol. Rev., 60, 609�640.
Conrad, R., and W. Seiler, 1981: Decomposition of atmospheric hydrogen by soil-
microorganisms and soil enzymes. Soil Biol. Biochem., 13, 43�49.
Considine, D.B., J.E. Rosenfield, and E.L. Fleming, 2001: An interactive model
study of the influence of the Mount Pinatubo aerosol on stratospheric methane and
water trends. J. Geophys. Res., 106(D21), 27711�27727.
Constable, J.V.H., A.B. Guenther, D.S. Schimel, and R.K. Monson, 1999: Modeling
changes in VOC emission in response to climate change in the continental United
States. Global Change Biol., 5, 791�806.
Conway, T.J., et al., 1994: Evidence for interannual variability of the carbon
cycle from the NOAA/CMDL sampling network. J. Geophys. Res., 99(D11), 22831�22855.
Cook, A., A. Fox, D. Vaughan, and J. Ferigno, 2005: Retreating glacier fronts on
the Antarctic Peninsula over the past half century. Science, 308, 541�544.
Cook, E.R., B.M. Buckley, R.D. D�Arrigo, and M.J. Peterson, 2000: Warm-season
temperatures since 1600 BC reconstructed from Tasmanian tree rings and their
relationship to large-scale sea surface temperature anomalies. Clim. Dyn.,
16(2�3), 79�91.
Cook, E.R., et al., 2004b: Long-term aridity changes in the western United States.
Science, 306(5698), 1015�1018.
Cook, E.R., J. Esper, and R.D. D�Arrigo, 2004a: Extra-tropical Northern Hemisphere
land temperature variability over the past 1000 years. Quat. Sci. Rev., 23(20�22),
2063�2074.
Cook, E.R., J.G. Palmer, and R.D. D�Arrigo, 2002a: Evidence for a �Medieval Warm
Period� in a 1,100 year tree-ring reconstruction of past austral summer
temperatures in New Zealand. Geophys. Res. Lett., 29(14), 1667,
doi:10.1029/2001GL014580.
Cook, E.R., R.D. D�Arrigo, and M.E. Mann, 2002b: A well-verified, multiproxy
reconstruction of the winter North Atlantic Oscillation index since AD 1400. J.
Clim., 15(13), 1754�1764.
Cook, J., and E.J. Highwood, 2004: Climate response to tropospheric absorbing
aerosols in an intermediate general circulation model. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc.,
130, 175�191.
Cook, K.H., and E.K. Vizy, 2006: Coupled model simulations of the West African
monsoon system: twentieth-century simulations and twenty-first-century
predictions. J. Clim., 19, 3681�3703.
Cooke, W.F., and J.J.N. Wilson, 1996: A global black carbon aerosol model. J.
Geophys. Res., 101, 19395�19409.
Cooke, W.F., C. Liousse, H. Cachier, and J. Feichter, 1999: Construction of a 1� x
1� fossil fuel emission data set for carbonaceous aerosol and implementation and
radiative impact in the ECHAM4 model. J. Geophys. Res., 104(D18), 22137�22162.
Cooke, W.F., V. Ramaswamy, and P. Kasibhatla, 2002: A general circulation model
study of the global carbonaceous aerosol distribution. J. Geophys. Res., 107,
4279, doi:10.1029/2001JD001274.
Coppola, E., and F. Giorgi, 2005: Climate change in tropical regions from high-
resolution time-slice AGCM experiments. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 131(612),
3123�3145.
Cortijo, E., et al., 1999: Changes in meridional temperature and salinity
gradients in the North Atlantic Ocean (30�-72�N) during the last interglacial
period. Paleoceanography, 14(1), 23�33.
Costa, M.H., and J.A. Foley, 2000: Combined effects of deforestation and doubled
atmospheric CO2 concentrations on the climate of Amazonia. J. Clim., 13, 35�58.
Coughlin, K., and K.K. Tung, 2004: Eleven-year solar cycle signal throughout the
lower atmosphere. J. Geophys. Res., 109, D21105, doi:10.1029/2004JD004873.
Couture, R., et al., 2003: On the hazards to infrastructure in the Canadian North
associated with thawing of permafrost. In: Proceedings of Geohazards 2003, 3rd
Canadian Conference on Geotechnique and Natural Hazards. Canadian Geotechnical
Society, Alliston, Ontario, pp. 97�104.
Covey, C., et al., 2003: An overview of results from the Coupled Model
Intercomparison Project. Global Planet. Change, 37, 103�133.
Cox, P., 2001: Description of the �TRIFFID� Dynamic Global Vegetation Model.
Technical Note 24, Hadley Centre, United Kingdom Meteorological Office, Bracknell,
UK.
Cox, P.M., et al., 1999: The impact of new land surface physics on the GCM
simulation of climate and climate sensitivity.�Clim. Dyn., 15, 183�203.
Cox, P.M., et al., 2000: Acceleration of global warming due to carbon-cycle
feedbacks in a coupled climate model. Nature, 408,184�187.
Cox, P.M., et al., 2004: Amazonian forest dieback under climate-carbon cycle
projections for the 21st century. Theor. Appl. Climatol., 78, 137�156.
Cramer, W., et al., 2001: Global response of terrestrial ecosystem structure and
function to CO2 and climate change: results from six dynamic global vegetation
models. Global Change Biol., 7, 357�373.
Crease, J., 1962: Velocity measurements in the deep water of the western North
Atlantic. J. Geophys. Res., 67, 3173�3176.
Croll, J., 1890: Climate and Time in Their Geological Relations: A Theory of
Secular Changes of the Earth�s Climate, 2nd ed. Appleton, New York, 577 pp.
Cronin, T.M., 1999: Principles of Paleoclimatology. Perspectives in Paleobiology
and Earth History. Columbia University Press, New York, NY, 560 pp.
Cronin, T.M., et al., 2005: Mid-Pliocene deep-sea bottom-water temperatures based
on ostracode Mg/Ca ratios. Mar. Micropaleontol., 54(3�4), 249�261.
Crooks, S., 2004: Solar Influence On Climate. PhD Thesis, University of Oxford.
Crooks, S.A., and L.J. Gray, 2005: Characterization of the 11-year solar signal
using a multiple regression analysis of the ERA-40 dataset. J. Clim., 18,
996�1015.
Crouch, E.M., et al., 2003: The Apectodinium acme and terrestrial discharge during
the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum: new palynological, geochemical and
calcareous nannoplankton observations at Tawanui, New Zealand. Palaeogeogr.
Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol., 194(4), 387�403.
Crowley, T.J., 1992: North Atlantic deep water cools the Southern Hemisphere.
Paleoceanography, 7, 489�497.
Crowley, T.J., 1995: Ice-age terrestrial carbon changes revisited. Global
Biogeochem. Cycles, 9(3), 377�389.
Crowley, T.J., 1998: Significance of tectonic boundary conditions for paleoclimate
simulations. In: Tectonic Boundary Conditions for Climate Reconstructions
[Crowley, T.J., and K.C. Burke (eds.)]. Oxford University Press, New York, pp.
3�17.
Crowley, T.J., 2000: Causes of climate change over the past 1000 years. Science,
289(5477), 270�277.
Crowley, T.J., and T.S. Lowery, 2000: How warm was the medieval warm period?
Ambio, 29(1), 51�54.
Crowley, T.J., et al., 2003: Modeling ocean heat content changes during the last
millennium. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30(18), 1932.
Crucifix, M., 2005: Carbon isotopes in the glacial ocean: A model study.
Paleoceanography, 20, PA4020, doi:10.1029/2005PA001131.
Crucifix, M., and A. Berger, 2002: Simulation of ocean�ice sheet interactions
during the last deglaciation. Paleoceanography, 17(4), 1054,
doi:10.1029/2001PA000702.
Crucifix, M., and C.D. Hewitt, 2005: Impact of vegetation changes on the dynamics
of the atmosphere at the Last Glacial Maximum. Clim. Dyn., 25(5), 447�459.
Crucifix, M., and M.F. Loutre, 2002: Transient simulations over the last
interglacial period (126-115 kyr BP). Clim. Dyn., 19, 417�433.
Crucifix, M., et al., 2002: Climate evolution during the Holocene: A study with an
Earth system model of intermediate complexity. Clim. Dyn., 19, 43�60,
doi:10.10007/s00382-001-0208-6.
Crucifix, M., R.A. Betts, and P.M. Cox, 2005: Vegetation and climate variability:
a GCM modeling study. Clim. Dyn., 24, 457�467, doi:10.1007/S00382-004-0504-z.
Crutzen, P.J., 2004: New directions: the growing urban heat and pollution �island�
effect - impact on chemistry and climate. Atmos. Environ., 38, 3539�3540.
CSIRO (Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation),2001Climate
Projections for Australia. CSIRO Atmospheric Research, Melbourne, 8 pp.,
http://www.dar.csiro.au/publications/projections2001.pdf.
CSMD (Climate System Modeling Division), 2005: An introduction to the first
general operational climate model at the National Climate Center. Advances in
Climate System Modeling, 1, National Climate Center, China Meteorological
Administration, 14 pp (in English and Chinese).
Cubasch, U., and R. Voss, 2000: The influence of total solar irradiance on
climate. Space Sci. Rev., 94, 185�198.
Cubasch, U., et al., 1990: Processes and modelling. In: Climate Change: The IPCC
Scientific Assessment [Houghton, J.T., G.J. Jenkins, and J.J. Ephraums (eds.)].
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp.
69�91.
Cubasch, U., et al., 1994: Monte Carlo climate change forecasts with a global
coupled ocean-atmosphere model. Clim. Dyn., 10, 1�19.
Cubasch, U., et al., 1997: Simulation of the influence of solar radiation
variations on the global climate with an ocean-atmosphere general circulation
model. Clim. Dyn., 13(11), 757�767.
Cubasch, U., et al., 1997: Simulation with an O-AGCM of the influence of
variations of the solar constant on the global climate. Clim. Dyn., 13, 757�767.
Cubasch, U., et al., 2001: Projections of future climate changes. In: Climate
Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Third
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Houghton,
J.T., et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and
New York, NY, USA, pp. 525�582.
Cuffey, K.M., 2001: Interannual variability of elevation on the Greenland ice
sheet: effects of firn densification, and establishment of a benchmark. Journal of
Glaciol., 47(158), 369�377.
Cuffey, K.M., and S.J. Marshall, 2000: Substantial contribution to sea-level rise
during the last interglacial from the Greenland ice sheet. Nature, 404, 591�594.
Cui, Z.Q., K.S. Carslaw, Y. Yin, and S. Davies, 2006: A numerical study of aerosol
effects on the dynamics and microphysics of a deep convective cloud in a
continental environment. J. Geophys. Res., 111, D05201, doi:10.1029/2005JD005981.
Cullen, H.M., A. Kaplan, P.A. Arkin, and P.B. Demenocal, 2002: Impact of the North
Atlantic Oscillation on Middle Eastern climate and streamflow. Clim. Change,
55(3), 315�338.
Cullen, N.J., et al., 2006: Kilimanjaro glaciers: Recent areal extent from
satellite data and new interpretation of observed 20th century retreat rates.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, ?L16502, doi:10.1029/2006GL027084.
Cumming, B.F., et al., 2002: Persistent millennial-scale shifts in moisture
regimes in western Canada during the past six millennia. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.
U.S.A., 99(25), 16117�16121.
Cunningham, S.A., S.G. Alderson, B.A. King, and M.A. Brandon, 2003: Transport and
variability of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current in Drake Passage. J. Geophys.
Res., 108(C5), 8084, doi:10.1029/2001JC001147.
Cunnold, D.M., et al., 2002: In situ measurements of atmospheric methane at
GAGE/AGAGE sites during 1985-2000 and resulting source inferences. J. Geophys.
Res., 107(D14), doi:10.1029/2001JD001226.
Cunnold, D.M., et al., 2004: Comment on �Enhanced upper stratospheric ozone: Sign
of recovery or solar cycle effect?� by W. Steinbrecht et al. J. Geophys. Res.,
109, D14305, doi:10.1029/2004JD004826.
Curran, M.A.J., et al., 2003: Ice core evidence for Antarctic sea ice decline
since the 1950s. Science, 302(14), 1203�1206.
Curry, R., and C. Mauritzen, 2005: Dilution of the northern North Atlantic Ocean
in recent decades. Science, 308(5729), 1772�1774.
Curry, R., B. Dickson, and I. Yashayaev, 2003: A change in the freshwater balance
of the Atlantic Ocean over the past four decades. Nature, 426, 826�829.
Curtis, J., G. Wendler, R. Stone, and E. Dutton, 1998: Precipitation decrease in
the western Arctic, with special emphasis on Barrow and Barter Island, Alaska.
Int.J. Climatol., 18, 1687�1707.
Curtis, P.S., et al., 2002: Biometric and eddy-covariance based estimates of
annual carbon storage in five eastern North American deciduous forests. Agric.
For. Meteorol., 113, 3�19.
Cutler, K.B., et al., 2003: Rapid sea-level fall and deep-ocean temperature change
since the last interglacial period, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 206, 253�271.
Cziczo, D.J., D.M. Murphy, P.K. Hudson, and D.S. Thompson, 2004: Single particle
measurements of the chemical composition of cirrus ice residue from CRYSTAL-FACE.
J. Geophys. Res., 109, D04201, doi:10.1029/2003JD004032.
Cziczo, D.J., et al., 2004: Observations of organic species and atmospheric ice
formation. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, doi:10.1029/2004GL019822.
D�ll, P., 2002: Impact of climate change and variability on irrigation
requirements: a global perspective. Clim. Change, 54, 269�293.
D�scher, R., et al., 2002: The development of the coupled ocean-atmosphere model
RCAO. Boreal Environ.Res., 7, 183�192.
Da Rocha, H.R., et al., 2004: Seasonality of water and heat fluxes over a tropical
forest in eastern Amazonia. Ecol. Appl., 14, S114�S126.
da Silva, A.M., C.C. Young, and S. Levitus, 1994: Atlas of Surface Marine Data
1994, NOAA Atlas NESDIS 6. NOAA/NESDIS E/OC21 (6 Volumes). US Department of
Commerce, National Oceanographic Data Center, User Services Branch, Washington,
DC.
D�Andrea, F., et al., 1998: Northern Hemisphere atmospheric blocking as simulated
by 15 atmospheric general circulation models in the period 1979�1988. Clim. Dyn.,
14(6), 385�407.
D�Arrigo, R., et al., 2005: On the variability of ENSO over the past six
centuries. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32(3), L03711, doi:10.1029/2004GL022055.
D�Arrigo, R., R. Wilson, and G. Jacoby, 2006: On the long-term context for late
twentieth century warming. J. Geophys. Res., 111(D3), doi:10.1029/2005JD006352.
D�Arrigo, R.D., et al., 2004: Thresholds for warming-induced growth decline at
elevational tree line in the Yukon Territory, Canada. Global Biogeochem. Cycles,
18(3), GB3021, doi:?10.1029/2004GB002249.
D�Odorico, P., and A. Porporato, 2004: Preferential states in soil moisture and
climate dynamics. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 101(24), 8848�8851.
Dahl-Jensen, D., et al., 1998: Past temperature directly from the Greenland Ice
Sheet. Science, 282, 268�271.
Dahl-Jensen, D., V.I. Morgan, and A. Elcheikh, 1999: Monte Carlo inverse modelling
of the Law Dome (Antarctica) temperature profile. Ann. Glaciol., 29, 145�150.
Dahl, K., A. Broccoli, and R. Stouffer, 2005: Assessing the role of North Atlantic
freshwater forcing in millennial scale climate variability: a tropical Atlantic
perspective. Clim. Dyn., 24(4), 325�346.
Dahl, S.O., and A. Nesje, 1996: A new approach to calculating Holocene winter
precipitation by combining glacier equilibrium-line altitudes and pine-tree
limits: A case study from Hardangerj�kulen, central southern Norway. The Holocene,
6(4), 381�398.
Dai, A., 2006: Precipitation characteristics in eighteen coupled climate models.
J. Clim., 19, 4605�4630.
Dai, A., and K.E. Trenberth, 2002: Estimates of freshwater discharge from
continents: latitudinal and seasonal variations. J. Hydrometeorol., 3, 660�687.
Dai, A., et al., 2001b: Climates of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries
simulated by the NCAR Climate System Model. J. Clim., 14, 485�519.
Dai, A., et al., 2004: The recent Sahel drought is real. Int. J. Climatol., 24,
1323�1331.
Dai, A., et al., 2005: Atlantic thermohaline circulation in a coupled general
circulation model: Unforced variations versus forced changes. J. Clim., 18,
3270�3293.
Dai, A., K.E. Trenberth, and T. Qian, 2004: A global data set of Palmer Drought
Severity Index for 1870-2002: Relationship with soil moisture and effects of
surface warming. J. Hydrometeorol., 5, 1117�1130. PDSI data:
http://www.cgd.ucar.edu/cas/catalog/climind/pdsi.html.
Dai, A., K.E. Trenberth, and T.R. Karl, 1999: Effects of clouds, soil, moisture,
precipitation and water vapour on diurnal temperature range. J. Clim., 12,
2451�2473.
Dai, A.G., and K.E. Trenberth, 2004: The diurnal cycle and its depiction in the
Community Climate System Model. J. Clim., 17, 930�951.
Dai, A.G., T.M.L. Wigley, G.A. Meehl, and W.M. Washington, 2001a: Effects of
stabilizing atmospheric CO2 on global climate in the next two centuries. Geophys.
Res. Lett., 28, 4511�4514.
Dairaku, K., and S. Emori, 2006: Dynamic and thermodynamic influences on
intensified daily rainfall during the Asian summer monsoon under doubled
atmospheric CO2 conditions. Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L01704,
doi:10.1029/2005GL024754.
Dameris, M., et al., 2005: Long-term changes and variability in a transient
simulation with a chemistry-climate model employing realistic forcing. Atmos.
Chem. Phys., 5, 2121�2145.
Dameris, M., et al., 2006: Impact of solar cycle for onset of ozone recovery.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L03806, doi:10.1029/2005GL024741.
Danabasoglu, G., J.C. McWilliams, and P.R. Gent, 1995: The role of mesoscale
tracer transports in the global ocean circulation. Science, 264, 1123�1126.
Daniel, J.S., S. Solomon, and D.L. Albritton, 1995: On the evaluation of
halocarbon radiative forcing and global warming potentials. J. Geophys. Res.,
100(D1), 1271�1286, doi:10.1029/94JD02516.
Dansgaard, W., et al., 1984: North Atlantic climatic oscillations revealed by deep
Greenland ice cores. In: Climate Processes and Climate Sensitivity [Hansen, J.E.,
and T. Takahashi (eds.)]. American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, pp. 288�298.
Dansgaard, W., et al., 1993: Evidence for general instability of past climate from
a 250-kyr ice-core record. Nature, 364, 218�220.
Dargaville, R.J., et al., 2000: Implications of interannual variability in
atmospheric circulation on modeled CO2 concentrations and source estimates. Global
Biogeochem. Cycles, 14, 931�943.
Dargaville, R.J., et al., 2002: Evaluation of terrestrial carbon cycle models with
atmospheric CO2 measurements: Results from transient simulations considering
increasing CO2, climate, and land-use effects. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 16,
1092, doi:10.1029/2001GB001426.
Davey, M.K., et al., 2002: STOIC: A study of coupled model climatology and
variability in tropical ocean regions. Clim. Dyn., 18, 403�420.
Davies, H.C., 1976: A lateral boundary formulation for multi-levels prediction
models. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 102, 405�418.
Davis, B.A.S., et al., 2003: The temperature of Europe during the Holocene
reconstructed from pollen data. Quat. Sci. Rev., 22, 1701�1716.
Davis, C.H., et al., 2005: Snowfall-driven growth in East Antarctic ice sheet
mitigates recent sea-level rise. Science, 308, 1898�1901,
doi:10.1126/science.1110662.
de la Mare, W.K., 1997: Abrupt mid-20th century decline in Antarctic sea ice
extent from whaling records. Nature, 389, 57�61.
De Leeuw, G., et al., 2001: Atmospheric input of nitrogen into the North Sea:
ANICE project overview. Continental Shelf Res., 21(18�19), 2073�2094.
de Menocal, P., J. Ortiz, T. Guilderson, and M. Sarnthein, 2000: Coherent high-
and low-latitude climate variability during the Holocene warm period. Science,
288(5474), 2198�2202.
de Noblet-Ducoudre, N., R. Claussen, and C. Prentice, 2000: Mid-Holocene greening
of the Sahara: first results of the GAIM 6000 year BP experiment with two
asynchronously coupled atmosphere/biome models. Clim. Dyn., 16(9), 643�659.
de Ridder, K., and H. Gall�e, 1998: Land surface-induced regional climate change
in southern Israel. J. Appl. Meteorol., 37, 1470�1485.
de Vernal, A., et al., 2006: Comparing proxies for the reconstruction of LGM sea-
surface conditions in the northern North Atlantic. Quat. Sci. Rev., 25(21�22),
2820�2834.
de Woul, M., and R. Hock, 2006: Static mass balance sensitivity of Arctic glaciers
and ice caps using a degree-day approach. Ann. Glaciol., 42, 217�224.
Debernard, J., M.�. K�ltzow, J.E. Haugen, and L.P. R�ed, 2003: Improvements in the
sea-ice module of the regional coupled atmosphere-ice-ocean model and the strategy
for the coupling of the three spheres. In: RegClim General Technical Report No. 7
[Iversen, T., and M. Lystad (eds)]. Norwegian Meteorological Institute, Oslo, pp.
59�69.
Decesari, S., et al., 2001: Chemical features and seasonal variation of fine
aerosol water-soluble organic compounds in the Po Valley, Italy. Atmos. Environ.,
35, 3691�3699.
Decesari, S., M.C. Facchini, S. Fuzzi, and E. Tagliavini, 2000: Characterization
of water-soluble organic compounds in atmospheric aerosol: a new approach. J.
Geophys. Res., 105(D1), 1481�1489.
Decho, A.W., 1990: Microbial exopolymer secretions in ocean environments: their
role(s) in food webs and marine processes. Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. Annu. Rev., 28,
73�153.
DeConto, R.M., and D. Pollard, 2003: Rapid Cenozoic glaciation of Antarctica
induced by declining atmospheric CO2. Nature, 421(6920), 245�249.
DeFries, R.S., et al., 2002: Carbon emissions from tropical deforestation and
regrowth based on satellite observations for the 1980s and 1990s. Proc. Natl.
Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 99(22), 14256�14261.
DeFries, R.S., J.A. Foley, and G.P. Asner, 2004: Land-use choices: balancing human
needs and ecosystem function. Frontiers Ecol. Environ., 2, 249�257.
DeFries, R.S., L. Bounoua, and G.J. Collatz, 2002: Human modification of the
landscape and surface climate in the next fifty years. Global Change Biol., 8,
438�458.
Degens, E.T., S. Kempe, and A. Spitzy, 1984: Carbon dioxide: A biogeochemical
portrait. In: The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry [Hutzinger, O. (ed.)]. Vol.
1, Part C, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp. 127�215.
Del Genio, A.D., A. Wolf, and M.-S. Yao, 2005a: Evaluation of regional cloud
feedbacks using single-column models. J. Geophys. Res., 110, D15S13,
doi:10.1029/2004JD005011.
Del Genio, A.D., and A.B. Wolf, 2000: The temperature dependence of the liquid
water path of low clouds in the southern great plains. J. Clim., 13, 3465 3486.
Del Genio, A.D., and W. Kovari, 2002: Climatic properties of tropical
precipitating convection under varying environmental conditions. J. Clim., 15,
2597�2615.
Del Genio, A.D., M.-S. Yao, W. Kovari, and K.K.-W. Lo, 1996: A prognostic cloud
water parameterization for global climate models. J. Clim., 9, 270�304,
doi:10.1175/1520-0442.
Del Genio, A.D., W. Kovari, M.-S. Yao, and J. Jonas, 2005b: Cumulus microphysics
and climate sensitivity. J. Clim., 18, 2376�2387, doi:10.1175/JCLI3413.1.
Del Grosso, S.J., A.R. Mosier, W.J. Parton, and D.S. Ojima, 2005: DAYCENT model
analysis of past and contemporary soil N2O and net greenhouse gas flux for major
crops in the USA. Soil Tillage Res., 83(1), 9�24.
Del Grosso, S.J., et al., 2000: General CH4 oxidation model and comparison of CH4
oxidation in natural and managed systems. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 14, 999�1019.
Delire, C., J.A. Foley, and S. Thompson, 2003: Evaluating the carbon cycle of a
coupled atmosphere�biosphere model. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 17, 1012,
doi:10.1029/2002GB001870.
Delire, C.et al.2001: Simulated response of the atmosphere-ocean system to
deforestation in the Indonesian Archipelago. Geophys Res Lett, 28(10), 2081�2084.
Delmas, R.J., J.M. Ascencio, and M. Legrand, 1980: Polar ice evidence that
atmospheric CO2 20,000 yr BP was 50% of present. Nature, 284, 155�157.
DeLucia, E.H., D.J. Moore, and R.J. Norby, 2005: Contrasting responses of forest
ecosystems to rising atmospheric CO2: implications for the global C cycle. Global
Biogeochem. Cycles, 19, G3006, doi:10.1029/2004GB002346.
Delworth, T., et al., 2002: Review of simulations of climate variability and
change with the GFDL R30 coupled climate model. Clim. Dyn., 19, 555�574.
Delworth, T., et al., 2006: GFDL�s CM2 global coupled climate models � Part 1:
Formulation and simulation characteristics. J. Clim., 19, 643�674.
Delworth, T., S. Manabe, and R.J. Stouffer, 1993: Interdecadal variations of the
thermohaline circulation in a coupled ocean-atmosphere model. J. Clim., 6,
1993�2011.
Delworth, T.L., and K.W. Dixon, 2000: Implications of the recent trend in the
Arctic/North Atlantic Oscillation for the North Atlantic thermohaline circulation.
J. Clim., 13, 3721�3727.
Delworth, T.L., and M.E. Mann, 2000: Observed and simulated multidecadal
variability in the Northern Hemisphere. Clim. Dyn., 16(9), 661�676.
Delworth, T.L., and T.R. Knutson, 2000: Simulation of early 20th century global
warming. Science, 287, 2246�2250.
Delworth, T.L., V. Ramaswamy, and G.L. Stenchikov, 2005: The impact of aerosols on
simulated ocean temperature and heat content in the 20th century. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 32, L24709, doi:10.1029/2005GL024457.
deMenocal, P.B., 2001: Cultural responses during the late Holocene. Science, 292,
667�673.
den Elzen, M., et al., 2005. ?Analysing countries� contribution to climate change:
Scientific and policy-related choices. Environ. Sci. Technol.,�8(6), 614�636.
Denis, B., R. Laprise, and D. Caya, 2003: Sensitivity of a regional climate model
to the spatial resolution and temporal updating frequency of the lateral boundary
conditions. Clim. Dyn., 20, 107�126.
Denis, B., R. Laprise, D. Caya, and J. C�t�, 2002: Downscaling ability of one-way-
nested regional climate models: The big-brother experiment. Clim. Dyn., 18,
627�646.
Dentener, F., et al., 1996: Role of mineral aerosol as a reactive surface in the
global troposphere. J. Geophys. Res., 101, 22869�22889.
Dentener, F., et al., 2003a: Interannual variability and trend of CH4 lifetime as
a measure for OH changes in the 1979�1993 time period. J. Geophys. Res., 108(D15),
4442, doi:10.1029/2002JD002916.
Dentener, F., et al., 2003b: Trends and inter-annual variability of methane
emissions derived from 1979�1993 global CTM simulations. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 3,
73�88.
Dentener, F., et al., 2005: The impact of air pollutant and methane emission
controls on tropospheric ozone and radiative forcing: CTM calculations for the
period 1990�2030. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 5, 1731�1755.
Dentener, F., et al., 2006: Emissions of primary aerosol and precursor gases in
the years 2000 and 1750 - prescribed data-sets for AeroCom. Atmos. Chem. Phys.
Discuss., 6, 2703�2763.
Dentener, F., et al., 2006: The global atmospheric environment for the next
generation. Environ. Sci. Technol., 40, 3586�3594.
Derber, J., and A. Rosati, 1989: A global oceanic data assimilation system. J.
Phys. Oceanogr., 19(9), 1333�1347.
Derbyshire, S.H., et al., 2004: Sensitivity of moist convection to environmental
humidity. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 130, 3055�3079.
Derksen, C., A. Walker, E. LeDrew, and B. Goodison, 2003: Combining SMMR and SSM/I
data for time series analysis of central North American snow water equivalent. J.
Hydrometeorol., 4(2), 304�316.
Derwent, R., 1990: Trace Gases and Their Relative Contribution to the Greenhouse
Effect. Report AERE- R13716, Atomic Energy Research Establishment, Harwell, Oxon,
UK. 95 pp.
Derwent, R.G., W.J. Collins, C.E. Johnson, and D.S. Stevenson, 2001: Transient
behaviour of tropospheric ozone precursors in a global 3-D CTM and their indirect
greenhouse effects. Clim. Change, 49, 463�487.
Desborough, C.E., 1999: Surface energy balance complexity in GCM land surface
models. Clim. Dyn., 15, 389�403.
Deser, C., A.S. Phillips, and J.W. Hurrell, 2004: Pacific interdecadal climate
variability: Linkages between the tropics and North Pacific during boreal winter
since 1900. J. Clim., 17, 3109�3124.
Deshler, T., et al., 2003: Thirty years of in situ stratospheric aerosol size
distribution measurements from Laramie, Wyoming (41N), using balloon-borne
instruments. J. Geophys. Res., 108(D5), 4167, doi:10.1029/2002JD002514.
DesJarlais, C., 2004: S�adapter aux Changements Climatiques. Ouranos, Montreal,
91pp.
DessaiS., X. Lu, and M. Hulme, 2005: Limited sensitivity analysis of regional
climate change probabilities for the 21st century. J. Geophys. Res., 110, D19108,
doi:10.1029/2005JD005919.
Dessler, A.E., and S.C. Sherwood, 2000: Simulations of tropical upper tropospheric
humidity. J. Geophys. Res., 105, 20155�20163.
Dethloff, K., et al., 2001: Sensitivity of Arctic climate simulations to different
boundary layer parameterizations in a regional climate model. Tellus, 53, 1�26.
Deutsch, C., S. Emerson, and L. Thompson, 2005: Fingerprints of climate change in
North Pacific oxygen. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L16604, doi:10.1029/2005GL023190.
Deuz�, J.L., et al., 2000: Estimate of the aerosol properties over the ocean with
POLDER. J. Geophys. Res., 105, 15329�15346.
Deuz�, J.L., et al., 2001: Remote sensing of aerosols over land surfaces from
POLDER-ADEOS-1 polarized measurements. J. Geophys. Res., 106, 4913�4926.
Dewitte, S., D. Crommelynck, S. Mekaoui, and A. Joukoff, 2005: Measurement and
uncertainty of the long-term total solar irradiance trend. Sol. Phys., 224,
209�216.
Diab, R.D., et al., 2004: Tropospheric ozone climatology over Irene, South Africa,
from 1990 to 1994 and 1998 to 2002. J. Geophys. Res., 109, D20301,
doi:10.1029/2004JD004793.
Diansky, N.A., A.V. Bagno, and V.B. Zalesny, 2002: Sigma model of global ocean
circulation and its sensitivity to variations in wind stress. Izv. Atmos. Ocean.
Phys., 38, 477�494 (English translation).
Diansky, N.A., and E.M. Volodin, 2002: Simulation of the present-day climate with
a coupled atmosphere-ocean general circulation model. Izv. Atmos. Ocean. Phys.,
38, 732�747 (English translation).
Diaz-Nieto, J., and R.L. Wilby, 2005: A comparison of statistical downscaling and
climate change factor methods: impacts on low flows in the River Thames, United
Kingdom. Clim. Change, 69, 245�268.
Dibike, Y.B., and P. Coulibaly, 2005: Hydrologic impact of climate change in the
Saguenay watershed: Comparison of downscaling methods and hydrologic models. J.
Hydrol., 307, 145�163.
Dickens, G.R., 2001: Modeling the global carbon cycle with gas hydrate capacitor:
Significance for the latest Paleocene thermal maximum. In: Natural Gas Hydrates:
Occurrence, Distribution, and Detection [Paull, C.K., and W.P. Dillon (eds.)].
Geophysical Monographs Vol. 124, American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, pp.
19�38.
Dickens, G.R., and R.M. Owen, 1996: Sediment geochemical evidence for an early-
middle Gilbert (early Pliocene) productivity peak in the North Pacific Red Clay
Province. Mar. Micropaleontol., 27(1�4), 107�120.
Dickens, G.R., M.M. Castillo, and J.G.C. Walker, 1997: A blast of gas in the
latest Paleocene: Simulating first-order effects of massive dissociation of
oceanic methane hydrate. Geology, 25, 259�262.
Dickinson, R.E., et al., 2006: The community land model and its climate statistics
as a component of the community climate system model. J. Clim., 19, 2302�2324.
Dickinson, R.E., G. Wang, X. Zeng, and Q.-C. Zeng, 2003: How does the partitioning
of evapotranspiration and runoff between different processes affect the
variability and predictability of soil moisture and precipitation? Adv. Atmos.
Sci., 20(3), 475�478.
Dickson, B., et al., 2002: Rapid freshening of the deep North Atlantic Ocean over
the past four decades. Nature, 416, 832�837.
Dickson, R., et al., 1996: Long-term coordinated changes in the convective
activity of the North Atlantic. Prog. Oceanogr., 38, 241�295.
Dickson, R.R., et al., 2002: Rapid freshening of the deep North Atlantic Ocean
over the past four decades. Nature, 416, 832�837.
Dickson, R.R., J. Meincke, S.A. Malmberg, and A.J. Lee, 1988: The Great Salinity
Anomaly in the Northern North Atlantic 1968-1982. Prog. Oceanogr., 20(2), 103�151.
Dickson, R.R., R. Curry, and I. Yashayaev, 2003: Recent changes in the North
Atlantic. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London Ser. A, 361(1810), 1917�1933.
Diehl, K., and S. Wurzler, 2004: Heterogeneous drop freezing in the immersion
mode: Model calculations considering soluble and insoluble particles in the drops.
J. Atmos. Sci., 61, 2063�2072.
Diffenbaugh, N.S., J.S. Pal, R.J. Trapp, and F. Giorgi, 2005: Fine-scale processes
regulate the response of extreme events to global climate change. Proc. Natl.
Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 102(44), 15774�15778, doi:10.1073/pnas.0506042102.
Dimitrijevic, M., and R. Laprise, 2005: Validation of the nesting technique in a
regional climate model through sensitivity tests to spatial resolution and the
time interval of lateral boundary conditions during summer. Clim. Dyn., 25,
555�580.
Ding, Y.H., et al., 2006: Multi-year simulations and experimental seasonal
predictions for rainy seasons in China by using a nested regional climate model
(RegCM_NCC). Part I: Sensitivity study. Adv. Atmos. Sci., 23(3), 323�341.
Ding, Y.H., Y.M. Liu, X.L. Shi, and Q.Q. Li, 2003: The experimental use of the
regional climate model in the seasonal prediction in China National Climate
Center. ? In: Proceedings of the 2nd Workshop on Regional Climate Model, March 3-
6, 2003, Yokohama, Japan, GAME Publication No. 39, pp. 9�14.
Ding, Z.L., et al., 2002: Stacked 2.6-Ma grain size record from the Chinese loess
based on five sections and correlation with the deep-sea d18O record.
Paleoceanography, 17(3), 1033, doi:10.1029/2001PA000725.
Dirmeyer, P.A., 2001: An evaluation of the strength of land-atmosphere coupling.
J. Hydrometeorol., 2, 329�344.
Dixon, K.W., T.L. Delworth, M.J. Spelman, and R.J. Stouffer, 1999: The influence
of transient surface fluxes on North Atlantic overturning in a coupled GCM climate
change experiment. Geophys. Res. Lett., 26, 2749�2752.
Dlugokencky, E.J., et al., 1996: Changes in CH4 and CO growth rates after the
eruption of Mt. Pinatubo and their link with changes in tropical tropospheric UV
flux. Geophys. Res. Lett., 23(20), 2761�2764.
Dlugokencky, E.J., et al., 2001: Measurements of an anomalous global methane
increase during 1998. Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 499�502.
Dlugokencky, E.J., et al., 2003: Atmospheric methane levels off: Temporary pause
or a new steady state. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30, doi:10.1029/2003GL018126.
Dlugokencky, E.J., et al., 2005: Conversion of NOAA CMDL atmospheric dry air CH4
mole fractions to a gravimetrically prepared standard scale. J. Geophys. Res.,
110, D18306, doi:10.1029/2005JD006035.
Dlugokencky, E.J., K.A. Masarie, P.M. Lang, and P.P. Tans, 1998: Continuing
decline in the growth rate of the atmospheric methane burden. Nature, 393,
447�450.
Dlugokencky, E.J., L.P. Steele, P.M. Lang, and K.A. Masarie, 1994: The growth rate
and distribution of atmospheric methane. J. Geophys. Res., 99, 17021�17043.
D�menil, L., and E. Todini, 1992: A rainfall-runoff scheme for use in the Hamburg
climate model. In: Advances in Theoretical Hydrology: A Tribute to James Dooge.
European Geophysical Society Series on Hydrological Sciences, Vol. 1 [O�Kane, J.P.
(ed.)]. Elsevier Press, Amsterdam, pp. 129�157.
Doherty, R.M., D.S. Stevenson, W.J. Collins, and M.G. Sanderson, 2005: Influence
of convective transport on tropospheric ozone and its precursors in a chemistry-
climate model. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 5, 3747�3771.
Dokken, T.M., and E. Jansen, 1999: Rapid changes in the mechanism of ocean
convection during the last glacial period. Nature, 401, 458�461.
Domack, E., et al., 2005: Stability of the Larsen B ice shelf on the Antarctic
Peninsula during the Holocene epoch. Nature, 436, 681�685.
Doney, S.C., et al., 2004: Evaluating global ocean carbon models: The importance
of realistic physics. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 18, GB3017,
doi:10.1029/2003GB002150.
Doney, S.C., J.L. Bullister, and R. Wanninkhof, 1998: Climatic variability in
upper ocean ventilation rates diagnosed using chlorofluorocarbons. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 25(9), 1399�1402.
Dong, M., et al., 2000: Developments and implications of the atmospheric general
circulation model. In: Investigations on the Model System of the Short-Term
Climate Predictions [Ding, Y., et al. (eds.)]. China Meteorological Press,
Beijing, China, pp. 63�69 (in Chinese).
Donnelly, J.P., P. Cleary, P. Newby, and R. Ettinger, 2004: Coupling instrumental
and geological records of sea-level change: Evidence from southern New England of
an increase in the rate of sea-level rise in the late 19th century. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 31(5), L05203, doi:10.1029/2003GL018933.
Doran, P.T., et al., 2002: Antarctic climate cooling and terrestrial ecosystem
response. Nature, 415, 517�520.
Dore, J.E., R. Lukas, D.W. Sadler, and D.M. Karl, 2003: Climate-driven changes to
the atmospheric CO2 sink in the subtropical North Pacific Ocean. Nature,
424(6950), 754�757.
Dorn, W., K. Dethloff, A. Rinke, and E. Roeckner, 2003: Competition of NAO regime
changes and increasing greenhouse gases and aerosols with respect to Arctic
climate projections. Clim. Dyn., 21, 447�458.
Douglas, B.C., 1992: Global sea level acceleration. J. Geophys. Res., 97(C8),
12699�12706.
Douglas, B.C., 2001: Sea level change in the era of the recording tide gauges. In:
Sea Level Rise: History and Consequences [Douglas, B.C., Kearney, M.S., and S.P.
Leatherman (eds.)]. Academic Press, New York, pp. 37�64.
Douglass, A., M. Schoeberl, R. Rood, and S. Pawson, 2003: Evaluation of transport
in the lower tropical stratosphere in a global chemistry and transport model. J.
Geophys. Res., 108(D9), 4259, doi:10.1029/2002JD002696.
Douglass, A.R., M.R. Schoeberl, R.B. Rood, and S. Pawson, 2003: Evaluation of
transport in the lower tropical stratosphere in a global chemistry and transport
model. J. Geophys. Res., 108(D9), 4259, doi:10.1029/2002JD002696.
Douglass, D.H., and B.D. Clader, 2002: Climate sensitivity of the Earth to solar
irradiance. Geophys. Res. Lett., 29(16), 33�36.
Douglass, D.H., and R.S. Knox, 2005: Climate forcing by volcanic eruption of Mount
Pinatubo. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L05710, doi:10.1029/2004GL022119.
Douglass, D.H., B.D. Pearson, and S.F. Singer, 2004: Altitude dependence of
atmospheric temperature trends: Climate models versus observation. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 31, doi:10.1029/2004GL020103.
Doutriaux-Boucher, M., and J. Quaas, 2004: Evaluation of cloud thermodynamic phase
parametrizations in the LMDZ GCM by using POLDER satellite data. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 31, L06126, doi:10.1029/2003GL019095.
Douville, H., 2001: Influence of soil moisture on the Asian and African Monsoons.
Part II: interannual variability. J. Clim., 15, 701�720.
Douville, H., 2005: Limitations of time-slice experiments for predicting regional
climate change over South Asia. Clim. Dyn., 24(4), 373�391.
Douville, H., 2006: Detection-attribution of global warming at the regional scale:
How to deal with precipitation variability. Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L02701,
doi:10.1029/2005GL024967.
Douville, H., D. Salas-M�lia, and S. Tyteca, 2005: On the tropical origin of
uncertainties in the global land precipitation response to global warming. Clim.
Dyn., 26, 367�385.
Douville, H., et al., 2000: Impact of CO2 doubling on the Asian summer monsoon:
Robust versus model dependent responses. J. Meteorol. Soc. Japan, 78, 1�19.
Douville, H., et al., 2002: Sensitivity of the hydrological cycle to increasing
amounts of greenhouse gases and aerosols. Clim. Dyn., 20, 45�68.
Douville, H., J.-F. Royer, and J.-F. Mahfouf, 1995: A new snow parameterization
for the Meteo-France climate model. Clim. Dyn., 12, 21�35.
Dove, H.W., 1852: �ber die geographische Verbreitung gleichartiger
Witterungserscheinungen (�ber die nichtperiodischen �nderungen der
Temperaturverteilung auf der Oberfl�che der Erde). Abh. ?Akad. Wiss. Berlin, V
Teil, 42, 3�4.
Dowsett, H., J. Barron, and R. Poore, 1996: Middle Pliocene sea surface
temperatures: A global reconstruction. Mar. Micropaleontol., 27(1�4), 13�25.
Dowsett, H.J., and T.M. Cronin, 1990: High eustatic sea level during the middle
Pliocene: evidence from southeastern U.S. Atlantic coastal plain. Geology, 18,
435�438.
Dowsett, H.J., M.A. Chandler, T.M. Cronin, and G.S. Dwyer, 2005: Middle Pliocene
sea surface temperature variability. Paleoceanography, 20(2),
doi:10.1029/2005PA001133.
Dozier, J., S.R. Schneider, and D.F. McGinnis Jr., 1981: Effect of grain size and
snowpack water equivalence on visible and near-infrared satellite observations of
snow. Water Resour. Res., 17, 1213�1221.
Drange, H., et al., 2005: Ocean general circulation modelling of the Nordic Seas.
In: The Nordic Seas: An Integrated Perspective [Drange, H., et al. (eds.)].
Geophysical Monograph 158, American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, pp.
199�220.
Driesschaert, E., 2005: Climate Change over the Next Millennia Using LOVECLIM, a
New Earth System Model Including Polar Ice Sheets. ?PhD Thesis, Universit�
Catholique de Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium, 214 pp,
http://edoc.bib.ucl.ac.be:81/ETD-db/collection/available/BelnUcetd-10172005-
185914/.
Druyan, L.M., M. Fulakeza, and P. Lonergan, 2002: Dynamic downscaling of seasonal
climate predictions over Brazil. J. Clim., 15, 3411�3426.
Dubovik, O., and M.D. King, 2000: A flexible inversion algorithm for retrieval of
aerosol optical properties from Sun and sky radiance measurements. J. Geophys.
Res., 105, 20673�20696.
Dubovik, O., et al., 1998: Single-scattering albedo of smoke retrieved from the
sky radiance and solar transmittance measured from ground. J. Geophys. Res.,
103(D24), 31903�31923.
Dubovik, O., et al., 2000: Accuracy assessments of aerosol optical properties
retrieved from Aerosol Robotic Network (AERONET) Sun and sky radiance
measurements. J. Geophys. Res., 105, 9791�9806.
Dubovik, O., et al., 2002: Variability of absorption and optical properties of key
aerosol types observed in worldwide locations. J. Atmos. Sci., 59, 590�608.
Duce, R.A., 1995: Sources, distributions and fluxes of mineral aerosols and their
relationship to climate. In: Aerosol Forcing of Climate [Charlson, R.J. and J.
Heintzenberg (eds.)]. John Wiley & Sons Ltd., Chichester, New York, pp. 43�72.
Ducharne, A., et al., 2003: Development of a high resolution runoff routing model,
calibration and application to assess runoff from the LMD GCM. J. Hydrol., 280,
207�228.
Duffy, P.B., et al., 2003: High-resolution simulations of global climate, part 1:
Present climate. Clim. Dyn., 21, 371�390.
Dufresne, J.-L., et al., 2002: On the magnitude of positive feedback between
future climate change and the carbon cycle. Geophys. Res. Lett., 29(10),
doi:10.1029/2001GL013777.
Dufresne, L.-L., et al., 2005: Contrasts in the effects on climate of
anthropogenic sulfate aerosols between the 20th and the 21st century. Geophys.
Res. Lett., 32, L21703, doi:10.1029/2005GL023619.
Duguay, C.R., et al., 2003: Ice-cover variability on shallow lakes at high
latitudes: model simulations and observations. Hydrolog. Process., 17, 3465�3483.
Duguay, C.R., et al., 2006: Recent trends in Canadian lake ice cover. Hydrological
Processes, 20, 781�801.
Dukes, J.S., et al., 2005: Responses of grassland production to single and
multiple global environmental changes. PLoS Biol., 3(10), 1829�1836.
Dumas, J.A., G.M. Flato, and A.J. Weaver, 2003: The impact of varying atmospheric
forcing on the thickness of Arctic multi-year sea ice. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30,
1918.
Dunbar, R.B., and G.M. Wellington, 1981: Stable isotopes in a branching coral
monitor seasonal temperature variation. Nature, 298, 453�455.
Duncan, B.N., et al., 2003: Indonesian wildfires of 1997: Impact on tropospheric
chemistry. J. Geophys. Res., 108(D15), 4458, doi:10.1029/2002JD003195.
Dunn, A.L, et al., 2007: A long-term record of carbon exchange in a boreal black
spruce forest: means, responses to interannual variability, and decadal trends.
Global Change Biol., 13, 577-590, doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2006.01221.x.
Duplessy, J.C., et al., 2001: Holocene paleoceanography of the northern Barents
Sea and variations of the northward heat transport by the Atlantic Ocean. Boreas,
30, 2�16.
Duplessy, J.C., L. Labeyrie, and C. Waelbroeck, 2002: Constraints on the ocean
oxygen isotopic enrichment between the Last Glacial Maximum and the Holocene:
Paleoceanographic implications. Quat. Sci. Rev., 21, 315�330.
Dupont, T.K., and R.B. Alley, 2005: Assessment of the importance of ice-shelf
buttressing to ice-sheet flow. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L04503,
doi:10.1029/2004GL022024.
Dupont, T.K., and R.B. Alley, 2006: The importance of small ice shelves in sea-
level rise. Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L09503, doi:10.1029/2005GL025665.
Dupre, B., et al., 2003: Rivers, chemical weathering and Earth�s climate. Comptes
Rendus Geoscience, 335(16), 1141�1160.
Durieux, L., L.A.T. Machado, and H. Laurent, 2003: The impact of deforestation on
cloud cover over the Amazon arc of deforestation. Remote Sens. Environ., 86(1),
132�140.
Durman, C.F., et al., 2001: A comparison of extreme European daily precipitation
simulated by a global model and regional climate model for present and future
climates. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 127, 1005�1015.
Dusek, U., et al., 2006: Size matters more than chemistry for cloud-nucleating
ability of aerosol particles. Science, 312, 1375�1378.
Dutay, J.C., et al., 2002: Evaluation of ocean model ventilation with CFC-11:
comparison of 13 global ocean models. Ocean Modelling, 4(2), 89�102.
Dye, D.G., 2002: Variability and trends in the annual snow-cover cycle in Northern
Hemisphere land areas, 1972�2000. Hydrolog. Process., 16, 3065�3077.
Dyurgerov, M., and J. Dwyer, 2000. The steepening of glacier mass balance
gradients with Northern Hemisphere warming. Zeitschrift f�r Gletscherkunde und
Glazialgeologie, 36, 107�118.
Dyurgerov, M., and M.F. Meier, 2005: Glaciers and the Changing Earth System: A
2004 Snapshot. ?Occasional Paper 58, Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research,
University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, 118 pp.
Dyurgerov, M.B., and M.F. Meier, 2000: Twentieth century climate change: evidence
from small glaciers. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 97, 1406�1411.
Dziembowski, W.A., P.R. Goode, and J. Schou, 2001: Does the sun shrink with
increasing magnetic activity? Astrophys. J., 553, 897�904.
D�qu�, M., and A.L. Gibelin, 2002: High versus variable resolution in climate
modelling. In: Research Activities in Atmospheric and Oceanic Modelling [Ritchie,
H. (ed.)]. WMO/TD No. 1105, Report No. 32, World Meteorological Organization,
Geneva, pp. 74�75.
D�qu�, M., and J.P. Piedelievre, 1995: High resolution climate simulation over
Europe. Clim. Dyn., 11, 321�339.
D�qu�, M., C. Dreveton, A. Braun, and D. Cariolle, 1994: The ARPEGE/IFS atmosphere
model: A contribution to the French community climate modeling. Clim. Dyn., 10,
249�266.
D�qu�, M., et al., 2005: Global high resolution versus Limited Area Model climate
change scenarios over Europe: results from the PRUDENCE projectClim. Dyn.,25,
653�670, 10.1007/s00382-005-0052-1.
D�qu�, M., et al., 2007: An intercomparison of regional climate simulations for
Europe: assessing uncertainties in model projections. Clim. Change,
doi:10.1007/s10584-006-9228-x.
Eagan, R., P.V. Hobbs, and L. Radke, 1974: Measurements of CCN and cloud droplet
size distributions in the vicinity of forest fires. J. Appl. Meteorol., 13,
537�553.
Easter, R., et al., 2004: MIRAGE: Model description and evaluation of aerosols and
trace gases. J. Geophys. Res. 109, D20210, doi:10.1029/2004JD004571.
Easter, R.C., et al., 2004: MIRAGE: Model description and evaluation of aerosols
and trace gases. J. Geophys. Res., 109, doi:10.1029/2004JD004571.
Easterling, D.R., et al., 2000: Climate extremes: Observations, modeling and
impacts. Science, 289, 2068�2074.
Easterling, D.R., L.V. Alexander, AMokssit, and V. Detemmerman, 2003: CC1/Clivar
workshop to develop priority climate indicesBull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 84,, 1403
�1407.
Eatough, D.J., et al., 2003: Semivolatile particulate organic material in southern
Africa during SAFARI 2000. J. Geophys. Res., 108(D13), 8479,
doi:10.1029/2002JD002296.
Echelmeyer, K., and W.D. Harrison, 1990: Jakobshavn Isbr�, West Greenland:
Seasonal variations in velocity - or lack thereof. J. Glaciol., 36, 82�88.
Eck, T.F., et al., 2003: Variability of biomass burning aerosol optical
characteristics in southern Africa during the SAFARI 2000 dry season campaign and
a comparison of single scattering albedo estimates from radiometric measurements.
J. Geophys. Res., 108(D13), 8477, doi:10.1029/2002JD002321.
Eddy, J.A., 1976: The Maunder Minimum. Science, 192, 1189�1202
Edwards, D.P., et al., 2004: Observations of carbon monoxide and aerosols from the
Terra satellite: Northern Hemisphere variability. J. Geophys. Res., 109, D24202,
doi:10.1029/2004JD004727.
Edwards, N., and R. Marsh, 2005: Uncertainties due to transport-parameter
sensitivity in an efficient 3-D ocean-climate model. Clim. Dyn., 24, 415�433.
Eglinton, T.I., and D.J. Repeta, 2004, Organic matter in the contemporary ocean.
In: Treatise on Geochemistry [Holland, H.D., and K.K. Turekian (eds.)]. Volume 6,
The Oceans and Marine Geochemistry, Elsevier Pergamon, Amsterdam, pp. 145�180.
Egorova, T., et al., 2004: Chemical and dynamical response to the 11-year
variability of the solar irradiance simulated with a chemistry-climate model.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L06119, doi:10.1029/2003GL019294.
Ehhalt, D.H., 1999: Gas phase chemistry of the troposphere. In: Global Aspects of
Atmospheric Chemistry, Vol. 6 [Baumgaertel, H., W. Gruenbein, and F. Hensel
(eds.)]. Springer Verlag, Darmstadt, pp. 21�110.
Ehrmann, W.U., and A. Mackensen, 1992: Sedimentological evidence for the formation
of an East Antarctic ice-sheet in Eocene Oligocene time. Palaeogeogr.
Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol., 93(1�2), 85�112.
Eichelberger, S.J., and J.R. Holton, 2002: A mechanistic model of the northern
annular mode. J. Geophys. Res., 107, 4388.
Ek, M.B., and A.A.M. Holtslag, 2004: Influence of soil moisture on boundary layer
cloud development. J. Hydrometeorol., 5, 86�99.
Ekman, M., 1988: The world�s longest continued series of sea level observations.
Pure Appl. Geophys., 127, 73�77.
Ekstr�m, M., H.J. Fowler, C.G. Kilsby, and P.D. Jones, 2005: New estimates of
future changes in extreme rainfall across the UK using regional climate model
integrations. 2. Future estimates and use in impact studies. J. Hydrol., 300,
234�251.
Elguindi, N., and F. Giorgi, 2006: Simulating multi-decadal variability of Caspian
Sea level changesusing regional climate model outputs. Clim. Dyn., 26: 167�181.
Elliot, M., et al., 1998: Millennial scale iceberg discharges in the Irminger
Basin during the last glacial period: relationship with the Heinrich events and
environmental settings. Paleoceanography, 13, 433�446.
Ellis, J.M., and Calkin, P.E., 1984: Chronology of Holocene glaciation, central
Brooks Range, Alaska. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 95, 897�912.
Elsner, J.B., A.A. Tsonis, and T.H. Jagger, 2006: High-frequency variability in
hurricane power dissipation and its relationship to global temperature. Bull. Am.
Meteorol. Soc., 87, 763�768.
Elsner, J.B., X. Niu, and T.H. Jagger, 2004: Detecting shifts in hurricane rates
using a Markov chain Monte Carlo approach. J. Clim., 17, 2652�2666.
Emanuel, K., 2005: Increasing destructiveness of tropical cyclones over the past
30 years. Nature, 436, 686�688.
Emanuel, K.A., and M. Zivkovic-Rothman, 1999: Development and evaluation of a
convection scheme for use in climate models. J. Atmos. Sci., 56, 1766�1782.
Emerson, S., S. Mecking, and J. Abell, 2001: The biological pump in the
subtropical North Pacific Ocean: Nutrient sources, Redfield ratios, and recent
changes. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 15(3), 535�554.
Emerson, S., Y.W. Watanabe, T. Ono, and S. Mecking, 2004: Temporal trends in
apparent oxygen utilization in the upper pycnocline of the North Pacific: 1980-
2000. J. Oceanogr., 60(1), 139�147.
Emiliani, C., 1955: Pleistocene temperatures. J. Geol., 63, 538�578.
Emiliani, C., 1969: Interglacials, high sea levels and the control of Greenland
ice by the precession of the equinoxes. Science, 166, 1503�1504.
Emori, S., A. Hasegawa, T. Suzuki, and K. Dairaku, 2005: Validation,
parameterization dependence and future projection of daily precipitation simulated
with an atmospheric GCM. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L06708,
doi:10.1029/2004GL022306.
Emori, S., and S.J. Brown, 2005: Dynamic and thermodynamic changes in mean and
extreme precipitation under changed climate. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L17706,
doi:10.1029/2005GL023272.
Emori, S., et al., 1999: Coupled ocean-atmosphere model experiments of future
climate with an explicit representation of sulphate aerosol scattering. J.
Meteorol. Soc. Japan, 77, 1299�1307.
Engel, A., et al., 2004: Polysaccharide aggregation as a potential sink of marine
dissolved organic carbon. Nature, 428, 929�932.
Engelbrecht, F., C. Rautenbach, J. McGregor, and J. Katzfey, 2002: January and
July climate simulations over the SADC region using the limited-area model DARLAM.
Water SA, 28(4), 361�374.
Enting, I.G., 1987: On the use of smoothing splines to filter CO2 data. J.
Geophys. Res., 92, 10977�10984.
Enting, I.G., and J.V. Mansbridge, 1991: Latitudinal distribution of sources and
sinks of CO2 - Results of an inversion study. Tellus, 43B, 156�170.
Enting, I.G., C.M. Trudinger, and R.J. Francey, 1995: A synthesis inversion of the
concentration and 13C of atmospheric CO2. Tellus, 47B, 35�52.
Enting, I.G., T.M.L. Wigley, and M. Heimann, 1994: Future Emissions and
Concentrations of Carbon Dioxide: Key Ocean/ Atmosphere/ Land Analyses. Technical
Report 31, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Div. of
Atmospheric Research, Melbourne, Australia.
EPA, 2003: National Air Quality and Emissions Trends Report, 2003 Special Studies
Edition. Publication No. EPA 454/R-03-005, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, DC, 190pp, http://www.epa.gov/air/airtrends/aqtrnd03/
EPICA community members, 2004: Eight glacial cycles from an Antarctic ice core.
Nature, 429(6992), 623�628.
Erlick, C., L.M. Russell, and V. Ramaswamy, 2001: A microphysics-based
investigation of the radiative effects of aerosol-cloud interactions for two MAST
Experiment case studies. J. Geophys. Res., 106(D1), 1249�1269.
Ervens, B., G. Feingold, and S.M. Kreidenweis, 2005: The influence of water-
soluble organic carbon on cloud drop number concentration. J. Geophys. Res., 110,
D18211, doi:10.1029/2004JD005634.
Esper, J., D.C. Frank, R.J.S. Wilson, and K.R. Briffa, 2005: Effect of scaling and
regression on reconstructed temperature amplitude for the past millennium.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 32(7), doi:10.1029/2004GL021236.
Esper, J., E.R. Cook, and F.H. Schweingruber, 2002: Low-frequency signals in long
tree-ring chronologies for reconstructing past temperature variability. Science,
295(5563), 2250�2253.
Essery, R., M. Best, and P. Cox, 2001: MOSES 2.2 Technical Documentation. Hadley
Centre Technical Note No. 30, Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research,
UK Met Office, Exeter, UK,
http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/research/hadleycentre/pubs/HCTN/index.html.
Essery, R.H., and J. Pomeroy, 2004: Vegetation and topographic control of wind-
blown snow distributions in distributed and aggregated simulations. J.
Hydrometeorol., 5(5), 735�744.
Essery, R.H., J. Pomeroy, J. Parvianen, and P. Storck, 2003: Sublimation of snow
from boreal forests in a climate model. J. Clim., 16, 1855�1864.
Etchevers, P., et al., 2004: Validation of the energy budget of an alpine snowpack
simulated by several snow models (SnowMIP project). Ann. Glaciol., 38, 150�158.
Etheridge, D.M., et al., 1996: Natural and anthropogenic changes in atmospheric
CO2 over the last 1000 years from air in Antarctic ice and firn. J. Geophys. Res.,
101, 4115�4128.
Etheridge, D.M., L.P. Steele, R.J. Francey, and R.L. Langenfelds, 1998:
Atmospheric methane between 1000 A.D. and present: Evidence of anthropogenic
emissions and climatic variability. J. Geophys. Res., 103(D13), 15979�15993.
Etiope, G., 2004: GEM-Geologic Emission of Methane, the missing source in the
atmospheric methane budget. Atmos. Environ., 38, 3099�3100.
Etiope, G., and R.W. Klusman, 2002: Geologic emissions of methane to the
atmosphere. Chemosphere, 49, 777�789.
European Commission, 2003: Ozone-Climate Interactions. Air Pollution Research
Report 81, EUR 20623, European Commission, Luxembourg, 143 pp.
Evans, M.N., A. Kaplan, and M.A. Cane, 2002: Pacific sea surface temperature field
reconstruction from coral d18O data using reduced space objective analysis.
Paleoceanography, 17(1), 1007, ?doi:10.1029/2000PA000590.
Ewing, M., and W.L. Donn, 1956: A theory of ice ages. Science, 123, 1061�1065.
Exner, F.M., 1913: �bermonatliche Witterungsanomalien auf der n�rdlichen Erdh�lfte
im Winter. Sitzungsberichte d. Kaiserl, Akad. der Wissenschaften, 122, 1165�1241.
Exner, F.M., 1924: Monatliche Luftdruck- und Temperaturanomalien auf der Erde.
Sitzungsberichte d. Kaiserl, Akad. der Wissenschaften, 133, 307�408.
Eyer, M., 2004: Highly Resolved d13C Measurements on CO2 in Air from Antarctic Ice
Cores. PhD Thesis, University of Bern, 113 pp.
Eyring, V., et al., 2005: A strategy for process-oriented validation of coupled
chemistry-climate models. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 86, 1117�1133.
Facchini, M.C., et al., 2000: Surface tension of atmospheric wet aerosol and
cloud/fog droplets in relation to their organic carbon content and chemical
composition. Atmos. Environ., 34, 4853�4857.
Facchini, M.C., M. Mircea, S. Fuzzi, and R.J. Charlson, 1999: Cloud albedo
enhancement by surface-active organic solutes in growing droplets. Nature, 401,
257�259.
Fahrbach, E., et al., 2004: Decadal-scale variations of water mass properties in
the deep Weddell Sea. Ocean Dyn., 54(1), 77�91.
Fairbanks, R.G., 1989: A 17,000 year glacio-eustatic sea level record: Influence
of glacial melting rates on the Younger Dryas event and deep-ocean circulation.
Paleoceanography, 342, 637�642.
Falarz, M., 2002: Long-term variability in reconstructed and observed snow cover
over the last 100 winter seasons in Cracow and Zakopane (southern Poland). Clim.
Res., 19(3), 247�256.
Falkowski, P., et al., 2000: The global carbon cycle: A test of our knowledge of
Earth as a system. Science, 290(5490), 291�296.
Falloon, P., et al., 2006: RothCUK � a dynamic modelling system for estimating
changes in soil C at 1km scale in the UK. Soil Use Management, 22, 274�288.
Fan, S., et al., 1998: A large terrestrial carbon sink in North America implied by
atmospheric and oceanic carbon dioxide data and models. Science, 282, 442�446.
Fang, J., et al., 2001: Changes in forest biomass carbon storage in China between
1949 and 1998. Science, 292, 2320�2322.
Farquhar, G.D., S. von Caemmerer, and J.A. Berry, 2001: Models of photosynthesis.
Plant Physiol., 125(1), 42�45.
Farrara, J.D., C.R. Mechoso, and A.W. Robertson, 2000: Ensembles of AGCM two-tier
predictions and simulations of the circulation anomalies during winter 1997�1998.
Mon. Weather Rev., 128, 3589�3604.
Farrera, I., et al., 1999: Tropical climates at the Last Glacial Maximum: a new
synthesis of terrestrial palaeoclimate data. I. Vegetation, lake-levels and
geochemistry. Clim. Dyn., 15, 823�856.
Favier, V., P. Wagnon, and P. Ribstein, 2004: Glaciers of the outer and inner
tropics: A different behaviour but a common response to climatic forcing. Geophys.
Res. Lett., 31, L16403, doi:10.1029/2004GL020654.
Fearnside, P.M., 2000: Global warming and tropical land-use change: greenhouse gas
emissions from biomass burning, decomposition and soils in forest conversion,
shifting cultivation and secondary vegetation. Clim. Change, 46, 115�158.
Feddema, J.J., et al., 2005: The importance of land-cover change in simulating
future climates. Science, 310, 1674�1678.
Feddema, J.J., et al., 2005:A comparison of a GCM response to historical
anthropogenic land cover change and model sensitivity to uncertainty in present-
day land cover representations. Clim. Dyn., 25, 581�609.
Feddes, R.A., et al., 2001: Modeling root water uptake in hydrological and climate
models. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 82(12), 2797�2809.
Fedorov, A., and P. Konstantinov, 2003: Observations of surface dynamics with
thermokarst initiation, Yukechi site, central Yakutia. In: Proceedings of the 8th
International Conference on Permafrost, 21-25 July 2003, Zurich, Switzerland
[Phillips, M., S.M. Springman, and L.U. Arenson (eds.)]. A.A. Balkema, Lisse, the
Netherlands, pp. 239�243.
Fedorov, A.V., and S.G. Philander, 2001: A stability analysis of tropical ocean-
atmosphere interactions: Bridging measurements and theory for El Ni�o. J. Clim.,
14, 3086�3101.
Feely, R.A., and C.T.A. Chen, 1982: The effect of excess CO2 on the calculated
calcite and aragonite saturation horizons in the northeast Pacific. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 9(11), 1294�1297.
Feely, R.A., et al., 2002: In situ calcium carbonate dissolution in the Pacific
Ocean. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 16(4), 1144, doi:10.1029/2002GB001866.
Feely, R.A., et al., 2002: Seasonal and interannual variability of CO2 in the
equatorial Pacific. Deep-Sea Res. II, 49, 2443�2469.
Feely, R.A., et al., 2004: Impact of anthropogenic CO2 on the CaCO3 system in the
oceans. Science, 305, 362�366.
Feely, R.A., R. Wanninkhof, T. Takahashi, and P. Tans, 1999: Influence of El Nino
on the equatorial Pacific contribution to atmospheric CO2 accumulation. Nature,
398(6728), 597�601.
Feichter, J., E. Roeckner, U. Lohmann, and B. Liepert, 2004: Nonlinear aspects of
the climate response to greenhouse gas and aerosol forcing. J. Clim., 17,
2384�2398.
Feingold, G., 2003: Modelling of the first indirect effect: Analysis of
measurement requirements. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30(19), 1997,
doi:10.1029/2003GL017967.
Feingold, G., and P.Y. Chuang, 2002: Analysis of influence of film-forming
compounds on droplet growth: Implications for cloud microphysical processes and
climate. J. Atmos. Sci., 59, 2006�2018.
Feingold, G., H. Jiang, and J. Y. Harrington, 2005: On smoke suppression of clouds
in Amazonia. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L02804, doi:10.1029/2004GL021369.
Feingold, G., R. Boers, B. Stevens, and W.R. Cotton, 1997: A modelling study of
the effect of drizzle on cloud optical depth and susceptibility. J. Geophys. Res.,
102(D12), 13527�13534.
Feingold, G., S.M. Kreidenweis, and Y.P. Zhang, 1998: Stratocumulus processing of
gases and cloud condensation nuclei - 1. Trajectory ensemble model. J. Geophys.
Res., 103(D16), 19527�19542.
Feingold, G., W.L. Eberhard, D.E. Veron, and M. Previdi, 2003: First measurements
of the Twomey indirect effect using ground-based remote sensors. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 30(6), 1287, doi:10.1029/2002GL016633.
Feingold, G., W.R. Cotton, S.M. Kreidenweis, and J.T. Davis, 1999: The impact of
giant cloud condensation nuclei on drizzle formation in stratocumulus:
Implications for cloud radiative properties. J. Atmos. Sci., 56, 4100�4117.
Fekete, B.M., C.J. Vorosmarty, and W. Grabs, 2002: High-resolution fields of
global runoff combining observed river discharge and simulated water balances.
Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 16, doi:10.1029/1999GB001254.
Felzer, B., et al., 2004: Effects of ozone on net primary production and carbon
sequestration in the conterminous United States using a biogeochemistry model.
Tellus, 56B, 230�248.
Felzer, B., et al., 2005: Global and future implications of ozone on net primary
production and carbon sequestration using a biogeochemical model. Clim. Change,
73, 345�373.
Feng, M., and G. Meyers, 2003: Interannual variability in the tropical Indian
Ocean: A two-year time-scale of Indian Ocean Dipole. Deep-Sea Res. II, 50,
2263�2284.
Feng, Y., and J. Penner. 2007: Global modeling of nitrate and ammonium:
Interaction of aerosols and tropospheric chemistry. J. Geophys. Res., 112(D01304),
doi:10.1029/2005JD006404.
Ferek, R.J., et al., 1998: Measurements of ship-induced tracks in clouds off the
Washington coast. J. Geophys. Res., 103, 23199�23206.
Fernandez, J., J. S�enz, and E. Zorita, 2003: Analysis of wintertime atmospheric
moisture transport and its variability over southern Europe in the NCEP
reanalyses. Clim. Res., 23, 195�215.
Fern�ndez, J., and J. S�enz, 2003: Improved field reconstruction with the analog
method: searching the CCA space. Clim. Res., 24, 199�213.
Ferretti, D.F., D.C. Lowe, R.J. Martin, and G.W. Brailsford, 2000: A new GC-IRMS
technique for high precision, N2O-free analysis of d13C and d18O in atmospheric
CO2 from small air samples. J. Geophys. Res., 105(D5), 6709�6718.
Ferretti, D.F., et al., 2005: Unexpected changes to the global methane budget over
the past 2000 years. Science, 309, 1714�1717.
Fichefet, T., and M.A. Morales Maqueda, 1997: Sensitivity of a global sea ice
model to the treatment of ice thermodynamics and dynamics. J. Geophys. Res., 102,
12609�12646.
Fichefet, T., B. Tartinville, and H. Goosse, 2003: Antarctic sea ice variability
during 1958-1999: A simulation with a global ice-ocean model. J. Geophys. Res.,
108(C3), 3102�3113.
Fichefet, T., et al., 2003: Implications of changes in freshwater flux from the
Greenland ice sheet for the climate of the 21st century. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30,
1911.
Field, C.B., and M.R. Raupach (eds.), 2004: The Global Carbon Cycle: Integrating
Humans, Climate, and the Natural World. SCOPE 62, Island Press, Washington, DC,
526 pp.
Field, C.B., R.B. Jackson, and H.A. Mooney, 1995: Stomatal responses to increased
CO2: implications from the plant to the global scale. Plant Cell Environ., 18,
1214�1225.
Findell, K.L., and E.A.B. Eltahir, 2003: Atmospheric controls on soil
moisture�boundary layer interactions. Part II: Feedbacks within the continental
United States. J. Hydrometeorol., 4, 570�583.
Fink, A.H., et al., 2004: The 2003 European summer heatwaves and drought �
synoptic diagnostics and impacts. Weather, 59, 209�216.
Finzi, A.C., et al., 2006: Progressive nitrogen limitation of ecosystem processes
under elevated CO2 in a warm-temperate forest. Ecology, 87, 15�25.
Fioletov, V.E., et al., 2002: Global and zonal total ozone variations estimated
from ground-based and satellite measurements: 1964�2000. J. Geophys. Res.,
107(D22), 4647, doi:10.1029/2001JD001350.
Fiorino, M., 1997: PCMDI IPCC �95 AMIP Analysis: Observations used in the
analysis. PCMDI Web. Rep., Program for Climate Model Diagnosis and
Intercomparison, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA,
http://www-pcmdi.llnl.gov/obs/ipcc/ipcc.obs.dat.htm.
Firing, Y.L., and M.A. Merrifield, 2004: Extreme sea level events at Hawaii: the
influence of mesoscale eddies. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31(24), L24306,
doi:10.1029/2004GL021539.
Fischer-Bruns, I., H. Von Storch, J.F. Gonzalez-Rouco, and E. Zorita, 2005:
Modelling the variability of midlatitude storm activity on decadal to century time
scales. Clim. Dyn., 25, 461�476.
Fischer, G., and G. Wefer (eds.), 1999: Use of Proxies in Paleoceanography:
Examples from the South Atlantic. Springer, Berlin, 735 pp.
Fitzharris, B.B., and C.E. Garr, 1995: Simulation of past variability in seasonal
snow in the Southern Alps, New Zealand. Ann. Glaciol., 21, 377�382.
Flannigan, M.D., B.J. Stocks, and B.M. Wotton, 2000: Climate change and forest
fires. Sci. Total Environ., 262, 221�229.
Flather, R.A., and H. Khandker, 1993: The storm surge problem and possible effects
of sea level changes on coastal flooding in the Bay of Bengal. In: Climate and Sea
Level Change [Warrick, R.A., E.M. Barrow, and T. Wigley (eds)]. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 229�245.
Flather, R.A., and J.A. Williams, 2000: Climate change effects on storm surges:
methodologies and results. In: Climate Scenarios for Water-Related and Coastal
Impacts Beersma, J., M. Agnew, D. Viner, and M. Hulme (eds.)]. ECLAT-2 Workshop
Report No. 3, KNMI, The Netherlands, pp. 66�78.
Flather, R.A., et al., 1998: Direct estimates of extreme storm surge elevations
from a 40-year numerical model simulation and from observations. Global AtmosOcean
System, 6, 165�176.
Flato, G.M., 2004: Sea-ice and its response to CO2 forcing as simulated by global
climate models. Clim. Dyn., 23, 229�241, doi:10.1007/s00382-004-0436-7.
Flato, G.M., 2005: The Third Generation Coupled Global Climate Model (CGCM3) (and
included links to the description of the AGCM3 atmospheric model).
http://www.cccma.bc.ec.gc.ca/models/cgcm3.shtml.
Flato, G.M., and G.J. Boer, 2001: Warming asymmetry in climate change simulations.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 195�198.
Flato, G.M., and Participating CMIP Modeling Groups, 2004: Sea-ice and its
response to CO2 forcing as simulated by global climate change studies. Clim. Dyn.,
23, 220�241.
Flato, G.M., and W.D. Hibler, 1992: Modeling pack ice as a cavitating fluid. J.
Phys. Oceanogr., 22, 626�651.
Fleitmann, D., et al., 2003: Holocene forcing of the Indian monsoon recorded in a
stalagmite from southern Oman. Science, 300, 1737�1740.
Fleming, J.R., 1998: Historical Perspectives on Climate Change. Oxford University
Press, New York, 208pp.
Fligge, M., and S.K. Solanki, 2000: The solar spectral irradiance since 1700.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 27, 2157�2160.
Fl�ckiger, J., et al., 1999: Variations in atmospheric N2O concentration during
abrupt climatic changes. Science, 285, 227�230.
Fl�ckiger, J., et al., 2002: High resolution Holocene N2O ice core record and its
relationship with CH4 and CO2. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 16,
doi:10.1029/2001GB001417.
Fl�ckiger, J., et al., 2004: N2O and CH4 variations during the last glacial epoch:
Insight into global processes. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 18,
doi:10.1029/2003GB002122.
Flugel, M., P. Chang, and C. Penland, 2004: The role of stochastic forcing in
modulating ENSO predictability. J. Clim., 17(16), 3125�3140.
Fogt, R.L., and D.H. Bromwich, 2006: Decadal variability of the ENSO
teleconnection to the high latitude South Pacific governed by coupling with the
Southern Annular Mode. J. Clim., 19, 979�997.
Folberth, G., D.A. Hauglustaine, P. Ciais, and J. Lathi�re, 2005: On the role of
atmospheric chemistry in the global CO2 budget. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L08801,
doi:10.1029/2004GL021812.
Folberth, G.A., D.A. Hauglustaine, J. Lathi�re, and F. Brocheton, 2006:
Interactive chemistry in the Laboratoire de M�t�orologie Dynamique general
circulation model: model description and impact of biogenic hydrocarbons on
tropospheric chemistry. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 2273�2319.
Foley, J.A., et al., 2003: Green Surprise? How terrestrial ecosystems could affect
Earth�s climate. Frontiers Ecol. Environ., 1(1), 38�44.
Foley, J.A., et al., 2005: Global consequences of land use. Science, 309, 570�574.
Foley,J.A., M.T. Coe, M. Scheffer, and G. Wang., 2003: Regime shifts in the Sahara
and Sahel: Interactions between ecological systems in Southern Africa. Ecosystems,
6, 524�539.
Folkins, I., K.K. Kelly, and E.M. Weinstock, 2002: A simple explanation of the
increase in relative humidity between 11 and 14 km in the tropics. J. Geophys.
Res., 107, doi:10.1029/2002JD002185.
Folland, C.K., and D.E. Parker, 1995: Correction of instrumental biases in
historical sea surface temperature data. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 121, 319�367.
Folland, C.K., et al., 2001: Global temperature change and its uncertainties since
1861. Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 2621�2624.
Folland, C.K., et al., 2001: Observed climate variability and change. In: Climate
Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Third
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Houghton,
J.T., et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and
New York, NY, pp. 99�181.
Folland, C.K., T. N. Palmer, and D. E. Parker, 1986: Sahel rainfall and worldwide
sea temperatures 1901-85. Nature, 320, 602�607.
Fomby, T.B., and T.J. Vogelsang, 2002: The application of size-robust trend
statistics to global-warming temperature series. J. Clim., 15, 117�123.
Forest, C.E., et al., 2002: Quantifying uncertainties in climate system properties
with the use of recent observations. Science, 295, 113.
Forest, C.E., M.R. Allen, A.P. Sokolov, and P.H. Stone, 2001: Constraining climate
model properties using optimal fingerprint detection methods. Clim. Dyn., 18,
277�295.
Forest, D.J., P.H. Stone, and A.P. Sokolov, 2006: Estimated PDFs of climate system
properties including natural and anthropogenic forcings. Geophys. Res. Lett., 33,
L01705, doi:10.1029/2005GL023977.
Forman, S.L., R. Oglesby, and R.S. Webb, 2001: Temporal and spatial patterns of
Holocene dune activity on the Great Plains of North America: megadroughts and
climate links. Global Planet. Change, 29(1�2), 1�29.
Formenti, P., et al., 2003: Inorganic and carbonaceous aerosols during the
Southern African Regional Science Initiative (SAFARI 2000) experiment: Chemical
characteristics, physical properties, and emission data or smoke from African
biomass burning. J. Geophys. Res., 108(D13), 8488, doi:10.1029/2002JD002408.
Forster, P.M. de F., and K.E. Taylor, 2006: Climate forcings and climate
sensitivities diagnosed from coupled climate model integrations. J. Clim., 19,
6181�6194.
Forster, P.M. de F., and K.P. Shine, 2002: Assessing the climate impact of trends
in stratospheric water vapour. Geophys. Res. Lett., 6, doi:10.1029/2001GL013909.
Forster, P.M. de F., and M. Collins, 2004: Quantifying the water vapour feedback
associated with post-Pinatubo cooling. Clim. Dyn., 23, 207�214.
Forster, P.M.D., and J.M. Gregory, 2006: The climate sensitivity and its
components diagnosed from Earth radiation budget data. J. Clim., 19, 39�52.
Forster, P.M.F., and K. Tourpali, 2001: Effect of tropopause height changes on the
calculation of ozone trends and their radiative forcing. J. Geophys. Res.,
106(D11), 12241�12251.
Forster, P.M.F., and K.P. Shine, 1999: Stratospheric water vapour changes as a
possible contributor to observed stratospheric cooling. Geophys. Res. Lett.,
26(21), 3309�3312.
Forster, P.M.F., and M.J. Joshi, 2005: The role of halocarbons in the climate
change of the troposphere and stratosphere. Clim. Change, 70, 249�266.
Forster, P.M.F., et al., 2005: Resolving uncertainties in the radiative forcing of
HFC-134s. J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiative Transfer, 93, 447�460.
Forster, P.M.F., M. Blackburn, R. Glover, and K.P. Shine, 2000: An examination of
climate sensitivity for idealised climate change experiments in an intermediate
general circulation model. Clim. Dyn., 16, 833�849.
Foster, S.S., 2004: Reconstruction of Solar Irradiance Variations for use in
Studies of Global Climate Change: Application of Recent SOHO Observations with
Historic Data from the Greenwich Observatory. PhD Thesis, University of
Southampton, Faculty of Science, Southampton, 231 p.
Foukal, P., C. Frohlich, H. Spruit, and T.M.L. Wigley, 2006: Variations in solar
luminosity and their effect on the Earth�s climate. Nature, 443, 161�166.
Foukal, P., G. North, and T. Wigley, 2004: A stellar view on solar variations and
climate. Science, 306, 68�69.
Foukal, P.V., P.E. Mack, and J.E. Vernazza, 1977: The effect of sunspots and
faculae on the solar constant. Astrophys. J., 215, 952-959.
Fountain, A.G., T.A. Neumann, P.L. Glenn, and T. Chinn, 2004: Can warming induce
advances of polar glaciers, Taylor Valley, Antarctica. J. Glaciol., 50(171),
556�564.
Fowler, H.J., M. Ekstr�m, C.G. Kilsby, and P.D. Jones, 2005: New estimates of
future changes in extreme rainfall across the UK using regional climate model
integrations. 1. Assessment of control climate. J. Hydrol., 300, 212�233.
Fox-Rabinovitz, M.S.L.L. Takacs, R.C. Govindaraju, and M.J. Suarez, 2001: A
variable-resolution stretched-grid general circulation model: Regional climate
simulation. Mon. Weather Rev., 129(3), 453�469.
Fr�hlich, C., and J. Lean, 2004: Solar radiative output and its variability:
Evidence and mechanisms. Astron. Astrophys. Rev., 12, 273�320.
Frame, D.J., et al., 2005: Constraining climate forecasts: The role of prior
assumptions. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L09702, doi:10.1029/2004GL022241.
Francey, R.J., and G.D. Farquhar, 1982: An explanation of C-13/C-12 variations in
tree rings. Nature, 297, 28�31.
Francey, R.J., et al., 1995: Changes in oceanic and terrestrial carbon uptake
since 1982. Nature, 373, 326�330.
Francey, R.J., et al., 1999: A history of d13C in atmospheric CH4 from the Cape
Grim Air Archive and Antarctic firn air. J. Geophys. Res., 104(D19), 23633�23643.
Francois, L.M., C. Delire, P. Warnant, and G. Munhoven, 1998: Modelling the
glacial-interglacial changes in the continental biosphere. Global Planet. Change,
17, 37�52.
Francois, L.M., et al., 1999: Carbon stocks and isotopic budgets of the
terrestrial biosphere at mid-Holocene and last glacial maximum times. Chem. Geol.,
159, 163�189.
Francou, B., et al., 2003: Tropical climate change recorded by a glacier in the
central Andes during the last decades of the twentieth century: Chacaltaya,
Bolivia, 16�S. J. Geophys. Res., 108(D5), 4154, doi:10.1029/2002JD002959.
Francou, B., M. Vuille, V. Favier, and B. C�ceres, 2004: New evidence for an ENSO
impact on low-latitude glaciers: Antizana 15, Andes of Ecuador, 0�28�S. J.
Geophys. Res., 109, D18106, doi:10.1029/2003JD004484.
Frankenberg, C., et al., 2005: Assessing methane emissions from global space-borne
observations. Science, 308, 1010�1014.
Frankenberg, C., et al., 2006: Satellite chartography of atmospheric methane from
SCIAMACHY on board EMVISAT: Analysis of the years 2003 and 2004. J. Geophys. Res.,
111, doi:10.1029/2005JD006235.
Fraser, P.J., M.A.K. Khalil, R.A. Rasmussen, and A.J. Crawford, 1981: Trends of
atmospheric methane in the southern hemisphere. Geophys. Res. Lett., 8, 1063�1066.
Frauenfeld, O.W., T. Zhang, R.G. Barry, and D. Gilichinsky, 2004: Interdecadal
changes in seasonal freeze and thaw depths in Russia. J. Geophys. Res., 109,
D5101, doi:10.1029/2003JD004245.
Free, M., and J.K. Angell, 2002: Effect of volcanoes on the vertical temperature
profile in radiosonde data. J. Geophys. Res., 107, doi:10.1029/2001JD001128.
Free, M., et al., 2005: Radiosonde Atmospheric Temperature Products for Assessing
Climate (RATPAC): A new dataset of large-area anomaly time series. J. Geophys.
Res., 110, D22101, doi:10.1029/2005JD006169.
Freeland, H., et al., 1997: Evidence of change in the winter mixed layer in the
Northeast Pacific Ocean. Deep-Sea Res. I, 44(12), 2117�2129.
Freeman, C., et al., 2004: Export of dissolved organic carbon from peatlands under
elevated carbon dioxide levels. Nature, 430, 195�198.
Freeman, K.H., and J.M. Hayes, 1992: Fractionation of carbon isotopes by
phytoplankton and estimates of ancient CO2 levels. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 6,
185�198.
Frei, A., J. Miller, and D. Robinson, 2003: Improved simulations of snow extent in
the second phase of the Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project (AMIP-2). J.
Geophys. Res., 108(D12), 4369, doi:10.1029/2002JD003030.
Frei, A., J.A. Miller, R. Brown, and D.A. Robinson, 2005: Snow mass over North
America: observations and results from the second phase of the Atmospheric Model
Intercomparison Project (AMIP-2). J. Hydrometeorol., 6, 681�695.
Frei, C., C. Sch�r, D. L�thi, and H.C. Davies, 1998: Heavy precipitation processes
in a warmer climate. Geophys. Res. Lett., 25, 1431�1434.
Frei, C., et al., 2003: Daily precipitation statistics in regional climate models:
Evaluation and intercomparison for the European Alps. J. Geophys. Res., 108(D3),
4124, doi:10.1029/2002JD002287.
Frei, C., et al., 2006: Future change of precipitation extremes in Europe:
Intercomparison of scenarios from regional climate models. J. Geophys. Res., 111,
D06105, doi:10.1029/2005JD005965.
Freiman, M., and P. Tyson, 2000: The thermodynamic structure of the atmosphere
over South Africa: Implications for water vapour transport. Water SA, 26(2),
153�158.
Freitas, S.R., et al., 2005: Monitoring the transport of biomass burning emissions
in South America. Environ. Fluid Mech., 5, 135�167.
Frew, R., A. Bowie, P. Croot, and S. Pickmere, 2001: Macronutrient and trace-metal
geochemistry of an in situ iron-induced Southern Ocean bloom. Deep-Sea Res. II,
48(11�12), 2467�2481.
Frich, P., et al., 2002: Observed coherent changes in climatic extremes during the
second half of the twentieth century. Clim. Res., 19, 193�212.
Friedl, M.A., et al., 2002: Global land cover mapping from MODIS: algorithms and
early results. Remote Sens. Environ., 83, 287�302.
Friedlingstein, P., and S. Solomon, 2005: Contributions of past and present human
generations to committed warming caused by carbon dioxide. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.
U.S.A., 102, 10832�10836.
Friedlingstein, P., et al., 2001: Positive feedback between future climate change
and the carbon cycle. Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 1543�1546.
Friedlingstein, P., et al., 2006: Climate�carbon cycle feedback analysis, results
from the C4MIP model intercomparison. J. Clim., 19, 3337�3353.
Friedlingstein, P., J.-L. Dufresne, P.M. Cox, and P. Rayner, 2003: How positive is
the feedback between climate change and the carbon cycle? Tellus, 55B(2), 692�700.
Friedlingstein, P.J.-L.Dufresne, P.M. Cox, and P. Rayner, 2003: How positive is
the feedback between climate change and the carbon cycle? Tellus, 55B, 692�700.
Friend, A.D., and N.Y. Kiang, 2005: Land surface model development for the GISS
GCM: Effects of improved canopy physiology on simulated climate. J. Clim., 18,
2883�2902.
Fritts, H.C., 1962: An approach to dendroclimatology: screening by means of
multiple regression techniques. J. Geophys. Res., 67, 1413�1420.
Fu, C.B., et al., 2005: Regional Climate Model Intercomparison project for Asia.
Am. Meteorol. Soc., 86(2), 257�266, doi:10.11/BAMS-86-2-257.
Fu, L.L., and A. Cazenave, 2001: Satellite Altimetry and Earth Sciences: A
Handbook of Techniques and Applications. International Geophysics Series Vol. 69,
Academic Press, San Diego, 457 pp.
Fu, Q., C.M. Johanson, S.G. Warren, and D.J. Seidel, 2004: Contribution of
stratospheric cooling to satellite-inferred tropospheric temperature trends.
Nature, 429, 55�58.
Fu, Q., M. Baker, and D.L. Hartmann, 2002: Tropical cirrus and water vapour: an
effective Earth infrared iris? Atmos. Chem. Phys., 2, 31�37.
Fu, R., and W. Li, 2004: The influence of the land surface on the transition from
dry to wet season in Amazonia. Theor. Appl. Climatol., 78, 97�110,
doi:10.1007/s00704-004-0046-7.
Fueglistaler, S., and P.H. Haynes, 2005: Control of interannual and longer-term
variability of stratospheric water vapor. J. Geophys. Res., 110, D24108,
doi:10.1029/2005JD006019.
Fueglistaler, S., H. Wernli, and T. Peter, 2004: Tropical troposphere-to-
stratosphere transport inferred from trajectory calculations. J. Geophys. Res.,
109, D03108, doi:10.1029/2003JD004069.
Fuentes, U., and D. Heimann, 2000: An improved statistical-dynamical downscaling
scheme and its application to the alpine precipitation climatology. Theor. Appl.
Climatol., 65, 119�135.
Fuglestvedt, J.S., et al., 1999: Climatic forcing of nitrogen oxides through
changes in tropospheric ozone and methane; global 3D model studies. Atmos.
Environ., 33, 961�977.
Fuglestvedt, J.S., et al., 2003: Metrics of climate change: assessing radiative
forcing and emission indices. Clim. Change, 58, 267�331.
Fuglestvedt, J.S., T.K. Berntsen, O. Godal, and T. Skodvin, 2000: Climate
implications of GWP-based reductions in greenhouse gas emissions. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 27(3), 409�412, doi:10.1029/1999GL010939.
Fujib�, F., N. Yamazaki, M. Katsuyama, and K. Kobayashi, 2005: The increasing
trend of intense precipitation in Japan based on four-hourly data for a hundred
years. Scientific Online Letters on the Atmosphere, 1, 41�44.
Fujita, K., and Y. Ageta, 2000: Effect of summer accumulation on glacier mass
balance on the Tibetan Plateau revealed by mass-balance model. J. Glaciol.,
46(153), 244�252.
Fukasawa, M., et al., 2004: Bottom water warming in the North Pacific Ocean.
Nature, 427(6977), 825�827.
Fuller, K.A., W.C. Malm, and S.M. Kreidenweis, 1999: Effects of mixing on
extinction by carbonaceous particles. J. Geophys. Res., 104(D13), 15941�15954.
Fung, I., S.C. Doney, K. Lindsay, and J. John, 2005: Evolution of carbon sinks in
a changing climate. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 102(32), 11201�11206.
Furevik, T., et al., 2003: Description and evaluation of the Bergen climate model:
ARPEGE coupled with MICOM. Clim. Dyn., 21, 27�51.
Furrer, R., S.R. Sain, D.W. Nychka, and G.A. Meehl, 2007: Multivariate Bayesian
analysis of atmosphere-ocean general circulation models. Environ. Ecol. Stat., in
press.
Fusco, A.C., and J.A. Logan, 2003: Analysis of 1970-1995 trends in tropospheric
ozone at northern hemisphere midlatitudes with the GEOS-CHEM model. J. Geophys.
Res., 108(D15), 4449, doi:10.1029/2002JD002742.
Fuzzi, S., et al., 2001; A simplified model of the water soluble organic component
of atmospheric aerosols. Geophys. Res. Lett., 28(21), 4079�4082.
Fyfe, J.C., 2003: Extratropical southern hemisphere cyclones: Harbingers of
climate change? J. Clim., 16, 2802�2805.
Fyfe, J.C., and O.A. Saenko, 2005: Human-induced change in the Antarctic
Circumpolar Current. J. Clim., 18, 3068�3073.
Fyfe, J.C., and O.A. Saenko, 2006: Simulated changes in the extratropical Southern
Hemisphere winds and currents. Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L06701,
doi:10.1029/2005GL025332.
Fyfe, J.C., G.J. Boer, and G.M. Flato, 1999: The Arctic and Antarctic Oscillations
and their projected changes under global warming. Geophys. Res. Lett., 26,
1601�1604.
Gabric, A.J., et al., 2004: Modeling estimates of the global emission of
dimethylsulfide under enhanced greenhouse conditions. Global Biogeochem. Cycles,
18(2), GB2014, doi:10.1029/2003GB002183.
Gaertner, M.A., et al., 2001: The impact of deforestation on the hydrological
cycle in the western Mediterranean: an ensemble study with two regional climate
models. Clim. Dyn., 17, 857-873
Gaffen, D.J., et al., 2000: Multidecadal changes in the vertical temperature
structure of the tropical troposphere. Science, 287(5456), 1242�1245.
Gagan, M.K., et al., 1998: Temperature and surface-ocean water balance of the mid-
Holocene tropical western Pacific. Science, 279, 1014�1018.
Galin, V. Ya., E.M. Volodin, and S.P. Smyshliaev, 2003: Atmospheric general
circulation model of INM RAS with ozone dynamics. Russ. Meteorol. Hydrol., 5,
13�22.
Galloway, J.N., et al., 2004: Nitrogen cycles: past, present, and future.
Biogeochemistry, 70(2), 153�226.
Gall�e, H., et al., 1991: Simulation of the last glacial cycle by a coupled,
sectorally averaged climate�ice sheet model. Part I: The climate model. J.
Geophys. Res., 96, 13139�13161.
Gamo, T., et al., 1986: Spatial and temporal variations of water characteristics
in the Japan Sea bottom layer. J. Mar. Res., 44(4), 781�793.
Gamon, J.A., et al., 2003. Remote sensing in BOREAS: Lessons learned. Remote Sens.
Environ., 89, 139�162.
Ganachaud, A., 2003: Large-scale mass transports, water mass formation, and
diffusivities estimated from World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE)
hydrographic data. J. Geophys. Res., 108, 3213.
Ganachaud, A., and C. Wunsch, 2000: Improved estimates of global ocean
circulation, heat transport and mixing from hydrographic data. Nature, 408,
453�457.
Ganachaud, A., and C. Wunsch, 2003: Large-scale ocean heat and freshwater
transports during the World Ocean Circulation Experiment.�J. Clim., 16, 696�705.
Ganopolski, A., and S. Rahmstorf, 2001: Rapid changes of glacial climate simulated
in a coupled climate model. Nature, 409, 153�158.
Ganopolski, A., et al., 1998: The influence of vegetation-atmosphere-ocean
interaction on climate during the mid-Holocene. Science, 280, 1916�1919.
Ganzeveld, L.N., et al., 2002: Global soil-biogenic NOx emissions and the role of
canopy processes. J. Geophys. Res., 107(D16), 4298, doi:10.1029/2001JD001289.
Gao, F., et al., 2005: MODIS bidirectional reflectance distribution function and
albedo Climate Modeling Grid products and the variability of albedo for major
global vegetation types. J. Geophys. Res., 110, D01104, doi:10.1029/2004JD005190.
Gao, Q., and M. Yu, 1998: A model of regional vegetation dynamics and its
application to the study of Northeast China Transect (NECT) responses to global
change. Global BiogeochemCycles, 12(2), 329�344.
Gao, X., and P.A. Dirmeyer, 2006: A multimodel analysis, validation and
transferability study of global soil wetness products. J. Hydrometeorol., 7,
1218�1236.
Gao, X.J., D.L. Li, Z.C. Zhao, and F. Giorgi, 2003b: Climate change due to
greenhouse effects in Qinghai-Xizang Plateau and along the Qianghai-Tibet Railway.
Plateau Meteorol., 22(5), 458�463.
Gao, X.J., et al., 2001: Climate change due to greenhouse effects in China as
simulated by a regional climate model. AdvAtmosSci., 18, 1224�1230.
Gao, X.J., et al., 2006b: Impacts of horizontal resolution and topography on the
numerical simulation of East Asia precipitation. Chin. J. Atmos. Sci., 30,
185�192.
Gao, X.J., J.S. Pal, and F. Giorgi, 2006a: Projected changes in mean and extreme
precipitation over the Mediterranean region from a high resolution double nested
RCM simulation. Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L03706, doi:10.1029/2005GL024954.
Gao, X.J., W.T. Lin, Z.C. Zhao, and F. Kucharsky, 2004: Simulation of climate and
short-term climate prediction in China by CCM3 driven by observed SST. Chin. J.
AtmosSci., 28, 63�76.
Gao, X.J., Z.C. Zhao, and F. Giorgi, 2002: Changes of extreme events in regional
climate simulations over East Asia. AdvAtmosSci., 19, 927�942.
Gao, X.J., Z.C. Zhao, and Y.H. Ding, 2003a: Climate change due to greenhouse
effects in Northwest China as simulated by a regional climate
modelJGlaciolGeocryol., 25(2), 165�169.
Gao, Z., et al., 2004: Modeling of surface energy partitioning, surface
temperature, and soil wetness in the Tibetan prairie using the Simple Biosphere
Model 2 (SiB2). J. Geophys. Res., 109, D06102, doi:10.1029/2003JD004089.
Garcia, H.E., et al., 2005: On the variability of dissolved oxygen and apparent
oxygen utilization content for the upper world ocean: 1955 to 1998. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 32, L09604, doi:10.1029/GL022286.
Gasparini, G.P., et al., 2005: The effect of the Eastern Mediterranean Transient
on the hydrographic characteristics in the Strait of Sicily and in the Tyrrhenian
Sea. Deep-Sea Res. I, 52(6), 915�935.
Gates, W.L., et al., 1996: Climate models � evaluation. In: Climate 1995: The
Science of Climate Change [Houghton, J.T., et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 229�284.
Gates, W.L., et al., 1999: An overview of the results of the Atmospheric Model
Intercomparison Project (AMIP I). Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 80, 29�55.
Gattuso, J.-P., D. Allemand, and M. Frankignoulle, 1999: Photosynthesis and
calcification at cellular, organismal and community levels in coral reefs: a
review on interactions and control by carbonate chemistry. Am. Zool., 39, 160�183.
Gauss, M., et al., 2006: Radiative forcing since preindustrial times due to ozone
changes in the troposphere and the lower stratosphere. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6,
575�599.
Gavrilov, P.P. and P.V. Efremov, 2003: Effects of cryogenic processes on Yakutia
landscapes under climate warming. In: Proceedings of the 8th International
Conference on Permafrost, 21-25 July 2003, Zurich, Switzerland [Phillips, M., S.M.
Springman, and L.U. Arenson (eds.)]. A.A. Balkema, Lisse, the Netherlands, pp.
277�282.
Gedney, N., and P. Cox, 2003: The sensitivity of global climate model simulations
to the representation of soil moisture heterogeneity. J. Hydrometeorol., 4,
1265�1275.
Gedney, N., and P.J. Valdes, 2000: The effect of Amazonian deforestation on the
Northern Hemisphere circulation and climate. Geophys. Res. Lett., 27(19),
3053�3056.
Gedney, N., et al., 2006: Detection of a direct carbon dioxide effect in
continental river runoff records. Nature, 439, 835�838.
Gedney, N., P.M. Cox, and C. Huntingford, 2004: Climate feedback from wetland
methane emissions. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L20503, doi:10.1029/2004GL020919.
Geerts, B., 1999: Trends in atmospheric science journals. Bull. Am. Meteorol.
Soc., 80, 639�652.
Gehrels, W.R., et al., 2004: Late Holocene sea-level changes and isostatic crustal
movements in Atlantic Canada. Quat. Int., 120, 79�89.
Gellatly, A.F., T.J. Chinn, and F. R�thlisberger, 1988: Holocene glacier
variations in New Zealand: a review. Quat. Sci. Rev., 7, 227�242.
Geller, M.A., and S.P. Smyshlyaev, 2002: A model study of total ozone evolution
1979-2000: The role of individual natural and anthropogenic effects. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 29(22), 5�8.
Geng, Q., and M. Sugi, 2003: Possible change of extratropical cyclone activity due
to enhanced greenhouse gases and sulfate aerosols�Study with a high-resolution
AGCM. J. Clim., 16, 2262�2274.
Geng, Q.Z., and M. Sugi, 2003: Possible change of extratropical cyclone activity
due to enhanced greenhouse gases and sulfate aerosols - Study with a high-
resolution AGCM. J. Clim., 16, 2262�2274.
Gent, P.R., 2001: Will the North Atlantic Ocean thermohaline circulation weaken
during the 21st century? Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 1023�1026.
Gent, P.R., and G. Danabasoglu, 2004: Heat uptake and the thermohaline circulation
in the Coummunity Climate System Model, Version 2. J. Clim., 17, 4058�4069.
Gent, P.R., J. Willebrand, T.J. McDougall, and J.C. McWilliams, 1995:
Parameterizing eddy-induced tracer transports in ocean circulation models. J.
Phys. Oceanogr., 25, 463�474.
Genthon, C., and E. Cosme, 2003: Intermittent signature of ENSO in west-Antarctic
precipitation. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30, 2081, doi:10.1029/2003GL018280.
Genthon, C., G. Krinner, and E. Cosme, 2002: Free and laterally-nudged Antarctic
climate of an atmospheric general circulation model. Mon. Weather Rev., 130,
1601�1616.
Genthon, C., S. Kapari, and P.A. Mayewski, 2005: Interannual variability of the
surface mass balance of West Antarctica from ITASE cores and ERA40 reanalyses.
Clim. Dyn., 24, 759�770.
Geogdzhayev, I.V., et al., 2002: Global two-channel AVHRR retrievals of aerosol
properties over the ocean for the period of NOAA-9 observations and preliminary
retrievals using NOAA-7 and NOAA-11 data. J. Atmos. Sci., 59, 262�278.
Geogdzhayev, I.V., et al., 2002: Global two-channel AVHRR retrievals of aerosol
properties over the ocean for the period of NOAA-9 observations and preliminary
retrievals using NOAA-7 and NOAA-11 data. J. Atmos. Sci., 59, 262�278.
Georges, C., 2004: The 20th century glacier fluctuations in the Cordillera Blanca
(Per�). Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Res., 36(1), 100�107.
Gerbaux, M., et al., 2005: Surface mass balance of glaciers in the French Alps:
distributed modeling and sensitivity to climate change. J. Glaciol., 51(175),
561�572.
Gerber, S., et al., 2003: Constraining temperature variations over the last
millennium by comparing simulated and observed atmospheric CO2. Clim. Dyn., 20,
281�299.
Gersonde, R., X. Crosta, A. Abelmann, and L. Armand, 2005: Sea-surface temperature
and sea ice distribution of the Southern Ocean at the EPILOG Last Glacial Maximum
- a circum-Antarctic view based on siliceous microfossil records. Quat. Sci. Rev.,
24 (7�9), 869�896
Gerten, D., et al., 2004: Terrestrial vegetation and water balance�hydrological
evaluation of a dynamic global vegetation model. J. Hydrol., 286, 249�270.
Gertman, I., N. Pinardi, Y. Popov, and A. Hecht, 2006: Aegean sea water masses
during the early stages of the eastern Mediterranean climatic transient (1988-
1990). J. Phys. Oceanogr., 36(9), 1841�1859.
Gettelman, A., J.R. Holton, and A.R. Douglass, 2000: Simulations of water vapor in
the lower stratosphere and upper troposphere. J. Geophys. Res., 105, 9003�9023.
Gettelman, A., J.R. Holton, and K.H. Rosenlof, 1997: Mass fluxes of O3, CH4, N2O,
and CF2Cl2 in the lower stratosphere calculated from observational data. J.
Geophys. Res., 102, 19149�19159.
GFDL GAMDT (The GFDL Global Atmospheric Model Development Team), 2004: The new
GFDL global atmosphere and land model AM2-LM2: Evaluation with prescribed SST
simulations. J. Clim., 17, 4641�4673.
Ghan, S., et al., 2001: Evaluation of aerosol direct radiative forcing in MIRAGE.
J. Geophys. Res., 106(D6), 5295�5316.
Ghan, S.J., et al., 2001b: Evaluation of aerosol direct radiative forcing in
MIRAGE. J. Geophys. Res., 106, 5295�5316.
Ghan, S.J., G. Guzman, and H. Abdul-Razzak, 1998: Competition between sea salt and
sulphate particles as cloud condensation nuclei. J. Atmos. Sci., 55, 3340�3347.
Ghan, S.J., R. Easter, J. Hudson, and F.-M. Br�on, 2001a: Evaluation of aerosol
indirect radiative forcing in MIRAGE. J. Geophys. Res., 106, 5317�5334.
Ghan,S.J., and T. Shippert, 2006:Physically-based global downscalingclimate change
projections for a full century, J. Clim., 19, 1589�1604.
Gherardi, J.M., et al., 2005: Evidence from the North Eastern Atlantic Basin for
variability of the Meridional Overturning Circulation through the last
deglaciation. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 240, 710�723.
Ghil, M., 1989: Deceptively-simple models of climatic change. In: Climate and Geo-
Sciences [Berger, A., J.-C. Duplessy, and S.H. Schneider (eds.)]. D. Reidel,
Dordrecht, Netherlands and Hingham, MA, pp. 211�240.
Giannini, A., M.A. Cane, and Y. Kushnir, 2001: Interdecadal changes in the ENSO
teleconnection to the Caribbean region and North Atlantic Oscillation. J. Clim.,
14, 2867�2879.
Giannini, A., R. Saravanan, and P. Chang, 2003: Oceanic forcing of Sahel rainfall
on interannual to interdecadal time scales. Science, 302, 1027�1030.
Giannini, A., Y. Kushnir, and M.A. Cane, 2000: Interannual variability of
Caribbean rainfall, ENSO and the Atlantic Ocean. J. Clim., 13, 297�311.
Giardina, C.P., and M.G. Ryan, 2000: Evidence that decomposition rates of organic
carbon in mineral soil do not vary with temperature. Nature, 404, 858�861.
Gibelin, A.L., and D�qu�, M., 2003: Anthropogenic climate change over the
Mediterranean region simulated by a global variable resolution model. Clim. Dyn.,
20, 327�339.
Gibson, J.K., et al., 1997: ERA Description. ECMWF Reanalysis Project Report
Series Vol. 1. European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts, Reading, UK, 66
pp.
Gilgen, H., M. Wild, and A. Ohmura, 1998: Means and trends of shortwave irradiance
at the surface estimated from global energy balance archive data. J. Clim., 11,
2042�2061.
Gille, S.T., 2002: Warming of the Southern Ocean since the 1950s. Science,
295(5558), 1275�1277.
Gille, S.T., 2004: How nonlinearities in the equation of state of seawater can
confound estimates of steric sea level change. J. Geophys. Res., 109(3), C03005,
doi:10.1029/2003JC002012.
Gillett, N.P., 2005: Northern Hemisphere circulation. Nature, 437, 496.
Gillett, N.P., A.J. Weaver, F.W. Zwiers, and M.F. Wehner, 2004b: Detection of
volcanic influence on global precipitation. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31(12), L12217,
doi:10.1029/2004GL020044.
Gillett, N.P., and D.W.J. Thompson, 2003: Simulation of recent Southern Hemisphere
climate change. Science, 302, 273�275.
Gillett, N.P., et al., 2002a: Reconciling two approaches to the detection of
anthropogenic influence on climate. J. Clim., 15, 326�329.
Gillett, N.P., et al., 2002b: How linear is the Arctic Oscillation response to
greenhouse gases? J. Geophys. Res., 107, doi: 10.1029/2001JD000589.
Gillett, N.P., et al., 2002c: Detecting anthropogenic influence with a multi-model
ensemble. Geophys. Res. Lett., 29, doi:10.1029/2002GL015836.
Gillett, N.P., F.W. Zwiers, A.J. Weaver, and P.A. Stott, 2003b: Detection of human
influence on sea level pressure. Nature, 422, 292�294.
Gillett, N.P., G.C. Hegerl, M.R. Allen, and P.A. Stott, 2000: Implications of
changes in the Northern Hemispheric circulation for the detection of anthropogenic
climate change. Geophys. Res. Lett., 27, 993�996.
Gillett, N.P., H.F. Graf, and T.J. Osborn, 2003a: Climate change and the North
Atlantic Oscillation. In: The North Atlantic Oscillation: Climate Significance and
Environmental Impact [Hurrell, Y.K.J., G. Ottersen, and M. Visbeck (eds.)].
Geophysical Monograph Vol. 134, American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, pp.
193-209.
Gillett, N.P., M.F. Wehner, S.F.B. Tett, and A.J. Weaver, 2004c: Testing the
linearity of the response to combined greenhouse gas and sulfate aerosol forcing.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L14201, doi:10.1029/2004GL020111.
Gillett, N.P., M.R. Allen, and K.D. Williams, 2003: Modeling the atmospheric
response to doubled CO2 and depleted stratospheric ozone using a stratosphere-
resolving coupled GCM. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 129, 947�966.
Gillett, N.P., R.J. Allan, and T.J. Ansell, 2005: Detection of external influence
on sea level pressure with a multi-model ensemble. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32(19),
L19714, doi:10.1029/2005GL023640.
Ginoux, P., et al., 2001: Sources and distributions of dust aerosols simulated
with the GOCART model. J. Geophys. Res., 16, 20255�20274.
Giorgetta M.A., et al., 2006: Climatology and forcing of the quasi-biennial
oscillation in the MAECHAM5 model. J. Clim., 19, 3882�3901.
Giorgetta, M.A., E. Manzini, and E. Roeckner, 2002: Forcing of the quasi-biennial
oscillation from a broad spectrum of atmospheric waves. Geophys. Res. Lett., 29,
1245, doi:10.1029/2002GL014756.
Giorgi, F., and L.O. Mearns, 2002: Calculation of average, uncertainty range, and
reliability of regional climate changes from AOGCM simulations via the reliability
ensemble averaging (REA) method. J. Clim., 15, 1141�1158.
Giorgi, F., and L.O. Mearns, 2003: Probability of regional climate change based on
the Reliability Ensemble Averaging (REA) method. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30, 1629.
Giorgi, F., and R. Francesco, 2000: Evaluating uncertainties in the prediction of
regional climate change. Geophys. Res. Lett., 27, 1295�1298.
Giorgi, F., and X. Bi, 2005: Regional changes in surface climate interannual
variability for the 21st century from ensembles of global model simulations.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L13701, doi:10.1029/2005GL023002.
Giorgi, F., et al., 2001a: Regional climate information � Evaluation and
projections. In: Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Contribution of
Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change [Houghton, J.T., et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 583�638.
Giorgi, F., et al., 2001b: Emerging patterns of simulated regional climatic
changes for the 21st century due to anthropogenic forcings. Geophys. Res. Lett.,
28(17), 3317�3320.
Giorgi, F., J.W. Hurrell, M.R. Marinucci, and M. Beniston, 1997: Elevation signal
in surface climate change: A model study. J. Clim., 10, 288�296.
Giorgi, F., X. Bi, and J.S. Pal, 2004: Mean, interannual variability and trends in
a regional climate change experiment over Europe. II: climate change scenarios
(2071-2100). Clim. Dyn., 23, 839�858.
Givati, A., and D. Rosenfeld, 2004: Quantifying precipitation suppression due to
air pollution. J. Appl. Meteorol., 43(7), 1038�1056.
Gladstone, R.M., et al., 2005: Mid-Holocene NAO: a PMIP2 model intercomparison.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L16707, doi:10.1029/2005GL023596.
Gleckler, P.J., et al., 2006b: Krakatoa�s signature persists in the ocean. Nature,
439, 675, doi:10.1038/439675a.
Gleckler, P.J., K.R. Sperber, and K. AchutaRao, 2006a: The annual cycle of global
ocean heat content: observed and simulated. J. Geophys. Res., 111, C06008,
doi:10.1029/2005JC003223.
Gleisner, H., and P. Thejll, 2003: Patterns of tropospheric response to solar
variability. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30, 44�47.
Gloor, M., et al., 2003: A first estimate of present and preindustrial air-sea CO2
flux patterns based on ocean interior carbon measurements and models. Geophys.
Res. Lett., 30(1), 1010, doi:10.1029/2002GL015594.
Glover, R.W., 1999: Influence of spatial resolution and treatment of orography on
GCM estimates of the surface mass balance of the Greenland ice sheet. J. Clim.,
12, 551�563.
Gnanadesikan, A., et al., 2004: GFDL�s CM2 global coupled climate models�Part 2:
The baseline ocean simulation. J. Clim., 19, 675�697.
Godal, O., 2003: The IPCC assessment of multidisciplinary issues: The choice of
greenhouse gas indices. Clim. Change, 58, 243�249.
Goeberle, C., and R. Gerdes, 2003: Mechanisms determining the variability of
Arctic sea ice conditions and export. J. Clim., 16, 2843�2858.
Gohar, L.K., G. Myhre, and K.P. Shine, 2004: Updated radiative forcing estimates
of four halocarbons. J. Geophys. Res., 109, D01107, doi:10.1029/2003JD004320.
Gohar, L.K., G. Myhre, and K.P. Shine, 2004: Updated radiative forcing estimates
of four halocarbons. J. Geophys. Res., 109, D01107, doi:10.1029/2003JD004320.
Goldenberg, S.B., C.W. Landsea, A.M. Mestas-Nunez, and W.M. Gray, 2001: The recent
increase in Atlantic hurricane activity: Causes and implications. Science, 293,
474�479.
Goldewijk, K.K., 2001: Estimating global land use change over the past 300 years:
The HYDE Database. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 15(2), 417�433.
Goldstein, B., F. Joos, and T.F. Stocker, 2003: A modeling study of oceanic
nitrous oxide during the Younger Dryas cold period. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30,
doi:10.1029/2002GL016418.
Goldstein, M., and J.C. Rougier, 2004: Probabilistic formulations for transferring
inferences from mathematical models to physical systems. SIAM J. Sci. Computing,
26, 467�487.
Goloub, P., and O. Arino, 2000: Verification of the consistency of POLDER aerosol
index over land with ATSR-2/ERS-2 fire product. Geophys. Res. Lett., 27(6),
899�902.
Goloub, P., et al., 1999: Validation of the first algorithm applied for deriving
the aerosol properties over the ocean using the POLDER/ADEOS measurements. IEEE
Trans. Remote Sens., 37, 1586�1596.
Goncalves, L.G.G., E.J. Burke, and W.J. Shuttleworth, 2004: Application of
improved ecosystem aerodynamics in regional weather forecasts. Ecol. Appl., 14,
S17�S21.
Gondwe, M., et al., 2003: Correction to ��The contribution of ocean-leaving DMS to
the global atmospheric burdens of DMS, MSA, SO, and NSS SO=��. Global Biogeochem.
Cycles, 17, 1106, doi:10.1029/2003GB002153.
Gong, S.L., 2003: A parameterization of sea-salt aerosol source function for sub-
and super-micron particles. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 17(4), 1097,
doi:10.1029/2003GB002079.
Gong, S.L., and L.A. Barrie, 2003: Simulating the impact of sea salt on global nss
sulphate aerosols. J. Geophys. Res., 108(D16), 4516, doi:10.1029/2002JD003181.
Goni, M.F.S., F. Eynaud, J.L. Turon, and N.J. Shackleton, 1999: High resolution
palynological record off the Iberian margin: direct land-sea correlation for the
Last Interglacial complex. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 171(1), 123�137.
Gonzalez-D�vila, M., et al., 2003: Seasonal and interannual variability of sea-
surface carbon dioxide species at the European Station for Time Series in the
Ocean at the Canary Islands (ESTOC) between 1996 and 2000. Global Biogeochem.
Cycles, 17(3), 1076, doi:10.1029/2002GB001993.
Gonz�lez-Pola, C., A. Lavin, and M. Vargas-Yanez, 2005: Intense warming and
salinity modification of intermediate water masses in the southeastern corner of
the Bay of Biscay for the period 1992-2003. J. Geophys. Res., 110, C05020,
doi:10.1029/2004JC002367.
Gonz�lez-Rouco, F., H. von Storch, and E. Zorita, 2003: Deep soil temperature as
proxy for surface air-temperature in a coupled model simulation of the last
thousand years. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30(21), 2116, doi:10.1029/2003GL018264?.
Gonz�lez-Rouco, J.F., H. Beltrami, E. Zorita, and H. von Storch, 2006: Simulation
and inversion of borehole temperature profiles in surrogate climates: Spatial
distribution and surface coupling. Geophys. Res. Lett., 33(1), L01703,
doi:10.1029/2005GL024693.
Good, P., and J. Lowe, 2006: Emergent behavior and uncertainty in multi-model
climate projections of precipitation trends at small spatial scales. J. Clim.,
27(4), 357�375.Goodison, B.E., P.Y.T. Louie, and D. Yang, 1998: WMO Solid
Precipitation Measurement Intercomparison, Final Report. WMO/TD No.872, World
Meteorological Organization, Geneva, 212 pp.
Goodale, C.L., et al., 2002: Forest carbon sinks in the northern hemisphere. Ecol.
Appl., 12(3), 891�899.
Goosse, H., and H. Renssen, 2001: A two-phase response of the Southern Ocean to an
increase in greenhouse gas concentrations. Geophys. Res. Lett., 28(18), 3469�3472.
Goosse, H., and H. Renssen, 2004: Exciting natural modes of variability by solar
and volcanic forcing: idealized and realistic experiments. Clim. Dyn., 23(2),
153�163.
Goosse, H., and T. Fichefet, 1999: Importance of ice-ocean interactions for the
global ocean circulation: A model study. J. Geophys. Res., 104, 23337�23355.
Goosse, H., et al., 2002: Potential causes of abrupt climate events: A numerical
study with a three-dimensional climate model. Geophys. Res. Lett., 29, 1860.
Goosse, H., et al., 2004: A late medieval warm period in the Southern Ocean as a
delayed response to external forcing? Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L06203,
doi:10.1029/2003GL019140.
Goosse, H., et al., 2005b: Modelling the climate of the last millennium: what
causes the differences between simulations? Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L06710,
doi:10.1029/2005GL022368.
Goosse, H., F.M. Selten, R.J. Haarsma, and J.D. Opsteegh, 2003: Large sea-ice
volume anomalies simulated in a coupled climate model. Clim. Dyn., 20, 523�536,
doi:10.1007/s00382-002-0290-4.
Goosse, H., H. Renssen, A. Timmermann, and R.S. Bradley, 2005a: Internal and
forced climate variability during the last millennium: a model-data comparison
using ensemble simulations. Quat. Sci. Rev., 24, 1345�1360.
Gordon, C., et al., 2000: The simulation of SST, sea ice extents and ocean heat
transports in a version of the Hadley Centre coupled model without flux
adjustments. Clim. Dyn., 16, 147�168.
Gordon, H.B., and S.P. O�Farrell, 1997: Transient climate change in the CSIRO
coupled model with dynamic sea ice. Mon. Weather Rev., 125, 875�907.
Gordon, H.B., et al., 2002: The CSIRO Mk3 Climate System Model. CSIRO Atmospheric
Research Technical Paper No. 60, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research
Organisation Atmospheric Research, Aspendale, Victoria, Australia, 130 pp,
http://www.cmar.csiro.au/e-print/open/gordon_2002a.pdf.
Gordon, L.J., et al., 2005: Human modification of global water vapor flows from
the land surface. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 102, 7612�7617.
Gordon, N.D., J.R. Norris, C.P. Weaver, and S.A. Klein, 2005: Cluster analysis of
cloud regimes and characteristic dynamics of midlatitude synoptic systems in
observations and a model. J. Geophys. Res., 110, D15S17, doi:10.1029/2004JD005027.
Gornitz, V., 2001: Impoundment, groundwater mining, and other hydrologic
transformations: Impacts on global sea level rise. In: Sea Level Rise: History and
Consequences [Douglas, B.C., M.S. Kearney, and S.P. Leatherman (eds.)]. Academic
Press, San Diego, pp. 97�119.
Gosnold, W.D., P.E. Todhunter, and W. Schmidt, 1997: The borehole temperature
record of climate warming in the mid- continent of North America. Global Planet.
Change, 15(1�2), 33�45.
Goulden, M.L., et al., 2004: Diel and seasonal patterns of tropical forest CO2
exchange. Ecol. Appl., 14, S42�S54.
Govindasamy, B., et al., 2001b: Limitations of the equivalent CO2 approximation in
climate change simulations. J. Geophys. Res., 106(D19), 22593�22603.
Govindasamy, B., et al., 2005: Increase of the carbon cycle feedback with climate
sensitivity: results from a coupled and carbon climate and carbon cycle model.
Tellus, 57B, 153�163.
Govindasamy, B., P.B. Duffy, and J. Coquard, 2003: High resolution simulations of
globalclimate, part 2: Effects of increased greenhouse gases. ClimDyn., 21,
391�404.
Govindasamy, B., P.B. Duffy, and K. Caldeira, 2001a: Land use changes and Northern
Hemisphere cooling. Geophys. Res. Lett., 28(2), 291�294.
Goyette, S., O. Brasseur, and M. Beniston, 2003: Application of a new wind gust
parameterisation: multi-scale case studies performed with the Canadian RCM. J.
Geophys. Res., 108, 4371�4389.
Gradstein, F.M., J.G. Ogg, and A.G. Smith (eds.), 2004: A Geologic Time Scale.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 589 pp.
Graedel, T.E., and J.E. McRae, 1980: On the possible increase of atmospheric
methane and carbon monoxide concentrations during the last decade. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 7, 977�979.
Graham, L.P., S. Hagemann, S. Jaunand M. Beniston, 2007:On interpreting
hydrological change from regional climate models. Clim. Change,
doi:10.1007/s10584-006-9217-0.
Graham, R.J., et al., 2005: A performance comparison of coupled and uncoupled
versions of the Met Office seasonal prediction general circulation model. Tellus,
57A, 320�339.
Grassl, H., 1975: Albedo reduction and radiative heating of clouds by absorbing
aerosol particles. Contrib. Atmos. Phys., 48, 199�210.
Gray, L.J., J.D. Haigh, and R.G. Harrison, 2005: Review of the Influences of Solar
Changes on the Earth�s Climate. Hadley Centre Technical Note No. 62, Met Office,
Exeter, 82 pp.
Gray, L.J., R.G. Harrison, and J.D. Haigh, 2005: The Influence of Solar Changes on
the Earth�s Climate. Hadley Centre Technical Note 62, The UK Met Office.
Gray, W.M., 1984: Atlantic seasonal hurricane frequency. Part I: El Ni�o and 30 mb
quasi-biennial oscillation influences. Mon. Weather Rev., 112, 1649�1668.
Green, P.A., et al., 2004: Pre-industrial and contemporary fluxes of nitrogen
through rivers: a global assessment based on typology. Biogeochemistry, 68(1),
71�105.
Greenblatt, J.B., and J.L. Sarmiento, 2004: Variability and climate feedback
mechanisms in ocean uptake of CO2. In: The Global Carbon Cycle [Field, C.B., and
M.R. Raupach (eds)]. Island Press, Washington, DC, pp. 257�275.
Greene, A.M., 2005: A time constant for hemispheric glacier mass balance. J.
Glaciol., 51(174), 353�362.
Greene, A.M., L. Goddard, and U. Lall, 2006: Probabilistic multimodel regional
temperature change projections. J. Clim., 19, 4326�4346.
Greenwald, T.J., G.L. Stephens, S.A. Christopher, and T.H.V. Haar, 1995:
Observations of the global characteristics and regional radiative effects of
marine cloud liquid water. J. Clim., 8, 2928�2946.
Gregg, W.W., et al., 2003: Ocean primary production and climate: Global decadal
changes. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30(15), 1809, doi:10.1029/2003GL016889.
Gregory, D., et al., 2000: Revision of convection, radiation and cloud schemes in
the ECMWF Integrated Forecasting System. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 126, 1685�1710.
Gregory, J.M., 2000: Vertical heat transports in the ocean and their effect on
time-dependent climate change. Clim. Dyn., 16, 501�515.
Gregory, J.M., and J. Oerlemans, 1998: Simulated future sea-level rise due to
glacier melt based on regionally and seasonally resolved temperature changes.
Nature, 391, 474�476.
Gregory, J.M., and J.F.B. Mitchell, 1995: Simulation of dailyvariability of
surface temperature and precipitation over Europein the current and 2�CO2 climate
using the UKMO climatemodel. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 121, 1451�1476.
Gregory, J.M., and P. Huybrechts, 2006: Ice-sheet contributions to future sea-
level change. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London Ser. A, 364, 1709�1731.
Gregory, J.M., et al., 2001: Comparison of results from several AOGCMs for global
and regional sea-level changes 1900-2100. Clim. Dyn., 18, 225�240.
Gregory, J.M., et al., 2002a: An observationally based estimate of the climate
sensitivity. J. Clim., 15, 3117�3121.
Gregory, J.M., et al., 2002b: Recent and future changes in Arctic sea ice
simulated by the HadCM3 AOGCM. Geophys. Res. Lett., 29, 2175.
Gregory, J.M., et al., 2004: A new method for diagnosing radiative forcing and
climate sensitivity. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L03205, doi:10.1029/2003GL018747.
Gregory, J.M., et al., 2004: Simulated and observed decadal variability in ocean
heat content. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L15312.
Gregory, J.M., et al., 2005: A model intercomparison of changes in the Atlantic
thermohaline circulation in response to increasing atmospheric CO2 concentration.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L12703, doi:10.1029/2005GL023209.
Gregory, J.M., J.A. Lowe, and S.F.B. Tett, 2006: Simulated global-mean sea-level
changes over the last half-millennium. J. Clim., 19, 4576�4591.
Gregory, J.M., P. Huybrechts, and S.C.B. Raper, 2004a: Threatened loss of the
Greenland ice-sheet. Nature, 428, 616.
Grenfell, J.L., D.T. Shindell, and V. Grewe, 2003: Sensitivity studies of
oxidative changes in the troposphere in 2100 using the GISS GCM. Atmos. Chem.
Phys., 3, 1267�1283.
Grewe, V., et al., 2001: Future changes of the atmospheric composition and the
impact on climate change. Tellus, 53B(2), 103�121.
Griffies, S.M., 2004: Fundamentals of Ocean Climate Models. Princeton University
Press, Princeton, NJ, 496 pp.
Griffiths, G.M., M.J. Salinger, and I. Leleu, 2003: Trends in extreme daily
rainfall across the South Pacific and relationship to the South Pacific
convergence zone. Int. J. Climatol., 23, 847- 869.
Grist, J.P., and S.A. Josey, 2003: Inverse analysis adjustment of the SOC air-sea
flux climatology using ocean heat transport constraints. J. Clim., 16(20),
3274�3295.
Groisman, P.Y., et al., 1999: Changes in the probability of heavy precipitation:
Important indicators of climatic change. Clim. Change, 42, 243�283.
Groisman, P.Y., et al., 2005: Trends in intense precipitation in the climate
record. J. Clim., 18, 1326�1350.
Groisman, P.Ya, T.R. Karl, and R.W. Knight, 1994: Observed impact of snow cover on
the heat balance and the rise of continental spring temperatures. Science, 263,
198�200.
Groisman, P.Ya., et al., 2004: Contemporary changes of the hydrological cycle over
the contiguous United States: Trends derived from in situ observations. J.
Hydrometeorol., 5, 64�85.
Grootes, P.M., et al., 1993: Comparison of oxygen isotope records from the GISP2
and GRIP Greenland ice cores. Nature, 366, 552�554.
Gruber, N., and C.D. Keeling, 2001: An improved estimate of the isotopic air-sea
disequilibrium of CO2: Implications for the oceanic uptake of anthropogenic CO2.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 555�558.
Gruber, N., C.D. Keeling, and N.R. Bates, 2002: Interannual variability in the
North Atlantic Ocean carbon sink. Science, 298(5602), 2374�2378.
Gruber, N., J.L. Sarmiento, and T.F. Stocker, 1996: An improved method for
detecting anthropogenic CO2 in the oceans. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 10(4),
809�837.
Gruber, N., N. Bates, and C.D. Keeling, 2002: Interannual variability in the North
Atlantic Ocean carbon sink. Science, 298(5602), 2374�2378.
Gu, L., et al., 2002: Advantages of diffuse radiation for terrestrial ecosystem
productivity. J. Geophys. Res., 107(6), 4050, doi:10.1029/2001JD001242.
Gu, L., et al., 2003: Response of a deciduous forest to the Mt. Pinatubo eruption:
enhanced photosynthesis. Science, 299(5615), 2035�2038.
Gudkovich, Z.M., 1961: Relation of the ice drift in the Arctic Basin to ice
conditions in the Soviet Arctic seas. Tr. Okeanogr. Kom. Akad. Nauk SSSR, 11,
14�21 (in Russian).
Guenther, A.B., et al., 1993: Isoprene and monoterpene emission rate variability -
model evaluations and sensitivity analyses. J. Geophys. Res., 98(D7), 12609�12617.
Guenther, A.B., et al., 1995: A global-model of natural volatile organic-compound
emissions. J. Geophys. Res., 100(D5), 8873�8892.
Guenther, A.B., et al., 1999: Isoprene emission estimates and uncertainties for
the Central African EXPRESSO study domain. J. Geophys. Res., 104(D23),
30625�30639.
Guilderson, T.P., R.G. Fairbanks, and J.L. Rubenstone, 1994: Tropical temperature
variations since 20,000 years ago: modulating interhemispheric climate change.
Science, 263, 663�665.
Guillevic, P., et al., 2002: Influence of the interannual variability of
vegetation on the surface energy balance - a global sensitivity study. J.
Hydrometeorol., 3, 617�629.
Guilyardi, E., et al., 2004: Representing El Ni�o in coupled ocean-atmosphere
GCMs: the dominant role of the atmospheric component. J. Clim., 17, 4623�4629.
Guinehut, S., P.-Y. Le Traon, G. Larnicol, and S. Phillips, 2004: Combining ARGO
and remote-sensing data to estimate the ocean three-dimensional temperature
fields. J. Mar. Syst., 46, 85�98.
Guiot, J., et al., 2005: Last-millennium summer-temperature variations in Western
Europe based on proxy data. The Holocene, 15(4), 489�500.
Gulev, S.K., T. Jung, and E. Ruprecht, 2006: Estimation of the sampling errors in
global surface flux fields based on VOS data. J. Clim., 20(2), 279-301.
Gunn, R., and B.B. Phillips, 1957: An experimental investigation of the effect of
air pollution on the initiation of rain. J. Meteorol., 14(3), 272�280.
Guo, Z., D.H. Bromwich, and J.J. Cassano, 2003: Evaluation of Polar MM5
simulations of Antarctic atmospheric circulation. Mon. Weather Rev., 131, 384�411.
Guo, Z., D.H. Bromwich, and K.M. Hines, 2004: Modeled Antarctic precipitation.
Part II: ENSO modulation over West Antarctica. J. Clim., 17, 448�465.
Guo, Z., et al., 2006. GLACE: The Global Land-Atmosphere Coupling Experiment. 2.
Analysis. J. Hydrometeorol., 7, 611�625.
Guo, Z.T., et al., 2004: Late Miocene-Pliocene development of Asian aridification
as recorded in the Red-Earth formation in northern China. Global Planet. Change,
41(3�4), 135�145.
Guo, Z.T., N. Petit-Maire, and S. Kropelin, 2000: Holocene non-orbital climatic
events in present-day arid areas of Northern Africa and China. Global Planet.
Change, 26(1�3), 97�103.
Gupta, A.K., D.M. Anderson, and J.T. Overpeck, 2003: Abrupt changes in the Asian
southwest monsoon during the Holocene and their links to the North Atlantic Ocean.
Nature, 421, 354�357.
Gupta, M., et al., 1997: 12C/13C kinetic isotope effects in the reactions of CH4
with OH and Cl. Geophys. Res. Lett., 24, 2761�2764.
Gurney, K.R., et al., 2002: Towards robust regional estimates of CO2 sources and
sinks using atmospheric transport models. Nature, 415(6872), 626�630.
Gurney, K.R., et al., 2003: TransCom 3 CO2 inversion intercomparison: 1. Annual
mean control results and sensitivity to transport and prior flux information.
Tellus, 55B(2), 555�579.
Gurney, K.R., et al., 2004: Transcom 3 inversion intercomparison: model mean
results for the estimation of seasonal carbon sources and sinks. Global
Biogeochem. Cycles, 18(1), GB1010, doi:10.1029/2003GB002111.
Gurney, K.R., et al., 2005: Sensitivity of atmospheric CO2 inversions to seasonal
and interannual variations in fossil fuel emissions. J. Geophys. Res., 110,
D10308, doi:10.1029/2004JD005373.
Gutowski, W.J., et al., 2004: Diagnosis and attribution of a seasonal
precipitation deficit in a US regional climate simulation. J. Hydrometeorol.,
5(1), 230�242.
Gwynne, P., 1975: The cooling world. Newsweek, April 28, 64.
G�rard, J.C., et al., 1999: The interannual change of atmospheric CO2:
contribution of subtropical ecosystems. Geophys. Res. Lett., 26, 243�246.
Haag, W., and B. K�rcher, 2004: The impact of aerosols and gravity waves on cirrus
clouds at midlatitudes. J. Geophys. Res., 109, doi:10.1029/2004JD004579.
Haake, B., and V. Ittekkot, 1990: The wind-driven biological pump and carbon
removal in the ocean. Naturwissenschaften, 77(2), 75�79.
Haapala, J., H.E.M. Meier, and J. Rinne, 2001: Numerical investigations of future
ice conditions in the Baltic Sea. Ambio, 30, 237�244.
Haarsma, R.J., F.M. Selten, S.L. Weber, and M. Kliphuis, 2005: Sahel rainfall
variability and response to greenhouse warming. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L17702,
doi:10.1029/2005GL023232.
Haas, C., 2004: Late-summer sea ice thickness variability in the Arctic Transpolar
Drift 1991�2001 derived from ground-based electromagnetic sounding. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 31, L09402, doi:10.1029/2003GL019394.
Hadjinicolaou, P., J.A. Pyle, and N.R.P. Harris, 2005: The recent turnaround in
stratospheric ozone over northern middle latitudes: a dynamical modeling
perspective. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L12821, doi:10.1029/2005GL022476.
Haeberli, W., and C.R. Burn, 2002: Natural hazards in forests: glacier and
permafrost effects as related to climate change. In: Environmental Change and
Geomorphic Hazards in Forests [Sidle, R.C. (ed.)]. IUFRO Research Series 9, CABI
Publishing, Wallingford and New York, pp. 167�202.
Hagedorn, R., F.J. Doblas-Reyes, and T.N. Palmer, 2005: The rationale behind the
success of multi-model ensembles in seasonal forecasting. Part I: Basic concept.
Tellus, 57A, 219�233.
Hagemann, S., 2002: An Improved Land Surface Parameter Dataset for Global and
Regional Climate Models. Max Planck Institute for Meteorology Report 162, MPI for
Meteorology, Hamburg, Germany, 21 pp.
Hagemann, S., and L. D�menil-Gates, 2001: Validation of the hydrological cycle of
ECMWF and NCEP reanalyses using the MPI hydrological discharge model. J. Geophys.
Res., 106, 1503�1510.
Hagemann, S., et al., 2004: Evaluation of water and energy budgets in regional
climate models applied over Europe. Clim. Dyn., 23, 547�607.
Hagen, J.O., K. Melvold, F. Pinglot, and J.A. Dowdeswell, 2003: On the net mass
balance of the glaciers and ice caps in Svalbard, Norwegian Arctic. Arctic,
Antarctic, and Alpine Res., 35(2), 264�270.
Hahmann, A.N., 2003: Representing spatial sub-grid precipitation variability in a
GCM. J. Hydrometeorol., 4(5), 891�900.
Haigh, J., 1996: The impact of solar variability on climate. Science, 272,
981�985.
Haigh, J.D., 2003: The effects of solar variability on the Earth�s climate.
Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London Ser. A, 361, 95�111.
Hall, A., 2004: The role of surface albedo feedback in climate. J. Clim., 17,
1550�1568.
Hall, A., and M. Visbeck, 2002: Synchronous variability in the Southern Hemisphere
atmosphere, sea ice and ocean resulting from the annular mode. J. Clim., 15,
3043�3057.
Hall, A., and R.J. Stouffer, 2001: An abrupt climate event in a coupled ocean-
atmosphere simulation without external forcing. Nature, 409, 171�174.
Hall, A., and S. Manabe, 1999: The role of water vapour feedback in unperturbed
climate variability and global warming. J. Clim., 12, 2327�2346.
Hall, A., and X. Qu, 2006: Using the current seasonal cycle to constrain snow
albedo feedback in future climate change. Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L03502,
doi:10.1029/2005GL025127.
Hall, J.C., and G.W. Lockwood, 2004: The chromospheric activity and variability of
cycling and flat activity solar-analog stars. Astrophys. J., 614, 942�946.
Hall, M.M., and H.L. Bryden, 1982: Direct estimates and mechanisms of ocean heat
transport. Deep Sea Res., 29, 339�359.
Halsey, L.A., D.H. Vitt, and S.C. Zoltai, 1995: Disequilibrium response of
permafrost in boreal continental western Canada to climate change. Clim. Change,
30, 57�73.
Hambrey, M.J., W.U. Ehrmann, and B. Larsen, 1991: Cenozoic glacial record of the
Prydz Bay continental shelf, East Antarctica. In: Proceedings of the Ocean
Drilling Program: Scientific Results, Vol. 119. Ocean Drilling Program, College
Station, TX, pp. 77�131.
Hamilton, J.F., et al., 2004: Partially oxidised organic components in urban
aerosol using GCXGC-TOF/MS. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 4, 1279�1290.
Hamilton, K., R.J. Wilson, and R.S. Hemler, 2001: Spontaneous stratospheric QBO-
like oscillations simulated by the GFDL SKYHI general circulation model. J. Atmos.
Sci., 58, 3271�3292.
Hammitt, J.K., A.K. Jain, J.L. Adams, and D.J. Wuebbles, 1996: A welfare-based
index for assessing environmental effects of greenhouse-gas emissions. Nature,
381, 301�303.
Han, J., and J. Roads, 2004: US climate sensitivity simulated with the NCEP
Regional Spectral Model. ClimChange, 62, 115�154,
doi:10.1023/B:CLIM.0000013675.66917.15.
Han, Q., W.B. Rossow, J. Zeng, and R. Welch, 2002: Three different behaviors of
liquid water path of water clouds in aerosol-cloud interactions. J. Atmos. Sci.,
59, 726�735.
Hanawa, K., 1995: Southward penetration of the Oyashio water system and the
wintertime condition of midlatitude westerlies over the North Pacific. Bull.
Hokkaido Natl. Fish. Res. Inst., 59, 103�119.
Hanawa, K., and J. Kamada, 2001: Variability of core layer temperature (CLT) of
the North Pacific subtropical mode water. Geophys. Res. Lett., 28(11), 2229�2232.
Hanawa, K., and L.D. Talley, 2001: Mode waters. In: Ocean Circulation and Climate
[Siedler, G., J.A. Church, and J. Gould (eds.)]. Academic Press, San Diego, pp.
373�386.
Handisides, G.M., et al., 2003: Hohenpeissenberg photochemical experiment (HOPE
2000): measurements and photostationary state calculations of OH and peroxy
radicals. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 3, 1565�1588.
Hanebuth, T., K. Stattegger, and P.M. Grootes, 2000: Rapid flooding of the Sunda
Shelf: A late-glacial sea-level record. Science, 288(5468), 1033�1035.
Hanna, E., et al., 2005: Runoff and mass balance of the Greenland ice sheet: 1958-
2003. J. Geophys. Res., 110, D13108, doi:10.1029/2004JD005641.
Hanna, E., et al., 2006: Observed and modeled Greenland Ice Sheet snow
accumulation, 1958�2003, and links with regional climate forcing. J. Clim., 19(3),
344�358.
Hanna, E., P. Huybrechts, and T.L. Mote, 2002: Surface mass balance of the
Greenland ice sheet from climate-analysis data and accumulation/runoff models.
Ann. Glaciol., 35, 67�72.
Hannachi, A., and A. O�Neill, 2001: Atmospheric multiple equilibria and non-
Gaussian behaviour in model simulations. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 127, 939�958.
Hansell, D.A., and C.A. Carlson, 1998: Deep-ocean gradients in the concentration
of dissolved organic carbon. Nature, 395, 263�266.
Hansen, J., 2005: A slippery slope: How much global warming constitutes dangerous
anthropogenic interference? Clim. Change, 68, 269�279.
Hansen, J., A. Lacis, R. Ruedy, and M. Sato, 1992: Potential climate impact of
Mount-Pinatubo eruption. Geophys. Res. Lett., 19, 215�218.
Hansen, J., and L. Nazarenko, 2004: Soot climate forcing via snow and ice albedos.
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 101, 423�428.
Hansen, J., and M. Sato, 2001: Trends of measured climate forcing agents. Proc.
Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 98, 14778�14783.
Hansen, J., and M. Sato, 2004: Greenhouse gas growth rates. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.
U.S.A., 101, 16109�16114.
Hansen, J., and S. Lebedeff, 1987: Global trends of measured surface air
temperature. J. Geophys. Res., 92, 13345�13372.
Hansen, J., et al., 1981: Climate impact of increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide.
Science, 213, 957�966.
Hansen, J., et al., 1984: Climate sensitivity: Analysis of feedback mechanisms.
In: Climate Processes and Climate Sensitivity [Hansen, J.E., and T. Takahashi
(eds.)]. Geophysical Monographs Vol. 29, American Geophysical Union, Washington,
DC, pp. 130�163.
Hansen, J., et al., 1984: Climate sensitivity: analysis of feedback mechanisms.
Meteorol. Monogr., 29, 130�163.
Hansen, J., et al., 1985: Climate response-times - Dependence on climate
sensitivity and ocean mixing. Science, 229, 857�859.
Hansen, J., et al., 2000: Global warming in the twenty-first century: An
alternative scenario. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 97, 9875�9880.
Hansen, J., et al., 2001: A closer look at United States and global surface
temperature change. J. Geophys. Res., 106, 23947�23963.
Hansen, J., et al., 2002: Climate forcings in Goddard Institute for Space Studies
SI2000 simulations. J. Geophys. Res., 107(D18), 4347.
Hansen, J., et al., 2005: Earth�s energy imbalance: Confirmation and implications.
Science, 308, 1431�1435.
Hansen, J., et al., 2005a: Earth�s energy imbalance: Confirmation and
implications. Science, 308, 1431�1435.
Hansen, J., et al., 2005b: Efficacy of climate forcings. J. Geophys. Res., 110,
D18104, doi:10.1029/2005JD005776.
Hansen, J., M. Sato, and R. Reudy, 1995: Long-term changes of the diurnal
temperature cycle: Implications about mechanisms of global climate change. Atmos.
Res., 37, 175�209.
Hansen, J., M. Sato, and R. Ruedy, 1997: Radiative forcing and climate response.
J. Geophys. Res., 102, 6831�6864.
Hansen, J.E., et al., 1998Climate forcings in the industrial era. Proc. Natl.
Acad. Sci.U.S.A., 95, 12753�12758.
Hansen, J.E., M. Sato, and R. Ruedy, 1995: Long-term changes of the diurnal
temperature cycle: implications about mechanisms of global climate change. Atmos.
Res., 37, 175�209.
Hansen, J.E., M. Sato, and R. Ruedy, 1997: Radiative forcing and climate response.
J. Geophys. Res., 102, 6831�6864.
Hansen, J.W., and T. Mavromatis, 2001: Correcting low-frequency variability bias
in stochastic weather generators. AgrFor. Meteorol., 109, 297�310.
Hansen, M.C., and B. Reed, 2000: A comparison of the IGBP DISCover and University
of Maryland 1km global land cover products. Int. J. Remote Sens., 21, 1365�1373.
Hanson, C.E., J.P. Palutikof, and T.D. Davies, 2004: Objective cyclone
climatologies of the North Atlantic - a comparison between the ECMWF and NCEP
Reanalyses. Clim. Dyn., 22, 757�769.
Hanssen-Bauer, I., E.J. F�rland, J.E. Haugen, and O.E. Tveito, 2003: Temperature
and precipitation scenarios for Norway: comparison of results from dynamical and
empirical downscaling. Clim. Res., 25(1), 15�27.
Hanssen-Bauer, I., et al., 2005: Statistical downscaling of climate scenarios over
Scandinavia: A review. Clim. Res., 29, 255�268.
Harder, J., et al., 2005: The spectral irradiance monitor I. Scientific
requirements, instrument design and operation modes. Sol. Phys., 230, 141�167.
Harder, M., 1996: Dynamik, Rauhigkeit und Alter des Meereises in der Arktis. PhD
Thesis, Alfred-Wegener-Institut f�r Polar und Meeresforschung, Bremerhaven,
Germany, 124 pp.
Harding, R.J., and J.W. Pomeroy, 1996: The energy balance of the winter boreal
landscape. J. Clim., 9, 2778�2787.
Hardy, T., L. Mason, A. Astorquia, and B. Harper 2004: Queensland Climate Change
and Community Vulnerability to Tropical Cyclones: Ocean Hazards Assessment. Report
to Queensland Government, 45 pp+7 appendices,
http://www.longpaddock.qld.gov.au/ClimateChanges/pub/OceanHazards/Stage2LowRes.pdf
.
Hare, W.L., and M. Meinshausen, 2006: How much warming are we committed to and how
much can be avoided? Clim. Change, 75, 111�149.
Hargreaves, J.C., and J.D. Annan, 2006: Using ensemble prediction methods to
examine regional climate variation under global warming scenarios. Ocean
Modelling, 11, 174�192.
Hargreaves, J.C., J.D. Annan, N.R. Edwards, and R. Marsh, 2004: An efficient
climate forecasting method using an intermediate complexity Earth System Model and
the ensemble Kalman filter. Clim. Dyn., 23, 745�760.
Harnisch, J., R.R. Borchers, P.P. Fabian, and M.M. Maiss, 1996: Tropospheric
trends for CF4 and C2F6 since 1982 derived from SF6 dated stratospheric air.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 23(10), 1099�1102.
Harries, J.E., H.E. Brindley, P.J. Sagoo, and R.J. Bantges, 2001: Increases in
greenhouse forcing inferred from the outgoing longwave radiation spectra of the
Earth in 1970 and 1997. Nature, 410, 355�357.
Harrington, G.J., S.J. Kemp, and P.L. Koch, 2004: Palaeocene-Eocene paratropical
floral change in North America: responses to climate change and plant immigration.
J. Geol. Soc. London, 161, 173�184.
Harris, C., et al., 2003: Warming permafrost in European mountains. Global Planet.
Change, 39, 215�225.
Harris, G., et al., 2006: Frequency distributions of transient regional climate
change from perturbed physics ensembles of general circulation model simulations.
Clim. Dyn., 27, 357�375.
Harris, G.R., et al.,2006: Frequency distributions of transient regional climate
change from perturbed physicsensembles of general circulation model simulations.
ClimDyn., 27, 357�375.
Harris, R.N., and D.S. Chapman, 2001: Mid-latitude (30�-60� N) climatic warming
inferred by combining borehole temperatures with surface air temperatures.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 28(5), 747�750.
Harrison, D.E., and M. Carson, 2006: Is the World Ocean warming? Upper ocean
temperature trends, 1950-2000. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 37 (2), 174�187.
Harrison, E.F., et al., 1990: Seasonal variation of cloud radiative forcing
derived from the Earth Radiation Budget Experiment. J. Geophys. Res., 95,
18687�18703.
Harrison, H., 2002: Comments on �Does the Earth have an adaptive infrared iris?�.
Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 83, 597.
Harrison, R.G., and D.B. Stephenson, 2006: Empirical evidence for a nonlinear
effect of galactic cosmic rays on clouds. Proc. Roy. Soc. London Ser. A, 462,
1221�1233.
Harrison, R.G., and K.S. Carslaw, 2003: Ion-aerosol-cloud processes in the lower
atmosphere. Rev. Geophys., 41, 1021.
Harrison, S., and C. Prentice, 2003: Climate and CO2 controls on global vegetation
distribution at the last glacial maximum: analysis based on palaeovegetation data,
biome modelling and palaeoclimate simulations. Global Change Biol., 9, 983�1004.
Harrison, S., P. Braconnot, C. Hewitt, and R.J. Stouffer, 2002: Fourth
international workshop of The Palaeoclimate Modelling Intercomparison Project
(PMIP): launching PMIP Phase II. Eos, 83, 447.
Harrison, S.P., 2005: Snowlines at the last glacial maximum and tropical cooling.
Quat. Int., 138, 5�7.
Harrison, S.P., and I.C. Prentice, 2003: Climate and CO2 controls on global
vegetation distribution at the last glacial maximum: analysis based on
palaeovegetation data, biome modelling and paleoclimate simulations. Global Change
Biol., 9, 983�1004.
Harrison, S.P., et al., 2003: Mid-Holocene climates of the Americas: a dynamical
response to changed seasonality. Clim. Dyn., 20(7�8), 663�688.
Harrison, S.P., K.E. Kohfeld, C. Roelandt, and T. Claquin, 2001: The role of dust
in climate changes today, at the last glacial maximum, and in the future. Earth
Sci. Rev., 54, 43�80.
Harriss, R., K. Bartlett, S. Frolking, and P. Crill, 1993: Methane emissions from
northern high-latitude wetlands. In: Biogeochemistry of Global Change [Oremland,
R.S. (ed.)]. Chapman & Hall, New York, pp. 449�486.
Hartmann, D.L., and K. Larson, 2002: An important constraint on tropical cloud-
climate feedback. Geophys. Res. Lett., 29(20), 1951�1954.
Hartmann, D.L., and M.L. Michelsen, 2002: No evidence for iris. Bull. Am.
Meteorol. Soc., 83, 249�254.
Hartmann, D.L., M.E. Ockert-Bell, and M.L. Michelsen, 1992: The effect of cloud
type on Earth�s energy balance: Global analysis. J. Clim., 5, 1281�1304.
Harvey, D., et al., 1997: An Introduction to Simple Climate Models Used in the
IPCC Second Assessment Report. IPCC Technical Paper 2 [Houghton, J.T., L.G. Meira
Filho, D.J. Griggs, and K. Maskell (eds.)]. IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, 51 pp.
Harvey, L.D.D., 2004: Characterizing the annual-mean climatic effect of
anthropogenic CO2 and aerosol emissions in eight coupled atmosphere-ocean GCMs.
Clim. Dyn., 23, 569�599.
Harvey, L.D.D., and R.K. Kaufmann, 2002: Simultaneously constraining climate
sensitivity and aerosol radiative forcing. J. Clim., 15, 2837�2861.
Hasegawa, A., and S. Emori, 2005: Tropical cyclones and associated precipitation
over the Western North Pacific: T106 atmospheric GCM simulation for present-day
and doubled CO2 climates. Scientific Online Letters on the Atmosphere, 1, 145�148.
Hashvardhan, S.E. Schwartz, C.E. Benkovitz, and G. Guo, 2002: Aerosol influence on
cloud microphysics examined by satellite measurements and chemical transport
modelling. J. Atmos. Sci., 59, 714�725.
Hasselmann, K., 1976: Stochastic climate models. Part 1. Theory. Tellus, 28,
473�485.
Hasselmann, K., 1979: On the signal-to-noise problem in atmospheric response
studies. In: Meteorology of Tropical Oceans [Shaw, D.B. (ed.)]. Royal
Meteorological Society, Bracknell, UK, pp. 251�259.
Hasselmann, K., 1997: Multi-pattern fingerprint method for detection and
attribution of climate change. Climate Dyn., 13, 601�612.
Hasselmann, K., 1998: Conventional and Bayesian approach to climate-change
detection and attribution. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 124, 2541�2565.
Hastenrath, S., 2005: The glaciers of Mount Kenya 1899-2004. Erdkunde, 59,
120�125.
Hasumi, H., 2002a: Sensitivity of the global thermohaline circulation to
interbasin freshwater transport by the atmosphere and the Bering Strait
throughflow. J. Clim., 15, 2516�2526.
Hasumi, H., 2002b: Modeling the global thermohaline circulation.�J. Oceanogr., 58,
25�33.
Hasumi, H., and N. Suginohara, 1999: Effects of locally enhanced vertical
diffusivity over rough bathymetry on the world ocean circulation. J. Geophys.
Res., 104, 23367�23374.
Haug, G.H., et al., 2001: Southward migration of the Intertropical Convergence
Zone through the Holocene. Science, 17(293), 1304�1308.
Hauglustaine, D., and D.H. Ehhalt, 2002: A three-dimensional model of molecular
hydrogen in the troposphere. J. Geophys. Res., 107(D17), doi:10.1029/2001JD001156.
Hauglustaine, D.A., and G.P. Brasseur, 2001: Evolution of tropospheric ozone under
anthropogenic activities and associated radiative forcing of climate. J. Geophys.
Res., 106, 32337�32360.
Hauglustaine, D.A., et al., 2004: Interactive chemistry in the laboratoire de
meteorologie dynamique general circulation model: description and background
tropospheric chemistry. J. Geophys. Res., 109, D04314, doi:10.1029/2003JD003957.
Hauglustaine, D.A., J. Lathiere, S. Szopa, and G.A. Folberth, 2005: Future
tropospheric ozone simulated with a climate-chemistry-biosphere model. Geophys.
Res. Lett., 32, L24807, doi:10.1029/2005GL024031.
Hauglustaine, D.A., J. Lathi�re, S. Szopa, and G. Folberth, 2005: Future
tropospheric ozone simulated with a climate-chemistry-biosphere model. Geophys.
Res. Lett., 32, L24807, doi:10.1029/2005GL024031.
Hawking, S., 1988: A Brief History of Time. Bantam Press, New York, 224 pp.
Haxeltine, A., and I.C. Prentice, 1996: BIOME3: An equilibrium terrestrial
biosphere model based on ecophysiological constraints, resource availability, and
competition among plant functional types. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 10(4),
693�709.
Hayhoe, K., etal., 2004: Emissions pathways, climate change, and impacts on
CaliforniaProcNatl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 101, 12422�12427.
Haylock, M.R., et al., 2006: Downscaling heavy precipitation over the UK: ?
Acomparison of dynamical and statistical methods and their future scenarios. Int.
J. Climatol., 26(10), 1397�1415, doi:10.1002/joc.1318.
Hays, J.D., J. Imbrie, and N.J. Shackleton, 1976: Variations in the earth�s orbit:
pacemaker of the ice ages. Science, 194, 1121�1132.
Haywood, A.M., P. Dekens, A.C. Ravelo, and M. Williams, 2005: Warmer tropics
during the mid-Pliocene? Evidence from alkenone paleothermometry and a fully
coupled ocean-atmosphere GCM. Geochem. Geophys. Geosystems, 6, Q03010,
doi:10.1029/2004GC000799.
Haywood, A.M., P.J. Valdes, and B.W. Sellwood, 2000: Global scale paleoclimate
reconstruction of the middle Pliocene climate using the UKMO GCM: initial results.
Global Planet. Change, 25, 239�256.
Haywood, J.M, et al., 2003c: Radiative properties and direct radiative effect of
Saharan dust measured by the C-130 aircraft during SHADE: 1. Solar spectrum. J.
Geophys. Res., 108(D18), 8577, doi:10.1029/2002JD002687.
Haywood, J.M., and K.P. Shine, 1995: The effect of anthropogenic sulfate and soot
aerosol on the clear sky planetary radiation budget. Geophys. Res. Lett., 22(5),
603�606.
Haywood, J.M., and K.P. Shine. 1997: Multi-spectral calculations of the direct
radiative forcing of tropospheric sulphate and soot aerosols using a column model.
Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 123, 1907�1930.
Haywood, J.M., and O. Boucher, 2000: Estimates of the direct and indirect
radiative forcing due to tropospheric aerosols: A review. Rev. Geophys., 38,
513�543.
Haywood, J.M., et al., 2003a: Comparison of aerosol size distributions, radiative
properties, and optical depths determined by aircraft observations and Sun
photometers during SAFARI 2000. J. Geophys. Res., 108(D13), 8471,
doi:10.1029/2002JD002250.
Haywood, J.M., et al., 2003b: The mean physical and optical properties of regional
haze dominated by biomass burning aerosol measured from the C-130 aircraft during
SAFARI 2000. J. Geophys. Res., 108(D13), 8473, doi:10.1029/2002JD002226.
Haywood, J.M., et al., 2005: Can desert dust explain the outgoing longwave
radiation anomaly over the Sahara during July 2003? J. Geophys. Res., 110, D05105,
doi:10.1029/2004JD005232.
Haywood, J.M., V. Ramaswamy, and B.J. Soden, 1999: Tropospheric aerosol climate
forcing in clear-sky satellite observations over the oceans. Science, 283,
1299�1305.
Hazeleger, W., 2005: Can global warming affect tropical ocean heat transport?
Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L22701, doi:10.1029/2005GL023450.
Hazeleger, W., and S.S. Drijfhout, 1998: Mode water variability in a model of the
subtropical gyre: Response to anomalous forcings. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 28, 266�288.
Hazeleger, W., et al., 2001: Decadal upper ocean temperature variability in the
tropical Pacific. J. Geophys. Res., 106(C5), 8971�8988.
Hazeleger, W., P. de Vries, and Y. Friocourt, 2003: Sources of the Equatorial
Undercurrent in the Atlantic in a high-resolution ocean model. J. Phys. Oceanogr.,
33, 677�693.
He, Y., et al., 2004: Asynchronous Holocene climatic change across China. Quat.
Res., 61, 52�63.
Heal, G., 1997: Discounting and climate change: an editorial comment. Clim.
Change, 37, 335�343.
Heald, C.L., et al., 2004: Comparative inverse analysis of satellite (MOPITT) and
aircraft (TRACE-P) observations to estimate Asian sources of carbon monoxide. J.
Geophys. Res., 109(D23), D23306, doi:10.1029/2004JD005185.
Heard, D.E., et al., 2004: High levels of the hydroxyl radical in the winter urban
troposphere. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L18112, doi:10.1029/2004GL020544.
Hegerl, G.C., and J.M. Wallace, 2002: Influence of patterns of climate variability
on the difference between satellite and surface temperature trends. J. Clim., 15,
2412�2428.
Hegerl, G.C., and M.R. Allen, 2002: Origins of model-data discrepancies in optimal
fingerprinting. J. Clim., 15, 1348�1356.
Hegerl, G.C., et al., 1996: Detecting greenhouse gas induced climate change with
an optimal fingerprint method. J. Clim., 9, 2281�2306.
Hegerl, G.C., et al., 1997: Multi-fingerprint detection and attribution of
greenhouse-gas and aerosol-forced climate change. Clim. Dyn., 13, 613�634.
Hegerl, G.C., et al., 2000: Detection and attribution of climate change:
Sensitivity of results to climate model differences. Clim. Dyn., 16, 737�754.
Hegerl, G.C., et al., 2000: Optimal detection and attribution of climate change:
Sensitivity of results to climate model differences. Clim. Dyn., 16, 737�754.
Hegerl, G.C., et al., 2003: Detection of volcanic, solar and greenhouse gas
signals in paleo-reconstructions of Northern Hemispheric temperature. Geophys.
Res. Lett., 30(5), 1242.
Hegerl, G.C., et al., 2006b: Climate change detection and attribution: beyond mean
temperature signals. J. Clim., 19, 5058�5077.
Hegerl, G.C., et al., 2007: Detection of human influence on a new 1500yr climate
reconstruction. J. Clim., 20, 650-666.
Hegerl, G.C., F.W. Zwiers, V.V. Kharin, and P.A. Stott, 2004: Detectability of
anthropogenic changes in temperature and precipitation extremes. J. Clim., 17,
3683�3700.
Hegerl, G.C., P.D. Jones, and T.P. Barnett, 2001: Effect of observational sampling
error on the detection and attribution of anthropogenic climate change. J. Clim.,
14, 198�207.
Hegerl, G.C., T. Crowley, W.T. Hyde, and D. Frame, 2006a: Constraints on climate
sensitivity from temperature reconstructions of the past seven centuries. Nature,
440, doi:10.1038/nature04679.
Hegerl, G.C., T.J. Crowley, W.T. Hyde, and D.J. Frame, 2006: Climate sensitivity
constrained by temperature reconstructions over the past seven centuries. Nature,
440, 1029�1032.
Hegg, D.A., et al., 1997: Chemical apportionment of aerosol column optical depth
off the mid-Atlantic coast of the United States. J. Geophys. Res., 102(D21),
25293�25303.
Heil, P., and I. Allison, 2002: Long-term fast-ice variability off Davis and
Mawson stations, Antarctica. In: Ice in the Environment: Proceedings of the 16th
IAHR International Symposium on Ice (Volume 1), Dunedin, New Zealand, 2-6 December
2002 [Squire, V., and P. Langhorne (eds)]. University of Otago, Dunedin, NZ, pp.
360�367.
Hein, R., P.J. Crutzen, and M. Heimann, 1997: An inverse modeling approach to
investigate the global atmospheric methane cycle. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 11,
43�76.
Heinze, C., 2004: Simulating oceanic CaCO3 export production in the greenhouse.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L16308, doi:10.1029/2004GL020613.
Heinze, C., E. Maier-Reimer, and K. Winn, 1991: Glacial pCO2 reduction by the
World Ocean: experiments with the Hamburg carbon cycle model. Paleoceanography,
6(4), 395�430.
Heinze, C., et al., 2003: Sensitivity of the marine biospheric Si cycle for
biogeochemical parameter variations. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 17(3), 1086,
doi:10.1029/2002GB001943.
Hejzlar, J., M. Dubrovsky, J. Buchtele, and M. Ruzicka, 2003: The apparent and
potential effects of climate change on the inferred concentration of dissolved
organic matter in a temperate stream (the Malse River, South Bohemia). Sci. Total
Environ., 310(1�3), 143�152.
Held, I.M., 2005: The gap between simulation and understanding in climate
modelling. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 86, 1609�1614.
Held, I.M., and B.J. Soden, 2000: Water vapour feedback and global warming. Annu.
Rev. Energy Environ., 25, 441� 475.
Held, I.M., and B.J. Soden, 2006: Robust responses of the hydrological cycle to
global warming. J. Clim., 19, 5686�5699.
Held, I.M., et al., 2005: Simulation of Sahel drought in the 20th and 21st
centuries. Proc.NatlAcadSci. U.S.A., 102(50), 17891�17896.
Hellmer, H., S. Jacobs, and A. Jenkins, 1998: Oceanic erosion of a floating
Antarctic glacier in the Amundsen Sea. In: Ocean, Ice, and Atmosphere:
Interactions at the Antarctic Continental Margin [Jacobs, S. and R. Weiss (eds.)].
Antarctic Research Series 75, American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, pp.
83�99.
Hellstr�m, C., D. Chen, C. Achberger, and J. R�is�nen, 2001: A comparison of
climate change scenarios for Sweden based on statistical and dynamical downscaling
of monthly precipitation. Clim. Res., 19, 45�55.
Hemming, S.R., 2004: Heinrich events: Massive late Pleistocene detritus layers of
the North Atlantic and their global climate imprint. Rev. Geophys., 42(1), RG1005,
doi:10.1029/2003RG000128.
Henderson-Sellers, A., K. McGuffie, D. Noone, and P. Irannejad, 2004: Using stable
water isotopes to evaluate basin-scale simulations of surface water budgets. J.
Hydrometeorol., 5(5), 805�822.
Henderson-Sellers, A., P. Irannejad, K. McGuffie, and A.J. Pitman, 2003:
Predicting land-surface climates - better skill or moving targets? Geophys. Res.
Lett., 30(14), 1777�1780.
Hendon, H.H., 2000: Impact of air�sea coupling on the Madden�Julian oscillation in
a general circulation model. J. Atmos. Sci., 57, 3939�3952.
Hendon, H.H., 2005: Air sea interaction. In: Intraseasonal Variability in the
Atmosphere-Ocean Climate System [Lau, W.K.M., and D.E. Waliser (eds.)]. Praxis
Publishing, 436 pp.
Hendricks, J., B. K�rcher, U. Lohmann, and M. Ponater, 2005: Do aircraft black
carbon emissions affect cirrus clouds on the global scale? Geophys. Res. Lett.,
32, L12814, doi:10.1029/2005GL022740.
Hendricks, J., et al., 2004: Simulating the global atmospheric black carbon cycle:
a revisit to the contribution of aircraft. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 4, 2521�2541.
Hennessy, K.J., et al., 2003: The Impact of Climate Change on Snow Conditions in
Mainland Australia. CSIRO Atmospheric Research, Aspendale, Australia, 47 pp,
http://www.cmar.csiro.au/e-print/open/hennessy_2003a.pdf.
Hennessy, K.J., et al., 2004c: Climate Change in New South Wales� Part 2,
Projected Changes in Climate Extremes. Consultancy report for the New South Wales
Greenhouse Office. CSIRO Atmospheric Research, Aspendale, 79 pp.
Hennessy, K.J., etal., 2004a: Climate Change in the Northern Territory.
Consultancy report for the Northern Territory Department of Infrastructure,
Planning and Environment by CSIRO Atmospheric Research Climate Impact Group and
Melbourne University School of Earth Sciences, Northern Territory Government,
Darwin, 65 pp.
Hennessy, K.J., J.M. Gregory, and J.F.B. Mitchell, 1997: Changes in daily
precipitation under enhanced greenhouse conditions. Clim. Dyn., 13, 667�680.
Herman, M., et al., 1997: Remote sensing of aerosols over land surfaces including
polarization measurements and application to POLDER measurements. J. Geophys.
Res., 102(D14), 17039�17050, doi:10.1029/96JD02109.
Herschel, W., 1801: Observations tending to investigate the nature of the sun, in
order to find the causes or symptoms of its variable emission of light and heat.
Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London, 91, 265-318.
Hess, M., P. Koepke, and I. Schult, 1998: Optical properties of aerosols and
clouds: the software package OPAC. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 79, 831�844.
Hesselbo, S.P., et al., 2000: Massive dissociation of gas hydrate during a
Jurassic oceanic anoxic event. Nature, 406, 392�395.
Heue, K.-P., et al., 2005: Validation of SCIAMACHY tropospheric NO2 columns with
AMAXDOAS measurements. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 5, 1039�1051.
Hewitson, B.C., and R.G. Crane, 2005: Gridded area-averaged daily precipitation
via conditional interpolation. J. Clim., 18, 41�51.
Hewitson, B.C., and R.G. Crane, 2006: Consensus between GCM climate change
projections with empirical downscaling: precipitation downscaling over South
Africa. Int. J. Climatol., 26, 1315�1337
Hewitson, B.C., et al., 2004: Dynamical Modelling of the Present and Future
Climate System. Technical Report to the Water Research Commission, Report No.
1154/1/04 , Pretoria, South Africa.
Hewitt, C.D., C.S. Senior, and J.F.B. Mitchell, 2001: The impact of dynamic sea-
ice on the climate sensitvity of a GCM: a study of past, present and future
climates. Clim. Dyn., 17, 655�668.
Hewitt, K., 2005: The Karakoram anomaly? Glacier expansion and the �elevation
effect�, Karakoram Himalaya. Mountain Research and Development, 25(4), 332�340.
Heymsfield, A.J., and L. Donner, 1990: A scheme for parameterizing ice-cloud water
content in general circulation models. J. Atmos. Sci., 47, 1865�1877.
Hibler, W.D., 1979: A dynamic thermodynamic sea ice model. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 9,
817�846.
Hickey, J.R., et al., 1980: Initial solar irradiance determinations from Nimbus 7
cavity radiometer measurements. Science, 208, 281�283.
Higgins, P.A.T., 2004: Biogeochemical and biophysical responses of the land
surface to a sustained thermohaline circulation weakening. J. Clim., 17,
4135�4142.
Higgins, R.W., and K.C. Mo, 1997: Persistent North Pacific circulation anomalies
and the tropical intraseasonal oscillation. J. Clim., 10, 223�244.
Highwood, E.J., B.J. Hoskins, and P. Berrisford, 2000: Properties of the Arctic
tropopause. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 126, 1515�1532.
Highwood, E.J., et al., 2003: Radiative properties and direct effect of Saharan
dust measured by the C-130 aircraft during Saharan Dust Experiment (SHADE): 2.
Terrestrial spectrum. J. Geophys. Res., 108(D18), 8577, doi:10.1029/2002JD002552.
Higurashi, A., and T. Nakajima. 1999. Development of a two-channel aerosol
retrieval algorithm on a global scale using NOAA AVHRR. J. Atmos. Sci., 56,
924�941.
Higurashi, A., et al., 2000: A study of global aerosol optical climatology with
two-channel AVHRR remote sensing. J. Clim., 13, 2011�2027.
Hildebrandsson, H.H., 1897: Quelques recherches sur les centres d�action de
l�atmosph�re. Svenska Vet. Akad. Handlingar, 36 pp.
Hill, B.T., A. Ruffman, and K. Drinkwater. 2002: Historical record of the
incidence of sea ice on the Scotian Shelf and the Gulf of St. Lawrence. In: Ice in
the Environment: Proceedings of the 16th IAHR International Symposium on Ice
(Volume 1). Dunedin, New Zealand, 2-6 December 2002 [Squire, V., and P. Langhorne
(eds)]. University of Otago, Dunedin, NZ.
Hill, K.L., A.J. Weaver, H.J. Freeland, and A. Bychkov, 2003: Evidence of change
in the Sea of Okhotsk: Implications for the North Pacific. Atmos.-Ocean, 41(1),
49�63.
Hilmer, M., and P. Lemke, 2000: On the decrease of Arctic sea ice volume. Geophys.
Res. Lett., 27(22), 3751�3754.
Hilmer, M., and T. Jung, 2000: Evidence for a recent change in the link between
the North Atlantic Oscillation and Arctic sea ice export. Geophys. Res. Lett., 27,
989�992.
Hines, K.M., D.H. Bromwich, P.J. Rasch, and M.J. Iacono, 2004: Antarctic clouds
and radiation within the NCAR climate models. J. Clim., 17, 1198�1212.
Hinzman, L.D., et al., 2003: Hydrological variations among watersheds with varying
degrees of permafrost. Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on
Permafrost, 21-25 July 2003, Zurich, Switzerland [Phillips, M., S.M. Springman,
and L.U. Arenson (eds.)]. A.A. Balkema, Lisse, the Netherlands, pp. 407�411.
Hinzman, L.D., et al., 2005: Evidence and implications of recent climate change in
northern Alaska and other arctic regions. Clim. Change, 72(3), 251�298.
Hirawake, T., T. Odate, and M. Fukuchi, 2005: Long-term variation of surface
phytoplankton chlorophyll a in the Southern Ocean during 1965-2002. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 32(5), L05606, doi:10.1029/2004GL021394.
Hirsch, A.I., et al., 2006: Inverse modeling estimates of the global nitrous oxide
surface flux from 1998�2001. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 20, GB1008,
doi:10.1029/2004GB002443.
Hirst, A.C., 1999: The Southern Ocean response to global warming in the CSIRO
coupled ocean-atmosphere model. Environ. Model. Software, 14, 227�241.
Hirst, E., et al., 2001: Discrimination of micrometre-sized ice and super-cooled
droplets in mixed-phase cloud. Atmos. Environ., 35, 33�47.
Ho, C.-H., J.-J. Baik, J.-H. Kim, and D.Y. Gong, 2004: Interdecadal changes in
summertime typhoon tracks. J. Clim., 17, 1767�1776.
Hodell, D.A., M. Brenner, and J.H. Curtis, 2005: Terminal classic drought in the
northern Maya lowlands inferred from multiple sediment cores in Lake Chichancanab
(Mexico). Quat. Sci. Rev., 24(12�13), 1413�1427.
Hodges, K.: Feature based diagnostics from ECMWF/NCEP Analyses and AMIP II: Model
Climatologies. In: The Second Phase of the Atmospheric Model Intercomparison
Project (AMIP2) [Gleckler, P. (ed.)]. Proceedings of the WCRP/WGNE Workshop,
Toulouse, France, pp. 201-204.
Hodges, K.I., B.J. Hoskins, J. Boyle, and C. Thorncroft, 2003: A comparison of
recent reanalysis data sets using objective feature tracking: storm tracks and
tropical easterly waves. Mon. Weather Rev., 131, 2012�2037.
Hoerling, M., and A. Kumar, 2003: The perfect ocean for drought. Science,
299(5607), 691�694.
Hoerling, M.P., et al., 2004: Twentieth century North Atlantic climate change.
Part II: Understanding the effect of Indian Ocean warming. Clim. Dyn., 23,
391�405.
Hoerling, M.P., et al., 2005: Twentieth century North Atlantic climate change.
Part II: Understanding the effect of Indian Ocean warming. Clim. Dyn., 23,
391�405.
Hoerling, M.P., J.W. Hurrell, and J. Eischeid, 2006: Detection and attribution of
20th century Northern and Southern African monsoon change. J. Clim. 19(16),
3989�4008.
Hoerling, M.P., J.W. Hurrell, J. Eischeid, and A. Phillips, 2006: Detection and
attribution of twentieth-century northern and southern African rainfall change. J.
Clim., 19, 3989�4008.
Hoffert, M.I., and C. Covey, 1992: Deriving global climate sensitivity from
paleoclimate reconstructions. Nature, 360, 573�576.
Hoffman, W.A., W. Schroeder, and R.B. Jackson, 2002: Positive feedbacks of fire,
climate, and vegetation and the conversion of tropical savanna. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 15, doi:10.1029/2002G0152.
Hoffmann, G., et al., 2003: Coherent isotope history of Andean ice cores over the
last century. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30(4), doi:10.1029/2002GL014870.
Hofmann, D., 2003: et al., Surface-based observations of volcanic emissions to
stratosphere. In: Volcanism and the Earth�s Atmosphere [Robock, A., and C.
Oppenheimer (eds.)]. Geophysical Monograph 139, American Geophysical Union,
Washington, DC, pp. 57�73.
Hofzumahaus, A., et al., 2004: Photolysis frequency of O3 to O(1D): Measurements
and modeling during the International Photolysis Frequency Measurement and
Modeling Intercomparison (IPMMI). J. Geophys. Res., 109, D08S90,
doi:10.1029/2003JD004333.
Hogg, N.G., 2001: Quantification of the deep circulation. In: Ocean Circulation
and Climate [Siedler, G., J.A. Church, and J. Gould (eds.)]. Academic Press, San
Diego, pp. 259�270.
Hogg, N.G., and W. Zenk, 1997: Long-period changes in the bottom water flowing
through Vema Channel. J. Geophys. Res., 102, 15639�15646.
Holben, B.N., et al., 1998: AERONET: A federated instrument network and data
archive for aerosol characterization. Remote Sens. Environ., 66, 1�16.
Holben, B.N., et al., 2001: An emerging ground-based aerosol climatology: aerosol
optical depth from AERONET. J. Geophys. Res., 106(D11), 12067�12097.
Holgate, S.J., and P.L. Woodworth, 2004: Evidence for enhanced coastal sea level
rise during the 1990s. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L07305, doi:10.1029/2004GL019626.
Holland, E.A., and M.A. Carroll, 2003: Atmospheric chemistry and the bio-
atmospheric carbon and nitrogen cycles. In: Interactions of the Major
Biogeochemical Cycles, Global Change and Human Impacts [Melillo, J.M., C.B. Field,
and B. Moldan (eds.)]. SCOPE 61, Island Press, Washington, DC, pp. 273�294.
Holland, E.A., B.H. Braswell, J. Sulzman, and J.F. Lamarque, 2005a: Nitrogen
deposition onto the United States and Western Europe: synthesis of observations
and models. Ecol. Appl., 15, 38�57.
Holland, E.A., et al., 2005c: U.S. nitrogen science plan focuses collaborative
efforts. Eos, 86(27), 253�260.
Holland, E.A., F.J. Dentener, B.H. Braswell, and J.M. Sulzman, 1999: Contemporary
and pre-industrial reactive nitrogen budgets. Biogeochemistry, 46, 7�43.
Holland, E.A., J. Lee-Taylor, C. Nevison, and J. Sulzman, 2005b: Global N Cycle:
Fluxes and N2O mixing ratios originating from human activity. Data set. Available
online from Oak Ridge National Laboratory Distributed Active Archive Center, Oak
Ridge, TN, http://www.daac.ornl.gov.
Holland, M.M., and C.M. Bitz, 2003: Polar amplification of climate change in the
coupled model intercomparison project. Clim. Dyn., 21, 221�232.
Holland, M.M., and M.N. Raphael, 2006: Twentieth century simulation of the
southern hemisphere climate in coupled models. Part II: sea ice conditions and
variability. Clim. Dyn., 26, 229�245.
Hollinger, D.Y., et al., 1999: Seasonal patterns and environmental control of
carbon dioxide and water vapour exchange in an ecotonal boreal forest. Global
Change Biol., 5, 891�902.
Holloway, G., and T. Sou, 2002: Has Arctic sea ice rapidly thinned? J. Clim., 15,
1691�1701.
Holmgren, K., et al., 2003: Persistent millennial-scale climate variability over
the past 25,000 years in Southern Africa. Quat. Sci. Rev., 22, 2311�2326.
Holton, J.R., 1992: An Introduction to Dynamic Meteorology, 3rd ed. Volume 48 of
International Geophysics Series. Academic Press, San Diego, 511 pp.
Holzer-Popp, T., M. Schroedter, and G. Gesell, 2002: Retrieving aerosol optical
depth and type in the boundary layer over land and ocean from simultaneous GOME
spectrometer and ATSR-2 radiometer measurements - 2. Case study application and
validation. J. Geophys. Res., 107(D21), 4578, doi:10.1029/2002JD002777.
Holzer, M., and G.J. Boer, 2001: Simulated changes in atmospheric transport
climate. J. Clim., 14, 4398�4420.
Holzhauser, H., M.J. Magny, and H.J. Zumbuhl, 2005: Glacier and lake-level
variations in west-central Europe over the last 3500 years. The Holocene, 15(6),
789�801.
Hong, J., T. Choi, H. Ishikawa, and J. Kim, 2004: Turbulence structures in the
near-neutral surface layer on the Tibetan Plateau. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31,
L15106, doi:10.1029/2004GL019935.
Hood, L.L., 2003: Thermal response of the tropical tropopause region to solar
ultraviolet variations. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30, 2215, doi:10.1029/2003GL018364.
Hope, P.K., 2006a: Shifts in synoptic systems influencing southwest Western
Australia. Clim. Dyn., 26, 751�764.
Hope, P.K., 2006b: Future changes in synoptic systems influencing southwest
Western Australia. Clim. Dyn., 26, 765�780.
Hoppel, W.A., J.W. Fitzgerald, G.M. Frick, and R.E. Larson, 1990: Aerosol size
distributions and optical properties found in the marine boundary layer over the
Atlantic Ocean. J. Geophys. Res., 95, 3659�3686.
Hori, M.E., and H. Ueda,2006:Impact of global warming on the East Asian winter
monsoon as revealed by nine coupled atmosphere-ocean GCMs. Geophys. Res. Lett.,
33, L03713, doi:10.1029/2005GL024961.
Horinouchi, T., 2002: Mesoscale variability of tropical precipitation: Validation
of satellite estimates of wave forcing using TOGA COARE radar data. J. Atmos.
Sci., 59, 2428�2437.
Horinouchi, T., and S. Yoden, 1998: Wave-mean flow interaction associated with a
QBO-like oscillation simulated in a simplified GCM. J. Atmos. Sci., 55, 502�526.
Horinouchi, T., et al., 2003: Tropical cumulus convection and upward-propagating
waves in middle-atmospheric GCMs. J. Atmos. Sci., 60, 2765�2782.
Horowitz, L.W., et al., 2003: A global simulation of tropospheric ozone and
related tracers: description and evaluation of MOZART, version 2. J. Geophys.
Res., 108, 4784, doi:10.1029/2002JD002853.
Hosaka, M., D. Nohara, and A. Kitoh, 2005: Changes in snow coverage and snow water
equivalent due to global warming simulated by a 20km-mesh global atmospheric
model. Scientific Online Letters on the Atmosphere, 1, 93�96.
Hoskins, B.J., and K.I. Hodges, 2002: New perspectives on the Northern Hemisphere
winter storm tracks. J. Atmos. Sci., 59, 1041�1061.
Hoskins, B.J., and K.I. Hodges, 2005: New perspectives on the Southern Hemisphere
storm tracks. J. Clim., 18, 4108�4129.
Houghton, R.A., 1999: The annual net flux of carbon to the atmosphere from changes
in land use 1850-1990. Tellus, 51B, 298�313.
Houghton, R.A., 2000: A new estimate of global sources and sinks of carbon from
land use change. Eos, 81(19), S281.
Houghton, R.A., 2003a: Revised estimates of the annual net flux of carbon to the
atmosphere from changes in land use and land management 1850-2000. Tellus, 55B(2),
378�390.
Houghton, R.A., 2003b: Why are estimates of the terrestrial carbon balance so
different? Global Change Biol., 9, 500�509.
Houghton, R.A., and J.L. Hackler, 2000: Changes in terrestrial carbon storage in
the United States. 1: The roles of agriculture and forestry. Global Ecol.
Biogeogr., 9, 125�144.
Houghton, R.A., et al., 1983: Changes in the carbon content of terrestrial biota
and soils between 1860 and 1980: a net release of CO2 to the atmosphere. Ecol.
Monogr., 53, 235�262, doi:10.2307/1942531.
Houghton, R.A., et al., 2000: Annual fluxes of carbon from deforestation and
regrowth in the Brazilian Amazon. Nature, 403, 301�304.
Houghton, R.W., and M. Visbeck, 2002: Quasi-decadal salinity fluctuations in the
Labrador Sea. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 32, 687�701.
Hourdin, F., et al., 2006:�The LMDZ4 general circulation model: Climate
performance and sensitivity to parameterized physics with emphasis on tropical
convection.�Clim. Dyn., 27, 787�813.
Houweling, S., F. Dentener, and J. Lelieveld, 1998: The impact of nonmethane
hydrocarbon compounds on tropospheric photochemistry. J. Geophys. Res., 103,
10673�10696.
Houweling, S., F. Dentener, and J. Lelieveld, 2000: Simulation of preindustrial
atmospheric methane to constrain the global source strength of natural wetlands.
J. Geophys. Res., 105, 17243�17255.
Hovine, S., and T. Fichefet, 1994: A zonally averaged, three-basin ocean
circulation model for climate studies. Clim. Dyn., 15, 1405�1413.
Howat, I.M., I. Joughin, S. Tulaczyk, and S. Gogineni, 2005: Rapid retreat and
acceleration of Helheim Glacier, east Greenland. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L22502,
doi: 10.1029/2005GL024737.
Hoyle, C.R., B.P. Luo, and T. Peter, 2005: The origin of high ice crystal number
densities in cirrus clouds. J. Atmos. Sci., 62, 2568�2579.
Hoyt, D.V., and K.H. Schatten, 1993: A discussion of plausible solar irradiance
variations, 1700-1992. J. Geophys. Res., 98, 18895�18906.
Hoyt, D.V., and K.H. Schatten, 1997: The Role of the Sun in Climate Change. Oxford
University Press, Oxford, 279 pp.
Hoyt, D.V., K.H. Schatten, and E. Nesmes-Ribes, 1994: The hundredth year of Rudolf
Wolf�s death: Do we have the correct reconstruction of solar activity? Geophys.
Res. Lett., 21, 2067�2070.
Hsieh, W.W., and K. Bryan, 1996: Redistribution of sea level rise associated with
enhanced greenhouse warming: A simple model study. Clim. Dyn., 12, 535�544.
H�t�n, H., et al., 2005: Influence of the Atlantic Subpolar Gyre on the
thermohaline circulation. Science, 309, 1841�1844.
Hsu, C.J., and F. Zwiers, 2001: Climate change in recurrent regimes and modes of
atmospheric variability. J. Geophys. Res., 106, 20145�20160.
Hsu, N.C., J.R. Herman, and C. Weaver, 2000: Determination of radiative forcing of
Saharan dust using combined TOMS and ERBE data. J. Geophys. Res., 105(D16),
20649�20661.
Hsu, N.C., J.R. Herman, and S.C. Tsay, 2003: Radiative impacts from biomass
burning in the presence of clouds during boreal spring in southeast Asia. Geophys.
Res. Lett., 30(5), 28, doi:10.1029/2002GL016485.
Hu, A.X., G.A. Meehl, W.M. Washington, and A. Dai, 2004: Response of the Atlantic
thermohaline circulation to increased atmospheric CO2 in a coupled model. J.
Clim., 17, 4267�4279.
Hu, H., 1996: Water vapour and temperature lapse rate feedbacks in the mid-
latitude seasonal cycle. Geophys. Res. Lett., 23, 1761�1764.
Hu, Z.-Z., and A. Wu, 2004: The intensification and shift of the annual North
Atlantic Oscillation in a global warming scenario simulation. Tellus, 56A,
112�124.
Hu, Z.-Z., E.K. Schneider, U.S. Bhatt, and B.P. Kirtman, 2004: Potential mechanism
for response of El Ni�o-Southern Oscillation variability to change in land surface
energy budget. J. Geophys. Res., 109, D21113, doi:10.1029/2004JD004771.
Hu, Z.-Z., et al., 2001: Impact of global warming on the interannual and
interdecadal climate modes in a coupled GCM. Clim. Dyn., 17, 361�374.
Hu, Z.-Z., L. Bengtsson, and K. Arpe, 2000a: Impact of the global warming on the
Asian winter monsoon in a coupled GCM. J. Geophys. Res., 105, 4607�4624.
Hu, Z.-Z., M. Latif, E. Roeckner, and L. Bengtsson, 2000b: Intensified Asian
summer monsoon and its variability in a coupled model forced by increasing
greenhouse gas concentrations. Geophys. Res. Lett., 27, 2681�2684.
Hu, Z.Z., L. Bengtsson, and K. Arpe, 2000: Impact of global warming on the Asian
winter monsoon in a coupled GCMJ. Geophys. Res., 105(D4), 4607�4624.
Hu, Z.Z., S. Yang, and R. Wu, 2003: Long-term climate variations in China and
global warming signals. J. Geophys. Res., 108(D19), 4614,
doi:10.1029/2003JD003651.
Huang, J., and R.G. Prinn, 2002: Critical evaluation of emissions of potential new
gases for OH estimation. J. Geophys. Res., 107(D24), 4784,
doi:10.1029/2002JD002394.
Huang, S.P., and H.N. Pollack, 1998: Global Borehole Temperature Database for
Climate Reconstruction. IGBP PAGES/World Data Center-A for Paleoclimatology Data
Contribution Series #1998-044, NOAA/NGDC Paleoclimatology Program, Boulder, CO.
Huang, S.P., H.N. Pollack, and P.Y. Shen, 1997: Late Quaternary temperature
changes seen in the world-wide continental heat flow measurements. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 24, 1947�1950.
Huang, S.P., H.N. Pollack, and P.Y. Shen, 2000: Temperature trends over the past
five centuries reconstructed from borehole temperatures. Nature, 403(6771),
756�758.
Huang, X., B.J. Soden, and D.L. Jackson, 2005: Interannual co-variability of
tropical temperature and humidity: A comparison of model, reanalysis data and
satellite observation. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L17808, doi:10.1029/2005GL023375.
Huang, Y., R.E. Dickinson, and W.L. Chameides, 2006: Impact of aerosol indirect
effect on climate over East Asia. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 103, 4371�4376.
Hubbert, G.D., and K.L. McInnes, 1999: A storm surge inundation model for
coastalplanning and impact studies. J. Coastal Res., 15, 168�185.
Huber, C., et al., 2006: Isotope calibrated Greenland temperature record over
Marine Isotope Stage 3 and its relation to CH4. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett.,
243(3�4), 504�519.
Huck, P.E., A.J. McDonald, G.E. Bodeker, and H. Struthers, 2005: Interannual
variability in Antarctic ozone depletion controlled by planetary waves and polar
temperatures. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L13819, doi:10.1029/2005GL022943.
Hudman, R.C., et al., 2004: Ozone production in transpacific Asian pollution
plumes and implications for ozone air quality in California. J. Geophys. Res.,
109, D23S10, doi:10.1029/2004JD004974.
Huebert, B.J., et al., 2003: An overview of ACE-Asia: Strategies for quantifying
the relationships between Asian aerosols and their climatic impacts. J. Geophys.
Res., 108(D23), 8633, doi:10.1029/2003JD003550.
HuffmanG.J., et al., 2001Global precipitation at one-degree daily resolution from
multisatellite observations. JHydrometeorol., 2,36�50.
Hughen, K.A., J.T. Overpeck, L.C. Peterson, and S. Trumbore, 1996: Rapid climate
changes in the tropical Atlantic region during the last deglaciation. Nature,
380(6569), 51�54.
Hughen, K.A., T.I. Eglinton, L. Xu, and M. Makou, 2004: Abrupt tropical vegetation
response to rapid climate changes. Science, 304(5679), 1955�1959.
Hughes, M.K., and H.F. Diaz, 1994: Was there a Medieval Warm Period, and if so,
where and when? Clim. Change, 26(2�3), 109�142.
Hughes, T.P., et al., 2003: Climate change, human impacts, and the resilience of
coral reefs. Science, 301, 929�933.
Hulme, M., and N. Sheard, 1999a: Climate Change Scenarios for Indonesia. Climatic
Research Unit, Norwich, UK, 6 pp.
Hulme, M., and N. Sheard, 1999b: Climate Change Scenarios for the Philippines.
Climatic Research Unit, Norwich, UK, 6 pp.
Hulme, M., et al., 1999: Relative impacts of human-induced climate change and
natural variability. Nature, 397, 688�691.
Hulme, M., R. Doherty, and T. Ngara, 2001: African climate change: 1900-2100.
Clim. Res., 17, 145�168.
Hulme, M., T.J. Osborn, and T.C. Johns, 1998: Precipitation sensitivity to global
warming: Comparison of observations with HadCM2 simulations. Geophys. Res. Lett.,
25, 3379�3382.
Humlum, O., et al., 2005: Late-Holocene glacier growth in Svalbard, documented by
subglacial relict vegetation and living soil microbes. The Holocene, 15(3),
396�407.
Hungate, B., et al., 2003: Nitrogen and climate change. Science, 302(5650),
1512�1513.
Hunke, E.C., and J.K. Dukowicz, 1997: An elastic-viscous-plastic model for sea ice
dynamics. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 27, 1849�1867.
Hunke, E.C., and J.K. Dukowicz, 2002: The Elastic-Viscous-Plastic sea ice dynamics
model in general orthogonal curvilinear coordinates on a sphere�Effect of metric
terms. Mon. Weather Rev., 130, 1848�1865.
Hunke, E.C., and J.K. Dukowicz, 2003: The Sea Ice Momentum Equation in the Free
Drift Regime. Technical Report LA-UR-03-2219, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los
Alamos, NM.
Huntingford, C., et al., 2003: Regional climate-model predictions of extreme
rainfall for a changing climate. Q. J. R.. Meteorol. Soc., 129, 1607�1621.
Huntingford, C., et al., 2004: Using a GCM analogue model to investigate the
potential for Amazonian forest dieback. Theor. Appl. Climatol., 78, 177�185.
Huntingford, C., P.A. Stott, M.R. Allen, and F.H. Lambert, 2006: Incorporating
model uncertainty into attribution of observed temperature change. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 33, L05710, doi:10.1029/2005GL024831.
Hurley, M.D., et al., 2005: IR spectrum and radiative forcing of CF4 revisited. J.
Geophys. Res., 110, D02102, doi:10.1029/2004JD005201.
Hurley, M.D., et al., 2005: IR spectrum and radiative forcing of CF4 revisited. J.
Geophys. Res., 110, D02102, doi:10.1029/2004JD005201.
Hurrell, J.W., 1995: Decadal trends in the North Atlantic Oscillation: Regional
temperatures and precipitation. Science, 269, 676�679.
Hurrell, J.W., 1996: Influence of variations in extratropical wintertime
teleconnections on Northern Hemisphere temperature. Geophys. Res. Lett., 23,
665�668.
Hurrell, J.W., and H. van Loon, 1997: Decadal variations in climate associated
with the North Atlantic Oscillation. Clim. Change, 36, 301�326.
Hurrell, J.W., M.P. Hoerling, A.S. Phillips, and T. Xu, 2005: Twentieth century
North Atlantic climate change. Part I: Assessing determinism. Clim. Dyn., 23,
371�389.
Hurrell, J.W., Y. Kushnir, G. Ottersen, and M. Visbeck, 2003: An overview of the
North Atlantic Oscillation. In: The North Atlantic Oscillation: Climatic
Significance and Environmental Impact [Hurrell, J.W., et al. (eds.)]. Geophysical
Monograph Vol. 134, American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, pp. 1�35.
Hurst, D.F., et al., 2004: Emissions of ozone-depleting substances in Russia
during 2001. J. Geophys. Res., 109, D14303, doi:10.1029/2004JD004633.
Hurst, D.F., et al., 2006: Continuing global significance of emissions of Montreal
Protocol-restricted halocarbons in the USA and Canada. J. Geophys. Res., 111,
D15302, doi:10.1029/2005JD006785.
Hurtt, G.C., et al., 2002: Projecting the future of the U.S. carbon sink. Proc.
Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 99(3), 1389�1394.
Husar, R.B., et al., 2001: Asian dust events of April 1998. J. Geophys. Res.,
106(D16), 18317�18330.
Husar, R.B., J.M. Prospero, and L.L. Stowe, 1997: Characterization of tropospheric
aerosols over the oceans with the NOAA advanced very high resolution radiometer
optical thickness operational product. J. Geophys. Res., 102(D14), 16889�16910.
Hutchings, J.K., H. Jasak, and S.W. Laxon, 2004: A strength implicit correction
scheme for the viscous-plastic sea ice model. Ocean Modelling, 7, 111�133.
Huth, R., J. Kysely, and M. Dubrovsky, 2001: Time structure of observed, GCM-
simulated, downscaled, and stochastically generated daily temperature series. J.
Clim., 14, 4047�4061.
Huybers, P., 2005: Comment on �Hockey sticks, principal components, and spurious
significance� by S. McIntyre and R. McKitrick. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32(20),
doi:10.1029/2005GL023395.
Huybrechts, P., 2002: Sea-level changes at the LGM from ice-dynamics
reconstructions of the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets during the glacial
cycles. Quat. Sci. Rev., 21, 203�231.
Huybrechts, P., A. Letr�guilly, and N. Reeh, 1991: The Greenland ice sheet and
greenhouse warming. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol., 89, 399�412.
Huybrechts, P., and J. De Wolde, 1999: The dynamic response of the Greenland and
Antarctic ice sheets to multiple-century climatic warming. J. Clim., 12,
2169�2188.
Huybrechts, P., I. Janssens, C. Poncin, and T. Fichefet, 2002: The response of the
Greenland ice sheet to climate changes in the 21st century by interactive coupling
of an AOGCM with a thermomechanical ice sheet model. Ann. Glaciol., 35, 409�415.
Huybrechts, P., J. Gregory, I. Janssens, and M. Wild, 2004: Modelling Antarctic
and Greenland volume changes during the 20th and 21st centuries forced by GCM time
slice integrations. Global Planet. Change, 42, 83�105.
Hyv�rinen, V., 2003: Trends and characteristics of hydrological time series in
Finland. Nord. Hydrol., 34(1�2), 71�90.
H�ly, C., et al., 2003: Release of gaseous and particulate carbonaceous compound
from biomass burning during the SAFARI 2000 dry season field campaign. J. Geophys.
Res., 108(D13), 8470, doi:10.1029/2002JD002482.
H�kkinen, S., 2002: Surface salinity variability in the northern North Atlantic
during recent decades. J. Geophys. Res., 107(C12), doi:10.1029/2001JC000812.
H�kkinen, S., and P.B. Rhines, 2004: Decline of subpolar North Atlantic
circulation during the 1990s. Science, 304, 555�559.
Iacobellis, S.F., G.M. McFarquhar, D.L. Mitchell, and R.C.J. Somerville, 2003: The
sensitivity of radiative fluxes to parameterized cloud microphysics. J. Clim., 16,
2979�2996.
Iacono, M.J., J.S. Delamere, E.J. Mlawer, and S.A. Clough, 2003: Evaluation of
upper tropospheric water vapor in the NCAR Community Climate Model, CCM3, using
modeled and observed HIRS radiances. J. Geophys. Res., 108(D2), 4037,
doi:10.1029/2002JD002539.
ICES, 2005: The Annual ICES Ocean Climate Status Summary 2004/2005. ICES
Cooperative Research Report No.275, International Council for the Exploration of
the Sea, Copenhagen, Denmark, 37 pp.
Ichinose, T., K. Shimodozono, and K. Hanaki, 1999: Impact of anthropogenic heat on
urban climate in Tokyo. Atmos. Environ., 33, 3897�3909.
Ichoku, C., et al., 2003: MODIS observation of aerosols and estimation of aerosol
radiative forcing over southern Africa during SAFARI 2000. J. Geophys. Res.,
108(D13), 8499, doi:10.1029/2002JD002366.
IDAG (International Ad Hoc Detection and Attribution Group), 2005: Detecting and
attributing external influences on the climate system: A review of recent
advances. J. Clim., 18, 1291�1314.
IFFN, 2003: Russian Federation Fire 2002 Special. Part III: The 2002 fire season
in the Asian part of the Russian Federation: A view from space. International
Forest Fire News (IFFN), 28, 18�28.
Ignatov, A., and L. Stowe, 2002: Aerosol retrievals from individual AVHRR
channels. Part I: Retrieval algorithm and transition from Dave to 6S Radiative
Transfer Model. J. Atmos. Sci., 59, 313�334.
Im, E.S., E-H. Park, W.-T. Kwon, and F. Giorgi, 2006: Present climate simulation
over Korea with a regional climate model using a one-way double-nested system.
Theor. Appl. Climatol. 86, 183�196.
Imbert, A., and R.E. Benestad, 2005: An improvement of analog model strategy for
more reliable local climate change scenarios. Theor. Appl. Climatol., 82, 245�255.
Imbrie, J., and K.P. Imbrie, 1979: Ice Ages: Solving the Mystery. Harvard
University Press, Cambridge, 224pp.
Imhoff, M.L., et al., 2004: Global patterns in human consumption of net primary
production. Nature, 429(6994), 870�873.
Inamdar, A.K., and V. Ramanathan, 1998: Tropical and global scale interactions
among water vapour, atmospheric greenhouse effect, and surface temperature. J.
Geophys. Res., 103, 32177�32194.
Inatsu, M., and M. Kimoto, 2005: Difference of boreal summer climate between
coupled and atmosphere-only GCMs. Scientific Online Letters on the Atmosphere, 1,
105�108.
Inatsu, M., and M. Kimoto, 2005: Two types of interannual variability of the mid-
winter storm-track and their relationship to global warming. Scientific Online
Letters on the Atmosphere, 1, 61�64.
Inderm�hle, A., et al., 1999: Holocene carbon-cycle dynamics based on CO2 trapped
in ice at Taylor Dome, Antarctica. Nature, 398, 121�126.
Inderm�hle, A., et al., 2000: Atmospheric CO2 concentration from 60 to 20 kyr BP
from the Taylor Dome ice core, Antarctica. Geophys. Res. Lett., 27(5), 735�738.
Ingram, W.J., 2002: On the robustness of the water vapor feedback: GCM vertical
resolution and formulation. J. Clim., 15, 917�921.
Inness, P.M., and J.M. Slingo, 2003: Simulation of the MJO in a coupled GCM. I:
Comparison with observations and atmosphere-only GCM. J. Clim., 16, 345�364.
Inness, P.M., J.M. Slingo, E. Guilyardi, and J. Cole, 2003: Simulation of the MJO
in a coupled GCM. II: The role of the basic state. J. Clim., 16, 365�382.
International CLIVAR Project Office, 2006: Understanding the Role of the Indian
Ocean in the Climate System � Implementation Plan for Sustained Observations.
CLIVAR Publication Series No.100, International CLIVAR Project Office,
Southampton, UK, 76 pp.
IOC, 2002: Manual on Sea-Level Measurement and Interpretation. Volume 3 -
Reappraisals and Recommendations as of the Year 2000. Manuals and Guides No. 14,
Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, Paris, 47 pp.
IOCI, 2002: Climate Variability and Change in South West Western Australia.
Technical Report,Indian Ocean Climate Initiative Panel, Perth, Australia,34 pp.
IOCI, 2005: Indian Ocean Climate Initiative Stage 2: Report of Phase 1 Activity.
Indian Ocean Climate Initiative, Perth, Australia, 42 pp.
IOCI2005: Indian Ocean Climate Initiative Stage 2: Report of Phase 1 Activity.
Indian Ocean Climate Initiative Panel, Perth, Australia, 42pp.,
http://www.ioci.org.au/publications/pdf/2005202-IOCI%20reportvis2.pdf.
Iorio, J.P., et al., 2004: Effects of model resolution and subgrid scale physics
on the simulation of precipitation in the continental United States. ?Clim. Dyn.,
23, 243�258, doi:10.1007/s00382-004-0440-y.
IPCC, 1990: Climate Change: The IPCC Scientific Assessment [Houghton, J.T., G.J.
Jenkins, and J.J. Ephraums (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United
Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 365 pp.
IPCC, 1992: Climate Change 1992: The Supplementary Report to the IPCC Scientific
Assessment [Houghton, J.T., B.A. Callander, and S.K. Varney (eds.)]. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 200 pp.
IPCC, 1995: Climate Change 1994: Radiative Forcing of Climate Change and an
Evaluation of the IPCC IS92 Emission Scenarios [Houghton, J.T., et al. (eds.)].
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 339
pp.
IPCC, 1996: Climate Change 1995: The Science of Climate Change. Contribution of
the Working Group I to the Second Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change [Houghton, J.T., et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 572 pp.
IPCC, 1996: Technical summary. In: Climate Change991995: The Science of Climate
Change. Contribution of Working Group I to the SecondAssessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change[Houghton, J.T., et al. (e]ds.)]].
Cambridge University Press, CambridgeUnited Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp.
9�49.
IPCC, 1999: Aviation and the Global Atmosphere: A Special Report of IPCC Working
Groups I and III [Penner, J.E., et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 373 pp.
IPCC, 1999: Special Report on Aviation and the Global Atmosphere [Penner, J.E., et
al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York,
NY, USA, 373 pp.
IPCC, 2000: Special Report on Emission Scenarios. A Special Report of Working
Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Nakicenovic, N., et
al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York,
NY, USA, 599 pp.
IPCC, 2001a: Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Contribution of Working
Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change [Houghton, J.T., et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 881 pp.
IPCC, 2001b: Climate Change 2001: Synthesis Report. A contribution of Working
Groups I, II, and III to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change [Watson, R.T., et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 398 pp.
IPCC/TEAP, 2005: Special Report on Safeguarding the Ozone Layer and the Global
Climate System: Issues Related to Hydrofluorocarbons and Perfluorocarbons [Metz,
B., et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New
York, NY, USA, 488 pp.
Irannejad, P., A. Henderson-Sellers, and S. Sharmeen, 2003: Importance of land-
surface parameterisation for latent heat simulation in global atmospheric models.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 30(17), 1904, doi:10.1029/2003GL018044.
Irie, H., et al., 2005: Evaluation of long-term tropospheric NO2 data obtained by
GOME over East Asia in 1996-2002. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L11810,
doi:10.1029/2005GL022770.
Isaksen, K., P. Holmlund, J.L. Sollid, and C. Harris, 2001: Three deep alpine-
permafrost boreholes in Svalbard and Scandinavia. Permafrost and Periglacial
Processes, 12, 13�25.
Ishii, M., M. Kimoto, K. Sakamoto, and S.-I. Iwasaki, 2006: Steric sea level
changes estimated from historical ocean subsurface temperature and salinity
analyses. J. Oceanogr., 62, 155�170.
Ishimatsu, A., et al., 2004: Effects of CO2 on marine fish: larvae and adults. J.
Oceanogr., 60, 731�741.
Ito, A., and J.E. Penner, 2005: Historical emissions of carbonaceous aerosols from
biomass and fossil fuel burning for the period 1870�2000. Global Biogeochem.
Cycles, 19, GB2028, doi:10.1029/2004GB002374.
Ittekkot, V., 1993: The abiotically driven biological pump in the ocean and short-
term fluctuations in atmospheric CO2 contents. Global Planet. Change, 8(1�2),
17�25.
Iversen, T., and O. Seland, 2002: A scheme for process-tagged SO4 and BC aerosols
in NCAR CCM3: Validation and sensitivity to cloud processes. J. Geophys. Res.,
107(D24), 4751, doi:10.1029/2001JD000885.
J�rin, U.E., T.F. Stocker, and C. Schl�chter, 2006: Multi-century glacier
fluctuations in the Swiss Alps during the Holocene. The Holocene, 16(5), 697�704.
Jacka, T.H., et al., 2004: Recommendations for the collection and synthesis of
Antarctic Ice Sheet mass balance data. Global Planet. Change, 42(1�4), 1�15.
Jackson, S.C., and A.J. Broccoli, 2003: Orbital forcing of Arctic climate:
mechanisms of climate response and implications for continental glaciation. Clim.
Dyn., 21, 539�557.
Jacob, D., et al., 2007: An intercomparison of regional climate models for Europe:
design of the experiments and model performance. Clim. Change, doi:
10.1007/s10584-006-9213-4.
Jacob, D.J., 2000: Heterogeneous chemistry and tropospheric ozone. Atmos.
Environ., 34, 2131�2159.
Jacob, D.J., et al., 1993: Factors regulating ozone over the United States and its
export to the global atmosphere. J. Geophys. Res., 98, 14817�14826.
Jacob, D.J., et al., 1997: Evaluation and intercomparison of global atmospheric
transport models using 222Rn and other short-lived tracers. J. Geophys. Res., 102,
5953�5970.
Jacob, D.J., et al., 2005: Radiative Forcing of Climate Change. The National
Academies Press, Washington, DC, 207 pp.
Jacobs, S.S., C.F. Giulivi, and P.A. Mele, 2002: Freshening of the Ross Sea during
the late 20th century. Science, 297(5580), 386�389.
Jacobson, M.Z., 1999: Effects of soil moisture on temperatures, winds, and
pollutant concentrations in Los Angeles. J. Appl. Meteorol., 38(5), 607�616.
Jacobson, M.Z., 1999: Isolating nitrated and aromatic aerosols and nitrated
aromatic gases as sources of ultraviolet light absorption. J. Geophys. Res.,
104(D3), 3527�3542.
Jacobson, M.Z., 2001a: Global direct radiative forcing due to multicomponent
anthropogenic and natural aerosols. J. Geophys. Res., 106(D2), 1551�1568.
Jacobson, M.Z., 2001b: Strong radiative heating due to the mixing state of black
carbon in atmospheric aerosols. Nature, 409, 695�697.
Jacobson, M.Z., 2002: Control of fossil-fuel particulate black carbon and organic
matter, possibly the most effective method of slowing global warming. J. Geophys.
Res., 107, doi:10.1029/2001JD001376.
Jacobson, M.Z., 2004: Climate response of fossil fuel and biofuel soot, accounting
for soot�s feedback to snow and sea ice albedo and emissivity. J. Geophys. Res.,
109, D21201, doi:10.1029/2004JD004945.
Jacobson, M.Z., 2006: Effects of externally-through-internally-mixed soot
inclusions within clouds and precipitation on global climate. J. Phys. Chem. A,
110, 6860�6873.
Jaeger, L., 1976: Monatskarten des Niederschlags f�r die Ganze Erde. Ber. Deutsche
Wetterdienstes 139, Germany, 38 pp.
Jaegl�, L., D.J. Jacob, W.H. Brune, and P.O. Wenberg, 2001: Chemistry of HOx
radicals in the upper troposphere. Atmos. Environ., 35, 469�489.
Jaegl�, L., et al., 2004: Satellite mapping of rain-induced nitric oxide emissions
from soils. J. Geophys. Res., 109, D21310, doi:10.1029/2004JD004787.
Jaegl�, L., L. Steinberger, R.V. Martin, and K. Chance, 2005: Global partitioning
of NOx sources using satellite observations: Relative roles of fossil fuel
combustion, biomass burning and soil emissions. Faraday Discuss., 130, 407�423.
Jaenicke, R., 2005: Abundance of cellular material and proteins in the atmosphere.
Science, 308(5718), doi:10.1126/science.1106335.
Jaffe, D., et al., 2003: Increasing background ozone during spring on the west
coast of North America. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30, 1613, doi:10.1029/2003GL017024.
Jaffe, D., et al., 2004: Long-range transport of Siberian biomass burning
emissions and impact on surface ozone in western North America. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 31, L16106, doi:10.1029/2004GL020093.
Jahren, A.H., et al., 2001: Terrestrial record of methane hydrate dissociation in
the Early Cretaceous. Geology, 29(2), 159�162.
Jain, A.K., and X. Yang, 2005: Modeling the effects of two different land cover
change data sets on the carbon stocks of plants and soils in concert in CO2 and
climate change. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 19, doi:10.1029/2004GB002349.
Jakob, C., and G. Tselioudis, 2003: Objective identification of cloud regimes in
the tropical western pacific. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30, doi:10.1029/2003GL018367.
Jansen, E., T. Fronval, F. Rack, and J.E.T. Channell, 2000: Pliocene-Pleistocene
ice rafting history and cyclicity in the Nordic Seas during the last 3.5 Myr.
Paleoceanography, 15(6), 709�721.
Janssens, I., and P. Huybrechts, 2000: The treatment of meltwater retention in
mass-balance parameterizations of the Greenland ice sheet. Ann. Glaciol., 31,
133�140.
Janssens, I.A., et al., 2003: Europe�s terrestrial biosphere absorbs 7 to 12% of
European anthropogenic CO2 emissions. Science, 300(5625), 1538�1542.
Jasper, J.P., and J.M. Hayes, 1990: A carbon isotope record of CO2 levels during
the late Quaternary. Nature, 347, 462�464.
Jenkins, G.S., A.T. Gaye, and B. Sylla, 2005: Late 20th century attribution of
drying trends in the Sahel from the Regional Climate Model (RegCM3). Geophys. Res.
Lett., 32, L22705, doi:10.1029/2005GL024225.
Jenkins, G.S., G. Adamou, and S. Fongang, 2002: The challenges of modeling climate
variability and change in West Africa. ClimChange, 52, 263�286.
Jennings, A.E., et al., 2001: A mid-Holocene shift in Arctic sea-ice variability
on the East Greenland Shelf. The Holocene, 12, 49�58.
Jennings, R.L., 1975: Data Sets for Meteorological Research. NCAR-TN/1A, National
Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, CO, 156 pp.
Jensen, E.J., and O.B. Toon, 1997: The potential impact of soot particles from
aircraft exhaust on cirrus clouds. Geophys. Res. Lett., 24(3), 249�252.
Jeong, M.J., Z.Q. Li, D.A. Chu, and S.C. Tsay, 2005: Quality and compatibility
analyses of global aerosol products derived from the advanced very high resolution
radiometer and Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer. J. Geophys. Res.,
110, D10S09, doi:10.1029/2004JD004648.
Ji, M., A. Leetmaa, and V.E. Kousky, 1996: Coupled model predictions of ENSO
during the 1980s and the 1990s at the National Centers for Environmental
Prediction. J. Clim., 9, 3105�3120.
Jiang, D., et al., 2005: Modeling the middle Pliocene climate with a global
atmospheric general circulation model. J. Geophys. Res., 110, D14107,
doi:10.1029/2004JD005639.
Jiang, H., and G. Feingold, 2006: Effect of aerosol on warm convective clouds:
Aerosol-clouds-surface flux feedbacks in a new coupled large eddy model. J.
Geophys. Res., 111, D01202, doi:10.1029/2005JD006138.
Jiang, H., et al., 2006: Aerosol effects on the lifetime of shallow cumulus.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, doi:10.1029/2006GL026024.
Jiang, H., G. Feingold, and W.R. Cotton, 2002: Simulations of aerosol-cloud-
dynamical feedbacks resulting from of entrainment of aerosols into the marine
boundary layer during the Atlantic Stratocumulus Transition Experiment. J.
Geophys. Res., 107(D24), 4813, doi:10.1029/2001JD001502.
Jiang, Y.D., 2005: The Northward Shift of Climatic Belts in China during the Last
50 Years, and the Possible Future Changes. PhD Thesis, Institute of Atmospheric
Physics, China Academy of Science, Beijing, 137 pp.
Jiao, Y., and D. Caya, 2006: An ? investigation of summer precipitation simulated
by the Canadian regional climate model. Mon. WeatherRev., 134, 919�932.
Jickells, T.D., et al., 2005: Global iron connections between desert dust, ocean
biogeochemistry, and climate. Science, 308(5718), 67�71.
Jin, M.L., J.M. Shepherd, and M.D. King, 2005: Urban aerosols and their variations
with clouds and rainfall: a case study for New York and Houston. J. Geophys. Res.,
110, doi:10.1029/2004JD005081.
Jin, X.Z., X.H. Zhang, and T.J. Zhou, 1999: Fundamental framework and experiments
of the third generation of the IAP/LASG World Ocean General Circulation Model.
Adv. Atmos. Sci., 16, 197�215.
Jin, Y., et al., 2002: How does snow impact the albedo of vegetated land surfaces
as analyzed with MODIS data? Geophys. Res. Lett., 29, doi:10.1029/2001GLO14132.
Jirikowic, J.L., and P.E. Damon, 1994: The Medieval solar activity maximum. Clim.
Change, 26, 309�316.
Johannessen, O.M, E.V. Shalina, and M.W. Miles, 1999: Satellite evidence for an
Arctic sea ice cover in transformation. Science, 286, 1937�1939.
Johannessen, O.M., et al., 2004: Arctic climate change: observed and modelled
temperature and sea-ice variability. Tellus, 56A(4), 328.
Johannessen, O.M., K. Khvorostovsky, M.W. Miles, and L.P. Bobylev, 2005: Recent
ice-sheet growth in the interior of Greenland. Science, 310, 1013�1016.
Johannssen, O.M., et al., 2004: Arctic climate change: observed and modeled
temperature and sea-ice variability. Tellus, 56A, 328�341.
Johns, T.C., et al., 2003: Anthropogenic climate change for 1860 to 2100 simulated
with the HadCM3 model under updated emissions scenarios. Clim. Dyn., 20, 583�612.
Johns, T.C., et al., 2006: The new Hadley Centre climate model HadGEM1: Evaluation
of coupled simulations. J. Clim., 19, 1327�1353.
Johnsen, S.J., et al., 1992: ? Irregular glacial interstadials recorded in a new
Greenland ice core. Nature, 359, 311�313.
Johnsen, S.J., et al., 2001: Oxygen isotope and palaeotemperature records from six
Greenland ice-core stations: Camp Century, Dye-3, GRIP, GISP2, Renland and
NorthGRIP. J. Quat. Sci., 16, 299�307.
Johnson, B.T., 2005: The semidirect aerosol effect: Comparison of a single-column
model with large eddy simulation for marine stratocumulus. J. Clim., 18, 119�130.
Johnson, B.T., K.P. Shine, and P.M. Forster, 2004: The semi-direct aerosol effect:
Impact of absorbing aerosols on marine stratocumulus. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc.,
130, 1407�1422.
Johnson, C.E., D.S. Stevenson, W.J. Collins, and R.G. Derwent, 2001: Role of
climate feedback on methane and ozone studied with a coupled ocean-atmosphere-
chemistry model. Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 1723�1726.
Johnson, C.E., D.S. Stevenson, W.J. Collins, and R.G. Derwent, 2002: Interannual
variability in methane growth rate simulated with a coupled ocean-atmosphere-
chemistry model. Geophys. Res. Lett., 29(19), 1903, doi:10.1029/2002GL015269.
Johnson, C.E., W.J. Collins, D.S. Stevenson, and R.G. Derwent, 1999: Relative
roles of climate and emissions changes on future tropospheric oxidant
concentrations. J. Geophys. Res., 104(D15), 18631�18645.
Johnson, D.B., 1982: The role of giant and ultragiant aerosol particles in warm
rain initiation. J. Atmos. Sci., 39, 448�460.
Johnson, G.C., and A.H. Orsi, 1997: Southwest Pacific Ocean water-mass changes
between 1968/69 and 1990/91. J. Clim., 10(2), 306�316.
Johnson, G.C., and N. Gruber, 2007: Decadal water mass variations along 20�W in
the northeastern Atlantic Ocean. Prog. Oceanogr., in press.
Johnson, G.C., D.L. Rudnick, and B.A. Taft, 1994: Bottom water variability in the
Samoa Passage. J. Mar. Res., 52, 177�196.
Johnson, H.L., and D.P. Marshall, 2002: A theory for surface Atlantic response to
thermohaline variability. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 32, 1121�1132.
Jolly, D., S.P. Harrison, B. Damnati, and E. Bonnefille, 1996: Simulated climate
and biomes of Africa during the late Quaternary: comparison with pollen and lake
status data. Quat. Sci. Rev., 17, 629�657.
Jolly, D., S.P. Harrison, B. Damnati, and R. Bonnefille, 1998: Simulated climate
and biomes of Africa during the Late Quaternary: comparison with pollen and lake
status data. Quat. Sci. Rev., 17, 629�657.
Jones, A., D.L. Roberts, and M.J. Woodage, 2001: Indirect sulphate aerosol forcing
in a climate model with an interactive sulphur cycle. J. Geophys. Res., 106(D17),
20293�20301.
Jones, A., D.L. Roberts, M.J. Woodage, and C. E. Johnson, 2001: Indirect sulphate
aerosol forcing in a climate model with an interactive sulphur cycle. J. Geophys.
Res., 106, 20293�20310.
Jones, C., N. Mahowald, and C. Luo, 2004: Observational evidence of African desert
dust intensification of easterly waves. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31,
doi:10.1029/2004GL020107.
Jones, C.D., and P.M. Cox, 2001a: Modelling the volcanic signal in the atmospheric
CO2 record. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 15(2), 453�466.
Jones, C.D., and P.M. Cox, 2001b: Constraints on the temperature sensitivity of
global soil respiration from the observed interannual variability in atmospheric
CO2. Atmos. Sci. Lett., 1, doi:10.1006/asle.2001.0041.
Jones, C.D., and P.M. Cox, 2005: On the significance of atmospheric CO2 growth
rate anomalies in 2002�2003. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L14816,
doi:10.1029/2005GL023027.
Jones, C.D., et al., 2003: Strong carbon cycle feedbacks in a climate model with
interactive CO2 and sulphate aerosols. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30(9), 1479,
doi:10.1029/2003GL016867.
Jones, C.D., et al., 2005: Global climate change and soil carbon stocks:
predictions from two contrasting models for the turnover of organic carbon in
soil. Global Change Biol., 11(1), 154�166.
Jones, C.D., et al., 2005: Systematic optimisation and climate simulation of
FAMOUS, a fast version of HadCM3. Clim. Dyn., 25, 189�204.
Jones, C.D., M. Collins, P.M. Cox, and S.A. Spall, 2001: The carbon cycle response
to ENSO: a coupled climate-carbon cycle model study. J. Clim., 14, 4113�4129.
Jones, C.D., P.M. Cox, and C. Huntingford, 2006: Impact of climate-carbon cycle
feedbacks on emission scenarios to achieve stabilisation. In: Avoiding Dangerous
Climate Change [Schellnhuber, H.J., et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press,
New York, NY, pp. 323�331.
Jones, G.S., et al., 2005: Sensitivity of global scale attribution results to
inclusion of climatic response to black carbon. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L14701,
doi:10.1029/2005GL023370.
Jones, G.S., S.F.B. Tett, and P.A. Stott, 2003: Causes of atmospheric temperature
change 1960-2000: A combined attribution analysis. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30, 1228.
Jones, J.M., and M. Widmann, 2004: Early peak in Antarctic Oscillation index.
Nature, 432, 290�291.
Jones, P.D., 1988: Hemispheric surface air temperature variations: Recent trends
and an update to 1987. J. Clim., 1, 654�660.
Jones, P.D., A. Moberg, T.J. Osborn, and K.R. Briffa, 2003: Surface climate
responses to explosive volcanic eruptions seen in long European temperature
records and mid-to-high latitude tree-ring density around the Northern Hemisphere.
In: Volcanism and the Earth�s Atmosphere [Robock, A., and C. Oppenheimer (eds.)].
Geophysical Monograph 139, American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, pp.
239�254.
Jones, P.D., and A. Moberg, 2003: Hemispheric and large-scale surface air
temperature variations: An extensive revision and an update to 2001. J. Clim., 16,
206�223.
Jones, P.D., and M.E. Mann, 2004: Climate over past millennia. Rev. Geophys.,
42(2), RG2002, doi:10.1029/2003RG000143.
Jones, P.D., and P.A. Reid, 2001: Assessing future changes in extreme
precipitation over Britain using regional climate model integrations. Int. J.
Climatol., 21, 1337�1356.
Jones, P.D., D.E. Parker, T.J. Osborn, and K.R. Briffa, 2006: Global and
hemispheric temperature anomalies--land and marine instrumental records. In:
Trends: A Compendium of Data on Global Change. Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis
Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, Oak Ridge, TN.
Jones, P.D., et al., 1986b: Northern Hemisphere surface air temperature
variations: 1851-1984. J. Clim. Appl. Meteorol., 25, 161�179.
Jones, P.D., et al., 1990: Assessment of urbanization effects in time series of
surface air temperature over land. Nature, 347, 169�172.
Jones, P.D., et al., 1999: Surface air temperature and its variations over the
last 150 years. Rev. Geophys., 37, 173�199.
Jones, P.D., et al., 2001: Adjusting for sampling density in grid box land and
ocean surface temperature time series. J. Geophys. Res., 106, 3371�3380.
Jones, P.D., K.R. Briffa, and T.J. Osborn, 2003: Changes in the Northern
Hemisphere annual cycle: Implications for paleoclimatology? J. Geophys. Res.,
108(D18), 4588, doi:10.1029/2003JD003695.
Jones, P.D., K.R. Briffa, T.P. Barnett, and S.F.B. Tett, 1998: High-resolution
palaeoclimatic records for the last millennium: interpretation, integration and
comparison with General Circulation Model control-run temperatures. The Holocene,
8(4), 455�471.
Jones, P.D., S.C.B. Raper, and T.M.L. Wigley, 1986a: Southern Hemisphere surface
air temperature variations: 1851-1984. J. Appl. Meteorol., 25, 1213�1230.
Jones, P.D., T.J. Osborn, and K.R. Briffa, 1997: Estimating sampling errors in
large-scale temperature averages. J. Clim., 10(10), 2548�2568.
Jones, P.D., T.J. Osborn, and K.R. Briffa, 2001: The evolution of climate over the
last millennium. Science, 292(5517), 662�667.
Jones, R.G., J.M. Murphy, M. Noguer, and A.B. Keen, 1997: Simulation of climate
change over Europe using a nested regional climate model. II: Comparison of
driving and regional model responses to a doubling of carbon dioxide. Q. J. R.
Meteorol. Soc., 123, 265�292.
Jones, R.N., 2000: Managing uncertainty in climate change projections � issues for
impact assessment. Clim. Change, 45, 403�419.
Jones, R.N., et al., 2000: An Analysis of the Effects of The Kyoto Protocol on
Pacific Island Countries, Part Two: Regional Climate Change Scenarios and Risk
Assessment Methods. South Pacific Regional Environment Programme, Apia, Samoa, 68
pp., available from sprep@sprep.org.ws.
Jones, R.N., et al., 2002: Scenarios and projected ranges of change for mean
climate and climate variability for the South Pacific. Asia Pac.JEnviron. Dev.,
9(1�2), 1�42.
Jonson, J.E., D. Simpson, H. Fagerli, and S. Solberg, 2005: Can we explain the
trends in European ozone levels? Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss., 5, 5957�5985.
Joos, F., and I.C. Prentice, 2004: A paleo-perspective on changes in atmospheric
CO2 and climate. In: The Global Carbon Cycle: Integrating Humans, Climate and the
Natural World [Field, C.B., and M.R. Raupach (eds.)]. Island Press, Washington DC,
pp. 165�186.
Joos, F., et al., 1996. An efficient and accurate representation of complex
oceanic and biospheric models of anthropogenic carbon uptake. Tellus, 48B,
397�417.
Joos, F., et al., 1999: Global warming and marine carbon cycle feedbacks on future
atmospheric CO2. Science, 284, 464�467.
Joos, F., et al., 2001: Global warming feedbacks on terrestrial carbon uptake
under the IPCC emission scenarios. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 15, 891�907.
Joos, F., et al., 2004: Transient simulations of Holocene atmospheric carbon
dioxide and terrestrial carbon since the Last Glacial Maximum. Global Biogeochem.
Cycles, 18, doi:10.1029/2003GB002156.
Jorgenson, M.T., and J. Brown, 2005: Classification of the Alaskan Beaufort Sea
Coast and estimation of carbon and sediment inputs from coastal erosion. Geo-
Marine Lett., 25, 69�80.
Josey, S.A., 2003: Changes in the heat and freshwater forcing of the eastern
Mediterranean and their influence on deep water formation. J. Geophys. Res.,
108(C7), 3237, doi:10.1029/2003JC001778.
Josey, S.A., and R. Marsh, 2005: Surface freshwater flux variability and recent
freshening of the North Atlantic in the eastern Subpolar Gyre. J. Geophys. Res.,
110, C05008, doi:10.1029/2004JC002521.
Joshi, M., et al., 2003: A comparison of climate response to different radiative
forcings in three general circulation models: towards an improved metric of
climate change. Clim. Dyn., 20, 843�854.
Joshi, M.M., and K.P. Shine, 2003: A GCM study of volcanic eruptions as a cause of
increased stratospheric water vapor. J. Clim., 16, 3525�3534.
Joughin, I., and L. Padman, 2003: Melting and freezing beneath Filchner-Ronne Ice
Shelf, Antarctica. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30(9), 1477, doi:10.1029/2003GL016941.
Joughin, I., and S. Tulaczyk, 2002: Positive mass balance of the Ross Ice Streams,
West Antarctica. Science, 295(5554), 476�480.
Joughin, I., et al., 2003: Timing of recent accelerations of Pine Island Glacier,
Antarctica. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30, 1706.
Joughin, I., W. Abdalati, and M. Fahnestock, 2004: Large fluctuations in speed on
Greenland�s Jakobshavn Isbr�. Nature, 432, 608�610.
Joussaume, S., and K.E. Taylor, 1995: Status of the Paleoclimate Modeling
Intercomparison Project. In: Proceedings of the First International AMIP
Scientific Conference, WCRP-92, Monterey, USA. WMO/TD-No. 732, Geneva,
Switzerland, pp. 425�430.
Joussaume, S., et al., 1999: Monsoon changes for 6000 years ago: Results of 18
simulations from the Paleoclimate Modeling Intercomparison Project (PMIP).
Geophys. Res. Lett., 26(7), 859�862.
Jouzel, J., et al., 1987: Vostok ice core: a continuous isotope temperature record
over the last climatic cycle (160,000 years). Nature, 329, 402�408.
Jouzel, J., et al., 1993: Extending the Vostok ice-core record of palaeoclimate to
the penultimate glacial period. Nature, 364, 407�412.
Joyce, T.M., and J. Dunworth-Baker, 2003: Long-term hydrographic variability in
the Northwest Pacific Ocean. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30(2), 1043,
doi:10.1029/2002GL015225.
Joyce, T.M., and P.E. Robbins, 1996: The long-term hydrographic record at Bermuda.
J. Clim., 9, 3121�3131.
Joyce, T.M., C. Deser, and M.A. Spall, 2000: The relation between decadal
variability of subtropical mode water and the North Atlantic Oscillation. J.
Clim., 13(14), 2550�2569.
Joyce, T.M., R.S. Pickart, and R.C. Millard, 1999: Long-term hydrographic changes
at 52 and 66 degrees W in the North Atlantic Subtropical Gyre & Caribbean. Deep-
Sea Res. II, 46(1�2), 245�278.
Juang, H.M.H., and S.Y. Hong, 2001: Sensitivity of the NCEP regional spectral
model to domain size and nesting strategy. Mon. Weather Rev., 129, 2904�2922.
Jungclaus, J.H., et al., 2006: Ocean circulation and tropical variability in the
AOGCM ECHAM5/MPI-OM. J. Clim., 19, 3952�3972.
Junge, C.E., 1975: The possible influence of aerosols on the general circulation
and climate and possible approaches for modelling. In: The Physical Basis of
Climate and Climate Modelling: Report of the International Study Conference in
Stockholm, 29 July-10 August 1974: organised by WMO and ICSU and supported by UNEP
Global Atmospheric Research Programme (GARP), WMO-ICSU Joint Organising Committee.
World Meteorological Organization, Geneva, pp. 244�251.
K-1 Model Developers, 2004: K-1 Coupled Model (MIROC) Description. K-1 Technical
Report 1 [Hasumi, H., and S. Emori (eds.)]. Center for Climate System Research,
University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan, 34 pp., http://www.ccsr.u-
tokyo.ac.jp/kyosei/hasumi/MIROC/tech-repo.pdf.
K�hl, A., D. Stammer, and B. Cornuelle, 2006: Interannual to decadal changes in
the ECCO global synthesis. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 37(2), 313-337.
K�hler, P., F. Joos, S. Gerber, and R. Knutti, 2005: Simulating changes in
vegetation distribution, land carbon storage, and atmospheric CO2 in response to a
collapse of the North Atlantic thermohaline circulation. Clim. Dyn., 25 (7�8),
689�708.
K�ppen,W., 1873: �ber mehrj�hrige Perioden der Witterung, insbesondere �ber die
11-j�hrige Periode der Temperatur. Zeitschrift der �sterreichischen Gesellschaft
f�r Meteorologie, Bd VIII, 241�248 and 257�267.
K�ppen,W., 1880: Kleinere Mittheilungen (Conferenz des permanenten internationalen
Meteorologen-Comit�s). Zeitschrift der �sterreichischen Gesellschaft f�r
Meteorologie, Bd XV, 278�283.
K�ppen,W., 1881: �ber mehrj�hrige Perioden der Witterung � III. Mehrj�hrige
�nderungen der Temperatur 1841 bis 1875 in den Tropen der n�rdlichen und s�dlichen
gem�ssigten Zone, an den Jahresmitteln. untersucht. Zeitschrift der
�sterreichischen Gesellschaft f�r Meteorologie, Bd XVI, 141�150.
Kabat, P., et al., 2002: Vegetation, Water, Humans and the Climate Change: A New
Perspective on an Interactive System. Springer, Heidelberg, Germany, 566 pp.
Kadomura, H., 1992: Climate change in the West African Sahel-Sudan zone since the
Little Ice Age. In: Symposium on the Little Ice Age [Mikami, T. (ed.)]. Tokyo
Metropolitan University, Tokyo, pp. 40�45.
Kageyama, M., et al., 2004: Quantifying ice-sheet feedbacks during the last
glacial inception. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, doi:10.1029/2004GL021339.
Kageyama, M., et al., 2006: Last Glacial Maximum temperatures over the North
Atlantic, Europe, and western Siberia: a comparison between PMIP models, MARGO
sea-surface temperatures and pollen-base reconstructions. Quat. Sci. Rev., 25,
2082�2102.
Kahn, R., P. Banerjee, and D. McDonald, 2001: Sensitivity of multiangle imaging to
natural mixtures of aerosols over ocean. J. Geophys. Res., 106(D16), 18219�18238.
Kahn, R.A., et al., 2005: Multiangle Imaging Spectroradiometer (MISR) global
aerosol optical depth validation based on 2 years of coincident Aerosol Robotic
Network (AERONET) observation. J. Geophys. Res., 110, D10S04,
doi:10.1029/2004JD004706.
Kalkstein, A.J., and R.C. Balling Jr., 2004: Impact of unusually clear weather on
United States daily temperature range following 9/11/2001. Clim. Res., 26, 1�4.
Kalnay, E., et al., 1996: The NCEP/NCAR Reanalysis Project. Bull. Am. Meteorol.
Soc., 77, 437�471.
Kamga, A.F., et al., 2005: Evaluating the National Center for Atmospheric Research
climate system model over West Africa: Present-day and the 21st century A1
scenario. J. Geophys. Res., 110(D03106), doi:10.1029/2004JD004689.
Kamiguchi, K., et al., 2005: Changes in precipitation-based extremes indices due
to global warming projected by a global 20-km-mesh atmospheric model. Scientific
Online Letters on the Atmosphere, 2, 64�77.
Kanada, S., et al., 2005: Structure of mesoscale convective systems during the
late Baiu season in the global warming climate simulated by a non-hydrostatic
regional model. Scientific Online Letters on the Atmosphere, 1, 117�120.
Kanakidou, M., et al., 2005: Organic aerosol and global climate modelling: a
review. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 5, 1053�1123.
Kanamitsu, M., et al., 2002: NCEP dynamical seasonal forecast system 2000. Bull.
Am. Meteorol. Soc., 83, 1019�1037.
Kandlikar, M., 1996: Indices for comparing greenhouse gas emissions: integrating
science and economics. Energy Econ., 18, 265�282.
Kane, D.L., L.D. Hinzman, and J.P. Zarling, 1991: Thermal response of the active
layer to climate warming in a permafrost environment. Cold Regions Sci. Technol.,
19, 111�122.
Kang I.-S., et al., 2002: Intercomparison of atmospheric GCM simulated anomalies
associatedwith the 1997/98 El Ni�o. J. Clim., 15, 2791�2805.
Kaplan, J.O, et al., 2003: Climate change and Arctic ecosystems: 2. Modeling,
paleodata-model comparisons, and future projections. J. Geophys. Res., 108,
doi:10.1029/2002JD002559.
Kaplan, J.O., I.C. Prentice, W. Knorr, and P.J. Valdes, 2002: Modeling the
dynamics of terrestrial carbon storage since the Last Glacial Maximum. Geophys.
Res. Lett., 29, doi:10.1029/2002GL015230.
Kaplan, M.R., and A.P. Wolfe, 2006: Spatial and temporal variability of Holocene
temperature in the North Atlantic region. Quat. Res., 65, 223�231.
Kapsner, W.R., et al., 1995: Dominant influence of atmospheric circulation on snow
accumulation in Greenland over the past 18,000 years. Nature, 373, 52�54.
Kapustin, V.N., et al., 2006: On the determination of a cloud condensation nuclei
from satellite: challenges and possibilities. J. Geophys. Res., 111, D04202,
doi:10.1029/2004JD005527.
Karcher, M.J., R. Gerdes, F. Kauker, and C. K�berle, 2003: Arctic warming:
Evolution and spreading of the 1990s warm event in the Nordic seas and the Arctic
Ocean. J. Geophys. Res., 108(C2), 3034, doi:10.1029/2001JC001265.
Karl, D.M., 1999: A sea of change: Biogeochemical variability in the North Pacific
Subtropical Gyre. Ecosystems, 2(3), 181�214.
Karl, T.R., and K.E. Trenberth, 2003: Modern global climate change. Science, 302,
1719�1723.
Karl, T.R., and R.W. Knight, 1998: Secular trends of precipitation amount,
frequency, and intensity in the USA. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 79, 231�241.
Karl, T.R., H.F. Diaz, and G. Kukla, 1988: Urbanization: Its detection and effect
in the United States climate record. J. Clim., 1, 1099�1123.
Karl, T.R., S.J. Hassol, C.D. Miller, and W.L. Murray (eds.), 2006: Temperature
Trends in the Lower Atmosphere: Steps for Understanding and Reconciling
Differences. A Report by the Climate Change Science Program and Subcommittee on
Global Change Research, Washington, DC, 180pp,
http://www.climatescience.gov/Library/sap/sap1-1/finalreport/default.htm.
Karlsdottir, S., and I.S.A. Isaksen, 2000: Changing methane lifetime: Possible
cause for reduced growth. Geophys. Res. Lett., 27(1), 93�96.
Karl�n, W. and J. Kuylenstierna, 1996: On solar forcing of Holocene climate:
evidence from Scandinavia. The Holocene, 6, 359�365.
Karl�n, W., et al., 1999: Glacier fluctuations on Mount Kenya since ca 6000 cal.
years BP: implications for Holocene climatic change in Africa. Ambio, 28(5),
409�418.
Karoly, D.J., 2003: Ozone and climate change. Science, 302, 236�237.
Karoly, D.J., and K. Braganza, 2001: Identifying global climate change using
simple indices. Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 2205�2208.
Karoly, D.J., and K. Braganza, 2005a: Attribution of recent temperature changes in
the Australian region. J. Clim., 18, 457�464.
Karoly, D.J., and K. Braganza, 2005b: A new approach to detection of anthropogenic
temperature changes in the Australian region. Meteorol. Atmos. Phys., 89, 57�67.
Karoly, D.J., and Q. Wu, 2005: Detection of regional surface temperature trends.
J. Clim., 18, 4337�4343.
Karoly, D.J., et al., 2003: Detection of a human influence on North American
climate. Science, 302, 1200�1203.
Kaser, G., and H. Osmaston, 2002: Tropical Glaciers. UNESCO International
Hydrological Series. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 207pp.
Kaser, G., et al., 2003: The impact of glaciers on the runoff and the
reconstruction of mass balance history from hydrological data in the tropical
Cordillera Blanca, Peru. J. Hydrol., 282, 130�144.
Kasibhatla, P., et al., 2002: Top-down estimate of a large source of atmospheric
carbon monoxide associated with fuel combustion in Asia. Geophys. Res. Lett.,
29(19), 1900, doi:10.1029/2002GL015581.
Kasischke, E.S., and J.E. Penner, 2004: Improving global estimates of atmospheric
emissions from biomass burning. J. Geophys. Res., 109, D14S01,
doi:10.1029/2004JD004972.
Kasischke, E.S., and L.P. Bruhwiler, 2002: Emissions of carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide, and methane from boreal forest fires in 1998. J. Geophys. Res., 107,
8146, doi:10.1029/2001JD000461.
Kasischke, E.S., et al., 2005: Influences of boreal fire emissions on Northern
Hemisphere atmospheric carbon and carbon monoxide. Global Biogeochem. Cycles,
19(1), GB1012, doi:10.1029/2004GB002300.
Kasischke, E.S., N.L. Christensen, and B.J. Stocks, 1995: Fire, global warming and
the carbon balance of boreal forests. Ecol. Appl., 5(2), 437�451.
Kaspar, F., and U. Cubasch, 2006: Simulations of the Eemian interglacial and the
subsequent glacial inception with a coupled ocean-atmosphere general circulation
model. In: The Climate of Past Interglacials [Sirocko, F., M. Claussen, M.F.
S�nchez-Go�i and T. Litt (eds.)], Elsevier Science, Amsterdam, pp. 499-516.
Kaspar, F., N. Kuhl, U. Cubasch, and T. Litt, 2005: A model-data comparison of
European temperatures in the Eemian interglacial. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L11703,
doi:10.1029/2005GL022456.
Kass, R.E., and A.E. Raftery, 1995: Bayes Factors. J. Am. Stat. Assoc., 90,
773�795.
Kattenberg, A., et al., 1996: Climate models � Projections of future climate. In:
Climate Change 1995: The Science of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group
I to the Second Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
[Houghton, J.T., et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge United
Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 285�357.
Kattsov, V., and E. K�ll�n, 2005: Future climate change: Modeling and scenarios
for the Arctic. In: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment (ACIA). Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 99�150.
Kattsov, V.M., et al., 2007: Simulation and projection of Arctic freshwater budget
components by the IPCC AR4 global climate models. J. Hydrometeorol., 8, in press.
Katz, M.E., D.K. Pak, G.R. Dickens, and K.G. Miller. 1999: The source and fate of
massive carbon input during the Latest Paleocene Thermal Maximum. Science, 286,
1531�1533.
Katz, R.W., 1999: Extreme value theory for precipitation: Sensitivity analysis for
climate change. Adv. Water Resour., 23, 133�139.
Katz, R.W., M.B. Parlange, and P. Naveau, 2002: Statistics of extremes in
hydrology. Adv. Water Resour., 25, 1287�1304.
Kaufman Y.J., et al., 2005a: Aerosol anthropogenic component estimated from
satellite data. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L17804, doi:10.1029/2005GL023125.
Kaufman, D.S., et al., 2004: Holocene thermal maximum in the western Arctic (0-
180�W). Quat. Sci. Rev., 23, 529�560.
Kaufman, Y.J., and I. Koren, 2006: Smoke and pollution aerosol effect on cloud
cover. Science, 313, 655�658, doi:10.1126/science.1126232.
Kaufman, Y.J., C.J. Tucker, and R.L Mahoney, 1991: Fossil fuel and biomass burning
effect on climate: Heating or cooling? J. Clim., 4, 578�588.
Kaufman, Y.J., D. Tanr�, and O. Boucher, 2002: A satellite view of aerosols in the
climate system. Nature, 419, 215�223.
Kaufman, Y.J., et al., 1997: Operational remote sensing of tropospheric aerosols
over the land from EOS-MODIS. J. Geophys. Res., 102(D14), 17051�17068.
Kaufman, Y.J., et al., 2001: Absorption of sunlight by dust as inferred from
satellite and ground-based remote sensing. Geophys. Res. Lett., 28(8), 1479�1482.
Kaufman, Y.J., et al., 2005: The effect of smoke, dust, and pollution aerosol on
shallow cloud development over the Atlantic Ocean. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.,
102(32), 11207�11212.
Kaufman, Y.J., et al., 2005b: A critical examination of the residual cloud
contamination and diurnal sampling effects on MODIS estimates of aerosol over
ocean. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote, 43(12), 2886�2897.
Kaufmann, R.K., and D.L. Stern, 2002: Cointegration analysis of hemispheric
temperature relations. J. Geophys. Res., 107, 4012.
Kawamiya, M., et al., 2005: Development of an integrated Earth system model on the
Earth Simulator. J. Earth Simulator, 4, 18�30.
Keeling, C.D., 1961: The concentration and isotopic abundances of carbon dioxide
in rural and marine air. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 24, 277�298.
Keeling, C.D., 1998: Rewards and penalties of monitoring the Earth. Annu. Rev.
Energy Environ., 23, 25�82.
Keeling, C.D., A.F. Bollenbacher, and T.P. Whorf, 2005: Monthly atmospheric
13C/12C isotopic ratios for 10 SIO stations. In: Trends: A Compendium of Data on
Global Change. Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge National
Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, Oak Ridge, TN,
http://cdiac.ornl.gov/trends/co2/iso-sio/iso-sio.html.
Keeling, C.D., and T.P. Whorf, 2005: Atmospheric CO2 records from sites in the SiO
air sampling network. In: Trends: A Compendium of Data on Global Change. Carbon
Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S.
Department of Energy, Oak Ridge, TN.
Keeling, C.D., T.P. Whorf, M. Wahlen, and J. van der Plicht, 1995: Interannual
extremes in the rate of rise of atmospheric carbon dioxide since 1980. Nature,
375, 666�670.
Keeling, R.F., 2005: Comment on �The ocean sink for anthropogenic CO2�. Science,
308(5729), 1743c.
Keeling, R.F., and S.R. Shertz, 1992: Seasonal and interannual variations in
atmospheric oxygen and implications for the global carbon cycle. Nature, 358,
723�727.
Keeling, R.F., S.C. Piper, and M. Heimann, 1996: Global and hemispheric CO2 sinks
deduced from changes in atmospheric O2 concentration. Nature, 381, 218�221.
Keigwin, L.D., W.B. Curry, S.J. Lehman, and S. Johnsen, 1994: The role of the deep
ocean in North Atlantic climate change between 70 and 130 kyr ago. Nature, 371,
323�326.
Keil, A., and J.M. Haywood, 2003: Solar radiative forcing by biomass burning
aerosol particles during SAFARI 2000: A case study based on measured aerosol and
cloud properties. J. Geophys. Res., 108 (D13), 8467, doi:10.1029/2002JD002315.
Keller, F., S. Goyette, and M. Beniston, 2005: Sensitivity analysis of snow cover
to climate change scenarios and their impact on plant habitats in alpine terrain.
Clim. Change, 72, 299�319.
Keller, K., R.D. Slater, M. Bender, and R.M. Key, 2002: Possible biological or
physical explanations for decadal scale trends in North Pacific nutrient
concentrations and oxygen utilization. Deep-Sea Res. II, 49(1�3), 345�362.
Keller, M., et al., 2005: Soil-atmosphere exchange for nitrous oxide, nitric
oxide, methane, and carbon dioxide in logged and undisturbed forest in the Tapajos
National Forest, Brazil. Earth Interactions, 9, 1�28, doi:10.1175/EI125.1.
Kemball-Cook, S., B. Wang, and X. Fu, 2002: Simulation of the intraseasonal
oscillation in ECHAM-4 model: The impact of coupling with an ocean model. J.
Atmos. Sci., 59, 1433�1453.
Kennedy, M., and A. O�Hagan, 2001: Bayesian calibration of computer models. J.
Roy. Stat. Soc., 63B, 425�464.
Kennedy, M.C., and A. O�Hagan, 2001: Bayesian calibration of computer models. J.
Roy. Stat. Soc. Ser. B, 63(3), 425�464.
Kennett, J.P., and L.D. Stott, 1991: Abrupt deep-sea warming, palaeoceanographic
changes and benthic extinctions at the end of the Palaeocene. Nature, 353,
225�229.
Keppler, F., J.T.G. Hamilton, M. Brass, and T. R�ckmann, 2006: Methane emissions
from terrestrial plants under aerobic conditions. Nature, 439, 187�191,
doi:10.1038/nature04420.
Kerkweg, A., S. Wurzler, T. Reisin, and A. Bott, 2003: On the cloud processing of
aerosol particles: An entraining air-parcel model with two-dimensional spectral
cloud microphysics and a new formulation of the collection kernel. Q. J. R.
Meteorol. Soc., 129(587), 1�18.
Kernthaler, S.C., R. Toumi, and J.D. Haigh, 1999: Some doubts concerning a link
between cosmic ray fluxes and global cloudiness. Geophys. Res. Lett., 26(7),
863�866, doi:10.1029/1999GL900121.
Kessler, E., 1969: On the Distribution and Continuity of Water Substance in
Atmospheric Circulation. Meteorological Monograph Series, Vol. 10, No. 32,
American Meteorological Society, Boston, MA, 84 pp.
Kettle, A., and M. Andreae, 2000: Flux of the dimethylsulfide from the oceans: A
comparison of updated data sets and flux models. J. Geophys. Res., 105,
26793�26808.
Kettleborough, J.A., B.B.B. Booth, P.A. Stott, and M.R. Allen, 2007: Estimates of
uncertainty in predictions of global mean surface temperature. J. Clim., 20,
843�855.
Key, R.M., et al., 2004: A global ocean carbon climatology: Results from Global
Data Analysis Project (GLODAP). Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 18(4), GB4031,
doi:10.1029/2004GB002247.�
Khain, A.P., D. Rosenfeld, and A. Pokrovsky, 2001: Simulating convective clouds
with sustained supercooled liquid water down to �37.5�C using a spectral
microphysics model. Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 3887�3890.
Khain, A.P., D. Rosenfeld, and A. Pokrovsky, 2005: Aerosol impact on the dynamics
and microphysics of convective clouds. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 131(611),
2639�2663.
Khain, A.P., et al., 2004: Simulation of effects of atmospheric aerosols on deep
turbulent convective using a spectral microphysics mixed-phase cumulus cloud
model. 1. Model description and possible applications. J. Atmos. Sci., 61,
2963�2982.
Khainroutdinov, M., and Y. Kogan, 2000: A new cloud physics parametrization in a
large-eddy simulation model of marine stratocumulus. Mon. Weather Rev., 128,
229�243.
Khairoutdinov, M., D. Randall, and C. DeMott, 2005: Simulations of the atmospheric
general circulation using a cloud-resolving model as a superparameterization of
physical processes. J. Atmos. Sci., 62, 2136�2154.�
Khalil, M.A.K., and M.J. Shearer, 2006: Decreasing emissions of methane from rice
agriculture. Int. Congress Ser., 1293, 33�41.
Khalil, M.A.K., and R.A. Rasmussen, 1988: Nitrous oxide: Trends and global mass
balance over the last 3000 years. Ann. Glaciol., 10, 73�79.
Khalil, M.A.K., et al., 2003: Atmospheric perfluorocarbons. Environ. Sci.
Technol., 37, 4358�4361.
Kharin, V.V., and F.W. Zwiers, 2005: Estimating extremes in transient climate
change simulations. J. Clim., 18, 1156�1173.
Kharin, V.V., F.W. Zwiers, and X. Zhang, 2005: Intercomparison of near surface
temperature and precipitation extremes in AMIP-2 simulations, reanalyses and
observations. J. Clim., 18(24), 5201�5223.
Kheshgi, H.S., and A.K. Jain, 2003: Projecting future climate change: Implications
of carbon cycle model intercomparisons. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 17, GB001842,
doi:10.1029/2001GB001842.
Khodri, M., et al., 2005: The impact of precession changes on the Arctic climate
during the last interglacial glacial transition. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 236,
285�304.
Khodri, M., G. Ramstein, N. De Noblet, and M. Kageyama, 2003: Sensitivity of the
northern extratropics hydrological cycle to the changing insolation forcing at 126
and 115 ky BP. Clim. Dyn., 21, 273�287.
Kida, H., T. Koide, H. Sasaki, and M. Chiba, 1991: A new approach for coupling a
limited area model to a GCM for regional climate simulations. J. Meteorol. Soc.
Japan., 69, 723�728.
Kiehl, J., and K. Trenberth, 1997: Earth�s annual global mean energy budget. Bull.
Am. Meteorol. Soc., 78, 197�206.
Kiehl, J.T., and P.R.�Gent, 2004: The Community Climate System Model, Version 2.
J. Clim., 17, 3666�3682.
Kiehl, J.T., et al., 1998: The National Center for Atmospheric Research Community
Climate Model: CCM3. J. Clim., 11, 1131�1149.
Kiehl, J.T., et al., 2000: Radiative forcing due to sulfate aerosols from
simulations with the National Center for Atmospheric Research Community Climate
Model, Version 3. J. Geophys. Res., 105(D1), 1441�1457.
Kieke, D., et al., 2006: Changes in the CFC inventories and formation rates of
Upper Labrador Sea water. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 36, 64�86.
Kiilsholm, S., J.H. Christensen, K. Dethloff, and A. Rinke, 2003: Net accumulation
of the Greenland ice sheet: High resolution modeling of climate changes. Geophys.
Res. Lett., 30, 1485.
Kiktev, D., D. Sexton, L. Alexander, and C. Folland, 2003: Comparison of modelled
and observed trends in indices of daily climate extremes. J. Clim., 16, 3560�3571.
Kiktev, D., D.M.H. Sexton, L. Alexander, and C.K. Folland, 2003: Comparison of
modeled and observed trends in indices of daily climate extremes. J. Clim.,
16(22), 3560�3571.
Kim, B.-G., S.E. Schwartz, and M.A. Miller, 2003: Effective radius of cloud
droplets by ground-based remote sensing: Relationship to aerosol. J. Geophys.
Res., 108(D23), doi:10.1029/2003JD003721.
Kim, J., T.-K. Kim, R.W. Arritt, and N.L. Miller, 2002: Impacts of increased
atmospheric CO2 on the hydroclimate of theWestern United States. J. Clim., 15(14),
1926�1942.
Kim, J.H., et al., 2004: North Pacific and North Atlantic sea-surface temperature
variability during the Holocene. Quat. Sci. Rev., 23, 2141�2154.
Kim, K., et al., 2004: Water masses and decadal variability in the East Sea (Sea
of Japan). Prog. Oceanogr., 61(2�4), 157�174.
Kim, K.R., et al., 2002: A sudden bottom-water formation during the severe winter
2000-2001: The case of the East/Japan Sea. Geophys. Res. Lett., 29(8),
doi:10.1029/2001GL014498.
Kim, S.-J., G.M. Flato, G.J. Boer, and N.A. McFarlane, 2002: A coupled climate
model simulation of the Last Glacial Maximum, Part 1: Transient multi-decadal
response. Clim. Dyn., 19, 515�537.
Kimoto, M., 2005: Simulated change of the east Asian circulation under global
warming scenario. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L16701, doi:10.1029/2005GRL023383.
Kimoto, M., N. Yasutomi, C. Yokoyama, and S. Emori, 2005: Projected changes in
precipitation characteristics near Japan under the global warming. Scientific
Online Letters on the Atmosphere, 1, 85�88, doi: 10.2151/sola.2005-023.
Kington, J., 1988: The Weather of the 1780s over Europe. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, UK, 164 pp.
Kinne, S., et al., 2003: Monthly averages of aerosol properties: A global
comparison among models, satellite, and AERONET ground data. J. Geophys. Res.,
108(D20), 4634, doi:10.1029/2001JD001253.
Kinne, S., et al., 2006: An AeroCom initial assessment: optical properties in
aerosol component modules of global models. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 6, 1815�1834.
Kirchner, I., et al., 1999: Climate model simulation of winter warming and summer
cooling following the 1991 Mount Pinatubo volcanic eruption. J. Geophys. Res.,
104, 19039�19055.
Kirchstetter, T.W., T. Novakov, and P.V. Hobbs, 2004: Evidence that the spectral
dependence of light absorption by aerosols is affected by organic carbon. J.
Geophys. Res., 109, D21208, doi:10.1029/2004JD004999.
Kirkev�g, A., and T. Iversen, 2002: Global direct radiative forcing by process-
parametrized aerosol optical properties. J. Geophys. Res., 107(D20), 4433,
doi:10.1029/2001JD000886.
Kirschbaum, M.U.F., et al., 2006: A comment on the quantitative significance of
aerobic methane release by plants. Funct. Plant Biol., 33, 521�530.
Kirschvink, J.L., and T.D. Raub, 2003: A methane fuse for the Cambrian explosion:
carbon cycles and true polar wander. Comptes Rendus Geoscience, 335, 65�78.
Kirtman, B.P., 2003: The COLA anomaly coupled model: Ensemble ENSO prediction.
Mon. Weather Rev., 131, 2324�2341.
Kirtman, B.P., and P.S. Schopf, 1998: Decadal variability in ENSO predictability
and prediction. J. Clim., 11, 2804�2822.
Kirtman, B.P., K. Pegion, and S. Kinter, 2005: Internal atmospheric dynamics and
tropical indo-pacific climate variability. J. Atmos. Sci., 62, 2220�2233.
Kistler, R., et al., 2001: The NCEP-NCAR 50-year reanalysis: Monthly means CD-ROM
and documentation. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 82, 247�267.
Kitabata, H., K. Nishizawa, Y. Yoshida, and K. Maruyama, 2006: Permafrost thawing
in circum-Arctic and highland under climatic change scenarios projected by CCSM3.
Scientific Online Letters on the Atmosphere, 2, 53�56.
Kitoh, A., and O. Arakawa, 2005: Reduction in tropical rainfall diurnal variation
by global warming simulated by a 20-km mesh climate model. Geophys. Res. Lett.,
32, L18709, doi:10.1029/2005GL023350.
Kitoh, A., and S. Murakami, 2002: Tropical Pacific climate at the mid-Holocene and
the Last Glacial Maximum simulated by a coupled ocean-atmosphere general
circulation model. Paleoceanography, 17, 1047, doi:10.1029/2001PA000724?.
Kitoh, A., and T. Uchiyama, 2006: Changes in onset and withdrawal of the East
Asian summer rainy season by multi-model global warming experiments. J. Meteorol.
Soc. Japan, 84, 247�258.
Kitoh, A., M. Hosaka, Y. Adachi and K. Kamiguchi, 2005: Future projections of
precipitation characteristics in East Asia simulated by the MRI CGCM2.
AdvAtmosSci., 22(4), 467�478.
Kj�llmoen, B.E., 2005: Glaciological Investigations in Norway in 2004. Norwegian
Water Resources and Energy Directorate, Oslo,
http://www.nve.no/FileArchive/176/Glac_invest2004.pdf.
Kjellstr�m, E., et al., 2007: Variability in daily maximum and minimum
temperatures: recent and future changes over Europe. Clim. Change, doi:
10.1007/s10584-006-9220-5.
Klaas, C., and D.E. Archer, 2002: Association of sinking organic matter with
various types of mineral ballast in the deep sea: Implications for the rain ratio.
Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 16(4), 1116, doi:10.1029/2001GB001765.
Kleeman, R., Y. Tang, and A.M. Moore, 2003: The calculation of climatically
relevant singular vectors in the presence of weather noise as applied to the ENSO
problem. J. Atmos. Sci., 60, 2856�2868.
Kleffmann, J., et al., 2005: Daytime formation of nitrous acid: a major source of
OH radicals in a forest. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L05818,
doi:10.1029/2005GL022524.
Kleidon, A., 2004: Global datasets of rooting zone depth inferred from inverse
methods. J. Clim., 17, 2714�2722.
Kleidon, A., K. Fraedrich, and M. Heimann, 2000: A green planet versus a desert
world: estimating the maximum effect of vegetation on the land surface climate.
Clim. Change, 44, 471�493.
Klein Goldewijk, K., 2001: Estimating global land use change over the past 300
years: The HYDE database. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 15, 417�433.
Klein Tank, A.M.G., and G.P. K�nnen, 2003: Trends in indices of daily temperature
and precipitation extremes in Europe, 1946-99. J. Clim., 16, 3665�3680.
Klein Tank, A.M.G., G.P. K�nnen, and F.M. Selten, 2005: Signals of anthropogenic
influence on European warming as seen in the trend patterns of daily temperature
variance. Int. J. Climatol., 25, 1�16.
Klein, A.G., and J.L. Kincaid, 2006: Retreat of glaciers on Puncak Jaya, Irian
Jaya, determined from 2000 and 2002 IKONOS satellite images. J. Glaciol., 52(176),
65�79.
Klein, B., et al., 2000: Is the Adriatic returning to dominate the production of
Eastern Mediterranean Deep Water? Geophys. Res. Lett., 27(20), 3377�3380.
Klein, S.A., and C. Jakob, 1999: Validation and sensitivities of frontal clouds
simulated by the ECMWF model. Mon. Weather Rev., 127, 2514�2531.
Klein, S.A., and D.L. Hartmann, 1993: The seasonal cycle of low stratiform clouds.
J. Clim., 6, 1587�1606.
Kleinn, J., et al., 2005: Hydrological simulations in the Rhine basin, driven by a
regional climate model. J. Geophys. Res., 110, D04102, doi:10.1029/2004JD005143.
Kleypas, J.A., et al., 1999b: Geochemical consequences of increased atmospheric
carbon dioxide on coral reefs. Science, 284, 118�120.
Kleypas, J.A., J. McManus, and L. Menez, 1999a: Using environmental data to define
reef habitat: where do we draw the line? Am. Zool., 39, 146�159.
Klitgaard-Kristensen, D., et al., 1998: The short cold period 8,200 years ago
documented in oxygen isotope records of precipitation in Europe and Greenland. J.
Quat. Sci., 13(2), 165�169.
Kloster, S., et al., 2006: DMS cycle in the marine ocean-atmosphere
Knies, J., J. Matthiessen, C. Vogt, and R. Stein, 2002: Evidence of �Mid-Pliocene
(similar to 3 Ma) global warmth� in the eastern Arctic Ocean and implications for
the Svalbard/Barents Sea ice sheet during the late Pliocene and early Pleistocene
(similar to 3-1.7 Ma). Boreas, 31(1), 82�93.
Knight, J.R., et al., 2005: A signature of persistent natural thermohaline
circulation cycles in observed climate. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L20708,
doi:1029/2005GL024233.
Knippertz, P., U. Ulbrich, and P. Speth, 2000: Changing cyclones and surface wind
speeds over the North-Atlantic and Europe in a transient GHG experiment. Clim.
Res., 15, 109�122.
Knorr, W., I.C. Prentice, J.I. House, and E.A. Holland, 2005: Long-term
sensitivity of soil carbon turnover to warming. Nature, 433, 298�301.
Knowlton, K., et al., 2004: Assessing ozone-related health impacts under a
changing climate. Environ. Health Perspect., 112, 1557�1563.
Knox, J.C., 2000: Sensitivity of modern and Holocene floods to climate change.
Quat. Sci. Rev., 19(1�5), 439�457.
Knutson, T.R., and R.E. Tuleya, 1999: Increased hurricane intensities with CO2-
induced global warming as simulated using the GFDL hurricane prediction system.
Clim. Dyn., 15(7), 503�519.
Knutson, T.R., and R.E. Tuleya, 2004: Impacts of CO2-induced warming on simulated
hurricane intensities and precipitation: sensitivity to the choice of climate
model and convective parameterization. J. Clim., 17, 3477�3495.
Knutson, T.R., and S. Manabe, 1995: Time-mean response over the tropical Pacific
to increased CO2 in a coupled ocean-atmosphere model. J. Clim., 8, 2181�2199.
Knutson, T.R., et al., 2006: Assessment of twentieth-century regional surface
temperature trends using the GFDL CM2 coupled models. J. Clim., 19, 1624�1651.
Knutson, T.R., S. Manabe, and D. Gu, 1997: Simulated ENSO in a global coupled
ocean-atmosphere model: Multidecadal amplitude modulation and CO2 sensitivity. J.
Clim., 10(1), 138�161.
Knutson, T.R., T.L. Delworth, K.W. Dixon, and R.J. Stouffer, 1999: Model
assessment of regional surface temperature trends (1949-1997). J. Geophys. Res.,
104, 30981�30996.
Knutti, R., and T.F. Stocker, 2002: Limited predictability of the future
thermohaline circulation close to an instability threshold. J. Clim., 15, 179�186.
Knutti, R., et al., 2005: Probabilistic climate change projections for CO2
stabilization profiles. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L20707, doi:10.1029/2005GL023294.
Knutti, R., G.A. Meehl, M.R. Allen, and D.A. Stainforth, 2006: Constraining
climate sensitivity from the seasonal cycle in surface temperature. J. Clim., 19,
4224�4233.
Knutti, R., J. Fl�ckiger, T.F. Stocker, and A. Timmermann, 2004: Strong
hemispheric coupling of glacial climate through freshwater discharge and ocean
circulation. Nature, 430(7002), 851�856.
Knutti, R., T.F. Stocker, F. Joos, and G.-K. Plattner, 2002: Constraints on
radiative forcing and future climate change from observations and climate model
ensembles. Nature, 416, 719�723.
Knutti, R., T.F. Stocker, F. Joos, and G.-K. Plattner, 2003: Probabilistic climate
change projections using neural networks. Clim. Dyn., 21, 257�272.
Knutti, R., T.F. Stocker, F. Joos, and G.K. Plattner, 2002: Constraints on
radiative forcing and future climate change from observations and climate model
ensembles. Nature, 416, 719�723.
Koch, D., 2001: Transport and direct radiative forcing of carbonaceous and sulfate
aerosols in the GISS GCM. J. Geophys. Res., 106, 20311�20332.
Koch, J., B. Menounos, J. Clague, and G.D. Osborn, 2004: Environmental change in
Garibaldi Provincial Park, Southern Coast Mountains, British Columbia. Geoscience
Canada, 31(3), 127�135.
Koch, P.L., J.C. Zachos, and P.D. Gingerich, 1992: Correlation between isotope
records in marine and continental carbon reservoirs near the Paleocene Eocene
boundary. Nature, 358(6384), 319�322.
Kodera, K., and M. Chiba, 1995: Tropospheric circulation changes associated with
stratospheric sudden warmings: A case study. J. Geophys. Res., 100, 11055�11068.
Koeberle, C., and R. Gerdes, 2003: Mechanisms determining the variability of
Arctic sea ice conditions and export. J. Clim., 16, 2843�2858.
Koerner, C., 2004: Through enhanced tree dynamics carbon dioxide enrichment may
cause tropical forests to lose carbon. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London Ser. B, 359,
493�498.
Koerner, C., et al., 2005: Carbon flux and growth in mature deciduous forest trees
exposed to elevated CO2. Science, 309(5739), 1360�1362.
Koerner, R.M., 1989: Ice core evidence for extensive melting of the Greenland Ice-
sheet in the last interglacial. Science, 244(4907), 964�968.
Koerner, R.M., and D.A. Fisher, 2002: Ice-core evidence for widespread Arctic
glacier retreat in the Last Interglacial and the early Holocene.�Ann. Glaciol.,
35, 19�24.
Kohfeld, K., and S.P. Harrison, 2001: DIRTMAP: the geological record of dust.
Earth Sci. Rev., 54, 81�114.
Kohfeld, K.E., C. LeQu�r�, S.P. Harrison, and R.F. Anderson, 2005: Role of marine
biology in glacial-interglacial CO2 cycles. Science, 308, 74�78.
Komuro, Y., and H. Hasumi, 2005: Intensification of the Atlantic deep circulation
by the Canadian Archipelago throughflow. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 35, 775�789.
Koren, I., et al., 2005: Aerosol invigoration and restructuring of Atlantic
convective clouds. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32(14), L14828, doi:10.1029/2005GL023187.
Koren, I., Y.J. Kaufman, L.A. Remer, and J.V. Martins, 2004: Measurements of the
effect of smoke aerosol on inhibition of cloud formation. Science, 303, 1342�1345.
Korolev, A.V., and G.A. Isaac, 2005: Shattering during sampling OAPs and HVPS.
Part I: snow particles. J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol., 22, 528�542.
Koster, R.D., and M.J. Suarez, 2001: Soil moisture memory in climate models. J.
Hydrometeorol., 2(6), 558�570.
Koster, R.D., and M.J. Suarez, 2004: Suggestions in the observational record of
land-atmosphere feedback operating at seasonal time scales. J. Hydrometeorol.,
5(3), doi: 10.1175/1525.
Koster, R.D., et al., 2000: A catchment-based approach to modeling land surface
processes in a general circulation model. 1. Model structure. J. Geophys. Res.,
105, 24809�24822.
Koster, R.D., et al., 2002: Comparing the degree of land-atmosphere interaction in
four atmospheric general circulation models. J. Hydrometeorol., 3(3), 363�375.
Koster, R.D., et al., 2004: Regions of strong coupling between soil moisture and
precipitation. Science, 305, 1138�1140.
Koster, R.D., et al., 2006: GLACE: The Global Land-Atmosphere Coupling Experiment.
1. Overview. J. Hydrometeorol., 7, 590�610.
Koster, R.D., M.J. Suarez, R.W. Higgins, and H.M. Van den Dool, 2003:
Observational evidence that soil moisture variations affect precipitation.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 30(5), 1241. doi:10.1029/2002GL016571.
Kotchenruther, R.A., and P.V. Hobbs, 1998: Humidification factors of aerosols from
biomass burning in Brazil. J. Geophys. Res., 103(D24), 32081�32089.
Kotchenruther, R.A., P.V. Hobbs, and D.A. Hegg, 1999: Humidification factors for
atmospheric aerosols off the mid-Atlantic coast of the United States. J. Geophys.
Res., 104(D2), 2239�2251.
Koutavas, A., J. Lynch-Stieglitz, T.M. Marchitto Jr., and J.P. Sachs, 2002: El
Ni�o-like pattern in ice age tropical Pacific sea surface temperature. Science,
297, 226�230.
Krabill, W.B., et al., 2000: Greenland Ice Sheet: High elevation balance and
peripheral thinning. Science, 289, 428�430.
Krabill, W.B., et al., 2002: Aircraft laser altimetry measurement of elevation
changes of the Greenland ice sheet: Technique and accuracy assessment. J. Geodyn.,
34, 357�376.
Krabill, W.B., et al., 2004: Greenland Ice Sheet: Increased coastal thinning.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L24402, doi:10.1029/2004GL021533.
Krahmann, G., and F. Schott, 1998: Long-term increases in Western Mediterranean
salinities and temperatures: anthropogenic and climatic sources. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 25(22), 4209�4212.
Krakauer, N.Y., and J.T. Randerson, 2003: Do volcanic eruptions enhance or
diminish net primary production? Evidence from tree rings. Global Biogeochem.
Cycles, 17(4), 1118, doi:10.1029/2003GB002076.
Kraus, E.B., 1990: Diapycnal mixing. In: Climate-Ocean Interaction [Schlesinger,
M.E. (ed.)]. Kluwer, Amsterdam, pp. 269�293.
Kraus, E.B., and J.S. Turner, 1967: A one-dimensional model of the seasonal
thermocline. II. The general theory and its consequences. Tellus, 19, 98�105.
Krinner, G., C. Genthon, Z. Li, and P.L. Van, 1997: Studies of the Antarctic
climate with a stretched-grid general circulation model. J. Geophys. Res., 102,
13731�13745.
Krinner, G., et al., 2005: A dynamic global vegetation model for studies of the
coupled atmosphere-biosphere system. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 19, GB1015,
doi:10.1029/2003GB002199.
Krinner, G., et al., 2007: Simulated Antarctic precipitation and surface mass
balance at the end of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Clim. Dyn., 28,
215�230.
Krishna Kumar, K., B. Rajagopalan, and M.A. Cane, 1999: On the weakening
relationship between the Indian monsoon and ENSO. Science, 284, 2156�2159.
Krishna Kumar, K., et al., 2003: Future scenarios of extreme rainfall and
temperature over India. In: Proceedings of the Workshop on Scenarios and Future
Emissions, Indian Institute of Management (IIM), Ahmedabad, July 22, 2003. NATCOM
Project Management Cell, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India,
New Delhi, pp. 56�68.
Kristj�nsson, J.E., 2002: Studies of the aerosol indirect effect from sulphate and
black carbon aerosols. J. Geophys. Res., 107, doi:10.1029/2001JD000887.
Kristj�nsson, J.E., A. Staple, J. Kristiansen, and E. Kaas, 2002: A new look at
possible connections between solar activity, clouds and climate. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 29, doi:10.1029/2002GL015646.
Kristj�nsson, J.E., and J. Kristiansen, 2000: Is there a cosmic ray signal in
recent variations in global cloudiness and cloud radiative forcing? J. Geophys.
Res., 105(D9), 11851�11863.
Kristj�nsson, J.E., et al., 2005: Response of the climate system to aerosol direct
and indirect forcing: the role of cloud feedbacks. J. Geophys. Res., 110, D24206,
doi:10.1029/2005JD006299.
Krizan P., and J. Lastovicka, 2005: Trends in positive and negative ozone laminae
in the Northern Hemisphere. J. Geophys. Res., 110, D10107,
doi:10.1029/2004JD005477.
Kr�ger, O., and H. Gra�l, 2002: The indirect aerosol effect over Europe. Geophys.
Res. Lett., 29, doi:10.1029/2001GL14081.
Kr�ger, O., and H. Grassl, 2004: Albedo reduction by absorbing aerosols over
China. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, doi:10.1029/2003GL019111.
Kroeze, C., A. Mosier, and L. Bouwman, 1999: Closing the N2O budget: A
retrospective analysis. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 13, 1�8.
Kroeze, C., E. Dumont, and S.P. Seitzinger, 2005: New estimates of global
emissions of N2O from rivers, estuaries and continental shelves. Environ. Sci.,
2(2�3), 159�165.
Krol, M., and J. Lelieveld, 2003: Can the variability in tropospheric OH be
deduced from measurements of 1,1,1-trichloroethane (methyl chloroform)? J.
Geophys. Res., 108(D3), 4125, doi:10.1029/2002JD002423.
Krol, M., et al., 2003: Continuing emissions of methyl chloroform from Europe.
Nature, 421, 131�135.
Krueger, A.J., et al., 2000: Ultraviolet remote sensing of volcanic emissions. In:
Remote Sensing of Active Volcanism [Mouginis-Mark, P.J., J.A. Crisp, and J.H. Fink
(eds.)]. Geophysical Monograph 116, American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC,
pp. 25�43.
Kucera, M., et al., 2005: Multiproxy approach for the reconstruction of the
glacial ocean surface (MARGO). Quat. Sci. Rev., 24, 813�819.
Kucera, M., et al., 2005: Reconstruction of sea-surface temperatures from
assemblages of planktonic foraminifera: multi-technique approach based on
geographically constrained calibration data sets and its application to glacial
Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Quat. Sci. Rev., 24(7�9), 951�998.
Kuhn, T.S., 1996: The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 3rd edition. University
of Chicago Press, Chicago, 226 pp.
Kuhnert, H., et al., 1999: A 200-year coral stable oxygen isotope record from a
high-latitude reef off western Australia. Coral Reefs, 18(1), 1�12.
Kukla, G.J., et al., 2002: Last interglacial climates. Quat. Res., 58, 2�13.
Kulmala, M., et al., 2004: A new feedback mechanism linking forests, aerosols, and
climate. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 4, 557�562.
Kumagi, T., G.G. Katul, and A. Porporato, 2004: Carbon and water cycling in a
Bornean tropical rainforest under current and future climate scenarios. AdvWater
Resour., 27, 1135�1150.
Kumar, A., F. Yang, L. Goddard, and S. Schubert, 2004: Differing trends in the
tropical surface temperatures and precipitation over land and oceans. J. Clim.,
17, 653�664.
Kunkel, K.E., and X.Z. Liang, 2005: GCM simulations of the climate in the central
United States. J. Clim., 18, 1016�1031.
Kunkel, K.E., X.-Z. Liang, J. Zhu, and Y. Lin, 2006: Can CGCMS simulate the
twentieth century �warming hole� in the central United States? J. Clim., 19,
4137�4153.
Kurihara, K., et al., 2005: Projection of climatic change over Japan due to global
warming by high-resolution regional climate model in MRI. Scientific Online
Letters on the Atmosphere, 1, 97�100.
Kurtz, A.C., et al., 2003: Early Cenozoic decoupling of the global carbon and
sulphur cycles. Paleoceanography, 18(4), doi:10.1029/2003PA000908.
Kurz, W.A., and M. Apps, 1999: A 70-years retrospective analysis of carbon fluxes
in the Canadian forest sector. Ecol. Appl., 9, 526�547.
Kurz, W.A., M.J. Apps, S.J. Beukema, and T. Lekstrum, 1995: 20th-century carbon
budget of Canadian forests. Tellus, 47B(1�2), 170�177.
Kushner, P.J., I.M. Held, and T.L. Delworth, 2001: Southern Hemisphere atmospheric
circulation response to global warming. J. Clim., 14, 2238�3349.
Kusunoki, S., et al., 2006: Change of Baiu rain band in global warming projection
by an atmospheric general circulation model with a 20-km grid size. J. Meteorol.
Soc. Japan, 84(4), 581�611
Kutzbach, J.E., G. Bonan, J. Foley, and S. Harrison, 1996: Vegetation and soil
feedbacks on the response of the African monsoon to forcing in the early to middle
Holocene. Nature, 384, 623�626.
Kutzbach, J.E., J.W. Williams, and S.J. Vavrus, 2005: Simulated 21st century
changes in regional water balance of the Great Lakes region and links to changes
in global temperature and poleward moisture transport. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32,
L17707, doi:10.1029/2005GL023506.
Kuzmina, S.I., et al., 2005: The North Atlantic Oscillation and greenhouse-gas
forcing. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L04703, doi:10.1029/2004GL021064.
Kvenvolden, K.A., 1988: Methane hydrate � a major reservoir of carbon in the
shallow geosphere? Chem. Geol., 71, 41�51.
Kvenvolden, K.A., 1993: Gas hydrates � geological perspective and global change.
Rev. Geophys., 31, 173�187.
Kvenvolden, K.A., and B.W. Rogers, 2005: Gaia�s breath - global methane
exhalations. Mar. Petrol. Geol., 22, 579�590.
Kwok, R., 2000: Recent changes of the Arctic Ocean sea ice motion associated with
the North Atlantic Oscillation. Geophys. Res. Lett, 27(6), 775�778.
Kwok, R., 2002: Sea ice concentration from passive microwave radiometry and
openings from SAR ice motion. Geophys. Res. Lett, 29(10),
doi:10.1029/2002GL014787.
Kwok, R., and D.A. Rothrock, 1999: Variability of Fram Strait ice flux and North
Atlantic Oscillation. J. Geophys. Res., 104, 5177�5189.
Kwok, R., and J.C. Comiso, 2002a: Spatial patterns of variability in Antarctic
surface temperature: Connections to the Southern Hemisphere annular mode and the
Southern Oscillation. Geophys. Res. Lett., 29(14), 1705, doi:10.1029/2002GL015415.
Kwok, R., and J.C. Comiso, 2002b: SouthernOcean climate and sea ice anomalies
associated with the Southern Oscillation. J. Clim., 15, 487�501.
Kwok, R., et al., 1998: Assessment of sea ice motion from sequential passive
microwave observations with ERS and buoy ice motions. J. Geophys. Res., 103(C4),
8191�8213.
Kwok, R., G.F. Cunningham, and S.S. Pang, 2004: Fram Strait sea ice outflow. J.
Geophys. Res., 109, C01009, doi:10.1029/2003JC001785.
Kwon, W.-T., et al., 2005: The Application of Regional Climate Change Scenario of
the National Climate Change Report (I). METRI Technical Report MR050C03,
Meteorological Research Institute, Seoul, Korea, 408 pp (in Korean).
Kwon, W.? -T., et al., 2003: The Development of Regional Climate Change Scenario
for the National Climate Change Report (II). METRI Technical Report MR030CR09,
Meteorological Research Institute, Seoul, Korea, 502 pp (in Korean).
Kwon, Y.O., and S.C. Riser, 2004: North Atlantic Subtropical Mode Water: A history
of ocean-atmosphere interaction 1961-2000. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31(19), L19307,
doi:10.1029/2004GL021116.
Kwon, Y.O., K. Kim, Y.G. Kim, and K.R. Kim, 2004: Diagnosing long-term trends of
the water mass properties in the East Sea (Sea of Japan). Geophys. Res. Lett.,
31(20), L20306, doi:10.1029/2004GL020881.
K�rcher, B., 1999: Aviation-produced aerosols and contrails. Surv. Geophys., 20,
113�167.
K�rcher, B., and J. Str�m, 2003: The roles of dynamical variability and aerosols
in cirrus cloud formation. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 3, 823�838.
K�rcher, B., and T. Koop, 2004: The role of organic aerosols in homogeneous ice
formation. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 4, 6719�6745.
K�rcher, B., and U. Lohmann, 2003: A parameterization of cirrus cloud formation:
heterogeneous freezing. J. Geophys. Res., 108, doi:10.1029/2002JD003220.
K�rcher, B., J. Hendricks, and U. Lohmann, 2006: Physically-based parameterization
of cirrus cloud formation for use in global atmospheric models. J. Geophys. Res.,
111, doi:10.1029/2005JD006219.
Labitzke, K., 2004: On the signal of the 11-year sunspot cycle in the stratosphere
and its modulation by the quasi, biennial oscillation. J. Atmos. Solar Terr.
Phys., 66, 1151�1157.
Labitzke, K., and H. van Loon, 1997: The signal of the 11-year sunspot cycle in
the upper troposphere-lower stratosphere. Space Sci. Rev., 80, 393�410.
Labitzke, K., et al., 2002: The global signal of the 11-year solar cycle in the
stratosphere: observations and models. J. Atmos. Solar Terr. Phys., 64, 203�210.
Labrador, L.J., R. von Kuhlmann, and M.G. Lawrence, 2004: Strong sensitivity of
the global mean OH concentration and the tropospheric oxidizing efficiency to the
source of NOx from lightning. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L06102,
doi:10.1029/2003GL019229.
Lachenbruch, A.H., and B.V. Marshall, 1986: Changing climate: geothermal evidence
from permafrost in the Alaskan Arctic. Science, 234, 689�696.
Lacis, A.A., D.J. Wuebbles, and J.A. Logan, 1990: Radiative forcing of climate by
changes in the vertical distribution of ozone. J. Geophys. Res., 95, 9971�9981.
L�Heureux, M.L., and D.W.J. Thompson, 2006: Observed relationships between the El-
Ni�o/Southern Oscillation and the extratropical zonal mean circulation. J. Clim.,
19, 276�287.
L�Heureux, M.L., et al., 2004: Atmospheric circulation influences on seasonal
precipitation patterns in Alaska during the latter 20th century. J. Geophys. Res.,
109(6), D06106, doi:10.1029/2003JD003845.
Laird, K.R., et al., 2003: Lake sediments record large-scale shifts in moisture
regimes across the northern prairies of North America during the past two
millennia. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 100(5), 2483�2488.
Lal, M., 2004: Climate change and small island developing countries of the South
Pacific. Fijian Studies, 2(1), 1�15.
Lal, M., and H. Harasawa, 2001: Future climate change scenarios for Asia as
inferred from selected coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models. J.
Meteorol. Soc. Japan, 79, 219�227.
Lal, M., and S.K. Singh, 2001: Global warming and monsoon climate. Mausam, 52,
245�262.
Lal, M., et al., 2001: Future climate change: Implications for Indian summer
monsoon and its variability. Curr.Sci., 81, 1196�1207.
Lal, M., H. Harasawa, and K. Takahashi, 2002: Future climate change and it�s
impacts over small island states. Clim. Res., 19, 179�192.
Lalli, C.M., and R.W. Gilmer, 1989: Pelagic Snails: The Biology of Holoplanktonic
Gastropod Mollusks. Stanford University Press, Palo Alto, CA, 259 pp.
LaMarche, V.C., D.A. Graybill, H.C. Fritts, and M.R. Rose, 1984: Increasing
atmospheric carbon dioxide: Tree ring evidence for growth enhancement in natural
vegetation. Science, 225, 1019�1021.
Lamarque J.-F., et al., 2005b: Assessing future nitrogen deposition and carbon
cycle feedback using a multimodel approach: Part 1. Analysis of nitrogen
deposition. J. Geophys. Res., 110, D19303, doi:10.1029/2005JD005825.
Lamarque, J.-F., et al., 2005a: Coupled chemistry-climate response to changes in
aerosol emissions: global impact on the hydrological cycle and the tropospheric
burdens of OH, ozone and NOx. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L16809,
doi:10.1029/2005GL023419.
Lamarque, J.-F., et al., 2005c: Tropospheric ozone evolution between 1890 and
1990. J. Geophys. Res., 110, D08304, doi:10.1029/2004JD005537.
Lamb, H.H., 1965. The early medieval warm epoch and its sequel. Palaeogeogr.
Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol., 1(13), 13�37.
Lamb, H.H., 1969: The new look of climatology. Nature, 223, 1209�1215.
Lamb, H.H., 1977: Climates of the Past, Present and Future. Vol. I and II.
Metheun, London.
Lamb, H.H., 1982: Climate History and the Modern World. Routledge, London and New
York, 433 pp.
Lamb, P.J., and R.A. Peppler, 1987: North Atlantic Oscillation: Concept and an
application. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 68(10), 1218�1225.
Lambeck, K., 2002: Sea-level change from mid-Holocene to recent time: An
Australian example with global implications. In: Ice Sheets, Sea Level and the
Dynamic Earth [Mitrovica, J.X., and L.A. Vermeersen (eds.)]. Geodynamic Series
Vol. 29, American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, pp. 33�50.
Lambeck, K., and J. Chappell, 2001: Sea level change through the last glacial
cycle. Science, 292(5517), 679�686.
Lambeck, K., C. Smither, and M. Ekman, 1998: Tests of glacial rebound models for
Fennoscandinavia based on instrumental sea- and lake-level records. Geophys. J.
Int., 135, 375�387.
Lambeck, K., et al., 2004: Sea level in Roman time in the Central Mediterranean
and implications for recent change. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 224, 563�575.
Lambert, A., et al., 1993: Measurements of the evolution of the Mt. Pinatubo
aerosol cloud by ISAMS. Geophys. Res. Lett., 20(12), 1287�1290.
Lambert, F.H., N.P. Gillett, D.A. Stone, and C. Huntingford, 2005: Attribution
studies of observed land precipitation changes with nine coupled models. Geophys.
Res. Lett., 32, L18704, doi:10.1029/2005GL023654.
Lambert, F.H., P.A. Stott, M.R. Allen, and M.A. Palmer, 2004: Detection and
attribution of changes in 20th century land precipitation. Geophys. Res. Lett.,
31(10), L10203, doi:10.1029/2004GL019545.
Lambert, S.J., and G.J. Boer, 2001: CMIP1 evaluation and intercomparison of
coupled climate models. Clim. Dyn., 17, 83�106.
Lambert, S.J., and J.C. Fyfe, 2006: Changes in winter cyclone frequencies and
strengths simulated in enhanced greenhouse warming experiments: results from the
models participating in the IPCC diagnostic exercise. Clim. Dyn., 26, 713�728.
Land, C., and J. Feichter, 2003: Stratosphere-troposphere exchange in a changing
climate simulated with the general circulation model MAECHAM4. J. Geophys. Res.,
108, 8523.
Landais, A., et al., 2006: The glacial inception as recorded in the NorthGRIP
Greenland ice core: timing, structure and associated abrupt temperature changes.
Clim. Dyn., 26(2�3), 273�284.
Landerer, F.W., J.H. Jungclaus, and J. Marotzke, 2007: Regional dynamic and steric
sea level change in response to the IPCC-A1B scenario. J. Phys. Oceanogr., in
press.
Landsberg, H.E., and J.M. Mitchell Jr., 1961: Temperature fluctuations and trends
over the Earth. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 87, 435�436.
Landsea, C.W., 2005: Hurricanes and global warming. Nature, 438, E11�E12.
Langdon, C., et al., 2003: Effect of elevated CO2 on the community metabolism of
an experimental coral reef. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 17, 1011,
doi:10.1029/2002GB001941.
Langenbuch, H., and H.O. P�rtner, 2003: Energy budget of heptocytes from Antarctic
fish (Pachycara brachycephalum and Lepidonotothen kempi) as a function of ambient
CO2: pH-dependent limitations of cellular protein biosynthesis? J. Exp. Biol.,
206, 3895�3903.
Langenfelds, R.L., et al., 1996: The Cape Grim Air Archive: The first seventeen
years. In: Baseline Atmospheric Program Australia, 1994-95 [Francey, R.J., A.L.
Dick, and N. Derek (eds.)]. Bureau of Meteorology and CSIRO Division of
Atmospheric Research, Melbourne, Australia, pp. 53�70.
Langenfelds, R.L., et al., 1999: Partitioning of the global fossil CO2 sink using
a 19-year trend in atmospheric O2. Geophys. Res. Lett., 26, 1897�1900.
Langenfelds, R.L., et al., 2002: Interannual growth rate variations of atmospheric
CO2 and its delta C-13, H-2, CH4, and CO between 1992 and 1999 linked to biomass
burning. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 16, doi:10.1029/2001GB001466.
Langley, S.P., 1876: Measurement of the direct effect of sun-spots on terrestrial
climates. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc., 37, 5�11.
Langley, S.P., 1884: Researches on the Solar Heat and its Absorption by the
Earth�s Atmosphere. A Report of the Mount Whitney Expedition. Signal Service
Professional Paper 15, Washington, DC.
Langner, J., R. Bergstrom, and V. Foltescu, 2005: Impact of climate change on
surface ozone and deposition of sulphur and nitrogen in Europe. Atmos. Environ.,
39, 1129�1141.
Lanzante, J.R., 1996: Resistant, robust and nonparametric techniques for analysis
of climate data: Theory and examples, including applications to historical
radiosonde station data. Int. J. Climatol., 16, 1197�1226.
Laprise, R., 2003: Resolved scales and nonlinear interactions in limited-area
models. J. Atmos. Sci., 60(5), 768�779.
Large, W.G., J.C. McWilliams, and S.C. Doney, 1994: Oceanic vertical mixing: a
review and a model with a nonlocal boundary layer parameterization. Rev. Geophys.,
32, 363�403.
Larsen, S.H., 2005: Solar variability, dimethyl sulphide, clouds, and climate.
Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 19, GB1014, doi:10.1029/2004GB002333.
Larson, K., and D.L. Hartmann, 2003: Interactions among cloud, water vapour,
radiation and large-scale circulation in the tropical climate. Part 1: sensitivity
to uniform sea surface temperature changes. J. Clim., 15, 1425�1440.
Laskar, J., et al., 2004: A long-term numerical solution for the insolation
quantities of the Earth. Astron. Astrophys., 428(1), 261�285.
Lassey, K.R., D.C Lowe, and M.R. Manning, 2000: The trend in atmospheric methane
d13C and implications for isotopic constraints on the global methane budget.
Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 14, 41�49.
Lathi�re, J., et al., 2005: Past and future changes in biogenic volatile organic
compound emissions simulated with a global dynamic vegetation model. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 32, L20818, doi:10.1029/2005GL024164.
Latif, M., 1998: Dynamics of interdecadal variability in coupled ocean-atmosphere
models. J. Clim., 11, 602�624.
Latif, M., E. Roeckner, U. Mikolajewicz, and R. Voss, 2000: Tropical stabilisation
of the thermohaline circulation in a greenhouse warming simulation. J. Clim., 13,
1809�1813.
Latif, M., et al., 2001: ENSIP: The El Ni�o simulation intercomparison project.
Clim. Dyn., 18, 255�276.
Latif, M., et al., 2004: Reconstructing, monitoring, and predicting multidecadal
scale changes in the North Atlantic thermohaline circulation with sea surface
temperatures. J. Clim., 17, 1605�1614.
Latif, M., et al., 2006: Is the thermohaline circulation changing? J. Clim., 19,
4631�4637.
Lau, K.M., and J. Zhou, 2003: Responses of the South American Summer Monsoon
climate system to ENSO during 1997�99. IntJ. Climatol., 23, 529�539.
Laurance, W.F., et al., 2004: Pervasive alteration of tree communities in
undisturbed Amazonian forests. Nature, 428, 171�175.
Laurent, R., and X. Cai, 2007: A maximum entropy method for combining AOGCMs for
regional intra-year climate change assessment. Clim. Change, 82, 411�435.
Lauritzen, S.E., 2003: Reconstruction of Holocene climate records from
speleothems. In: Global Change in the Holocene [Mackay, A., R. Battarbee, J.
Birks, and F. Oldfield (eds)]. Arnold, London, pp. 242�263.
Lawrence, D.M., and A.G. Slater, 2005: A projection of severe near-surface
permafrost degradation during the 21st century. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L24401,
doi:10.1029/2005GL025080.
Lawrence, D.M., and J.M. Slingo, 2004: An annual cycle of vegetation in a GCM.
Part I: implementation and impact on evaporation. Clim. Dyn., 22,
doi:10.1007/s0038200303669.
Lawrence, D.M., and J.M. Slingo, 2005: Weak land-atmosphere coupling strength in
HadAM3: The role of soil moisture variability. J. Hydrometeorol., 6(5), 670�680,
doi:10.1775/JHM445.1.
Lawrence, M.G., P. J�ckel, and R. von Kuhlmann, 2001: What does the global mean OH
concentration tell us? Atmos. Chem. Phys., 1, 43�74.
Lawrence, M.G., R. von Kuhlmann, M. Salzmann, and P.J. Rasch, 2003: The balance of
effects of deep convective mixing on tropospheric ozone. Geophys. Res. Lett.,
30(18), 1940, doi:10.1029/2003GL017644.
Laws, E.A., et al., 2000: Temperature effects on export production in the open
ocean. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 14, 1231�1246.
Laxon, S., N. Peacock, and D. Smith, 2003: High interannual variability of sea ice
thickness in the Arctic region. Nature, 425, 947�950.
Lazar, A., et al., 2002: Seasonality of the ventilation of the tropical Atlantic
thermocline in an ocean general circulation mode. J. Geophys. Res., 107(C8),
doi:10.1029/2000JC000667.
Lazier, J.R.N., 1995: The salinity decrease in the Labrador Sea over the past
thirty years. In: Natural Climate Variability on Decade-to-Century Time Scales
[Martinson, D.G., et al. (eds.)]. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, pp.
295�304.
Lazier, J.R.N., et al., 2002: Convection and restratification in the Labrador Sea,
1990-2000. Deep-Sea Res. I, 49(10), 1819�1835.
Le Quesne, C., et al., 2006: Ancient Austrocedrus tree-ring chronologies used to
reconstruct Central Chile precipitation variability from AD 1200 to 2000. J.
Clim., 19(22), 5731�5744.
Le Qu�r�, C., et al., 2000: Interannual variability of the oceanic sink of CO2
from 1979 to 1997. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 14, 1247�1265.
Le Qu�r�, C., et al., 2003: Two decades of ocean CO2 sink and variability. Tellus,
B55(2), 649�656.
Le Qu�r�, C., et al., 2005: Ecosystem dynamics based on plankton functional types
for global ocean biogeochemistry models. Global Change Biol., 11,
doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2005.001004.x.
Le Treut, H., and Z.-Li, 1991: Sensitivity of an atmospheric general circulation
model to prescribed SST changes: feedback effects associated with the simulation
of cloud optical properties. Clim. Dyn., 5, 175�187.
Le Treut, H., and Z.-X. Li, 1988: Using meteosat data to validate a prognostic
cloud generation scheme. Atmos. Res., 21, 273�292.
Le Treut, H., Z.X. Li, and M. Forichon, 1994: Sensitivity of the LMD general
circulation model to greenhouse forcing associated with two different cloud water
parametrizations. J. Clim., 7, 1827�1841.
Lea, D.W., D.K. Pak, L.C. Peterson, and K.A. Hughen, 2003: Synchroneity of
tropical and high-latitude Atlantic temperatures over the last glacial
termination. Science, 301(5638), 1361�1364.
Lean, J., 1997: The sun�s variable radiation and its relevance to Earth. Annu.
Rev. Astron. Astrophys., 35, 33�67.
Lean, J., 2000: Evolution of the sun�s spectral irradiance since the Maunder
Minimum. Geophys. Res. Lett., 27, 2425�2428.
Lean, J., and D. Rind, 1998: Climate forcing by changing solar radiation. J.
Clim., 11, 3069�3093.
Lean, J., G. Rottman, J. Harder, and G. Kopp, 2005: SORCE contribution to new
understanding of global change and solar variability. Solar Phys., 230, 27�53.
Lean, J., J. Beer, and R. Bradley, 1995: Reconstruction of solar irradiance since
1610: Implications for climate change. Geophys. Res. Lett., 22, 3195�3198.
Lean, J.L., et al., 1995: Correlated brightness variations in solar radiative
output from the photosphere to the corona. Geophys. Res. Lett., 22(5), 655�658.
Lean, J.L., et al., 1997: Detection and parametrization of variations in solar mid
and near ultraviolet radiation (200 to 400 nm). J. Geophys. Res., 102(D25),
29939�29956.
Lean, J.L., J. Beer, and R. Bradley, 1995: Reconstruction of solar irradiance
changes since 1610: Implications for climate change. Geophys. Res. Lett., 22,
3195.
Lean, J.L., Y.M. Wang, and N.R. Sheeley, 2002: The effect of increasing solar
activity on the Sun�s total and open magnetic flux during multiple cycles:
Implications for solar forcing of climate. Geophys. Res. Lett., 29(24), 2224,
doi:10.1029/2002GL015880.
Lean,�J., A. Skumanich,�and O.White, 1992: Estimating the sun�s radiative output
during the Maunder Minimum. Geophys. Res. Lett., 19(15), 1595�1598.
Lear, C.H., Y. Rosenthal, H.K. Coxall, and P.A. Wilson, 2004: Late Eocene to early
Miocene ice sheet dynamics and the global carbon cycle. Paleoceanography, 19(4),
PA4015, doi:10.1029/2004PA001039.
Leck, C., and E.K. Bigg, 2005a: Biogenic particles in the surface microlayer and
overlaying atmosphere in the central Arctic Ocean during summer. Tellus, 57B(4),
305�316.
Leck, C., and E.K. Bigg, 2005b: Source and evolution of the marine aerosol - A new
perspective. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L19803, doi:10.1029/2005GL023651.
Leckebusch, G.C., and U. Ulbrich, 2004: On the relationship between cyclones and
extreme windstorm events over Europe under climate change. Global PlanetChange,
44, 181�193.
Leckebusch, G.C., et al., 2007: Analysis of frequency and intensity of winter
storm events in Europe on synoptic and regional scales from a multi-model
perspective. Clim. Res. 31, 59�74.
Lee, K., et al., 1998: Low interannual variability in recent oceanic uptake of
atmospheric carbon dioxide. Nature, 396, 155�159.
Lee, K.H., Y.J. Kim, and W. von Hoyningen-Huene, 2004: Estimation of regional
aerosol optical thickness from satellite observations during the 2001 ACE-Asia
IOP. J. Geophys. Res. 109, D19S16, doi:10.1029/2003JD004126.
Lee, M.-I., I.-S. Kang, J.-K. Kim, and B. E. Mapes, 2001: Influence of cloud-
radiation interaction on simulating tropical intraseasonal oscillation with an
atmospheric general circulation model. J. Geophys. Res., 106, 14219�14233.
Lee, R.B. III, M.A. Gibson, R.S. Wilson, and S. Thomas, 1995: Long-term total
solar irradiance variability during sunspot cycle 22. J. Geophys. Res., 100(A2),
1667�1675.
Lee, T., 2004: Decadal weakening of the shallow overturning circulation of the
South Indian Ocean. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L18305, doi:10.1029/2004GL020884.
Lee, T.C.K., et al., 2005: A Bayesian approach to climate change detection and
attribution. J. Clim., 18, 2429�2440.
Lee, T.C.K., F.W. Zwiers, X. Zhang, and M. Tsao, 2006: Evidence of decadal climate
prediction skill resulting from changes in anthropogenic forcing. J. Clim., 19,
5305�5318.
Leemans, R., et al., 1998: The IMAGE User Support System: Global Change Scenarios
from IMAGE 2.1. CD-ROM 4815006, National Institute of Public Health and the
Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, The Netherlands.
Lefohn, A.S., J.D. Husar, and R.B. Husar, 1999: Estimating historical
anthropogenic global sulfur emission patterns for the period 1850-1990. Atmos.
Environ., 33, 3435�3444.
Lef�vre, N., et al., 1999: Assessing the seasonality of the oceanic sink for CO2
in the northern hemisphere. Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles, 13, 273�286.
Lef�vre, N., et al., 2004: A decrease in the sink for atmospheric CO2 in the North
Atlantic. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31(7), L07306, doi:10.1029/2003GL018957.
Leggett, J., W.J. Pepper, and R. Swart, 1992: Emissions scenarios for IPCC: An
update. In: Climate Change 1992. The Supplementary Report to the IPCC Scientific
Assessment [Houghton, J.T., B.A. Calalnder, and S.K. Varney (eds.)]. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 69�95.
LeGrande, A.N., et al., 2006: Consistent simulations of multiple proxy responses
to an abrupt climate change event. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 103, 837�842.
Legresy, B., F. Remy, and F. Blarel, 2006: Along track repeat altimetry for ice
sheets and continental surface studies. In: Proceedings of the Symposium on 15
years of Progress in Radar Altimetry, Venice, Italy, 13-18 March 2006 [Danesy, D.
(ed.)]. ESA-SP614, Paper 181, European Space Agency Publications Division,
Noordwijk, The Netherlands, 4 pp.,
http://earth.esa.int/workshops/venice06/participants/181/paper_181_legrsy.pdf.
Lelieveld, J., and F.J. Dentener, 2000: What controls tropospheric ozone? J.
Geophys. Res., 105, 3531�3551.
Lelieveld, J., et al., 2002b: Global air pollution crossroads over the
Mediterranean. Science, 298, 794�799.
Lelieveld, J., et al., 2004: Increasing ozone over the Atlantic Ocean. Science,
304, 1483�1487.
Lelieveld, J., P.J. Crutzen, and F.J. Dentener, 1998: Changing concentration,
lifetime and climate forcing of atmospheric methane. Tellus, 50B, 128�150.
Lelieveld, J., W. Peters, F.J. Dentener, and M.C. Krol, 2002a: Stability of
tropospheric hydroxyl chemistry. J. Geophys. Res., 107(D23), 4715,
doi:10.1029/2002JD002272.
Lemasurier, W.E., and S. Rocchi, 2005: Terrestrial record of post-Eocene climate
history in Marie Byrd Land, West Antarctica. Geografiska Annaler, 87A(1), 51�66.
Lenderink, G., A. van Ulden, B. van den Hurk, and E. van Meijgaard, 2007:
Summertime inter-annual temperature variability in an ensemble of regional model
simulations: analysis of the surface energy budget. Clim. Change, doi:
10.1007/s10584-006-9229-9
Leroy, S.S., 1998: Detecting climate signals: Some Bayesian aspects. J. Clim., 11,
640�651.
Leue, C., et al., 2001: Quantitative analysis of NOx emissions from GOME satellite
image sequences. J. Geophys. Res., 106, 5493�5505.
Leuliette, E.W., R.S. Nerem, and G.T. Mitchum, 2004: Calibration of TOPEX/Poseidon
and Jason altimeter data to construct a continuous record of mean sea level
change. Mar. Geodesy, 27(1�2), 79�94.
Leung, L.R., et al., 2004: Mid-century ensemble regional climate change scenarios
for the western United States. Clim. Change, 62, 75�113.
Leung, L.R., L.O. Mearns, F. Giorgi, and R.L. Wilby, 2003: Regional climate
research: needs and opportunities. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 84, 89�95.
Levermann, A., et al., 2005: Dynamic sea level changes following changes in the
thermohaline circulation. Clim. Dyn., 24, 347�354.
Levin, Z., E. Ganor, and V. Gladstein, 1996: The effects of desert particles
coated with sulfate on rain formation in the eastern Mediterranean. J. Appl.
Meteorol., 35, 1511�1523.
Levis, S., and G.B. Bonan, 2004: Simulating springtime temperature patterns in the
community atmosphere model coupled to the community land model using prognostic
leaf area. J. Clim., 17, 4531�4540.
Levis, S., G.B. Bonan, and C. Bonfils, 2004: Soil feedback drives the mid-Holocene
North African monsoon northward in fully coupled CCSM2 simulations with a dynamic
vegetation model. Clim. Dyn., 23, doi:10.1007/s00382-004-0477-y.
Levis, S., J.A. Foley, and D. Pollard, 1999: CO2, climate, and vegetation
feedbacks at the Last Glacial Maximum. J. Geophys. Res., 104(D24), 31191�31198.
Levitus, S., 1989: Interpentadal variability of salinity in the upper 150m of the
North-Atlantic Ocean, 1970-1974 versus 1955-1959. J. Geophys. Res., 94(C7),
9679�9685.
Levitus, S., and J. Antonov, 1997: Variability of Heat Storage of and the Rate of
Heat Storage of the World Ocean. NOAA NESDIS Atlas 16, US Government Printing
Office, Washington, DC, 6 pp., 186 figures.
Levitus, S., and T.P. Boyer, 1994: World Ocean Atlas 1994, Volume 4: Temperature.
NOAA NESDIS E/OC21, Washington, DC, 117 pp.
Levitus, S., et al., 1998: World Ocean Database 1998, Volume 1: Introduction. NOAA
Atlas NESDIS 18, US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.
Levitus, S., et al., 2001: Anthropogenic warming of the Earth�s climate system.
Science, 292, 267�270.
Levitus, S., et al., 2005b: Building Ocean Profile-Plankton Databases for Climate
and Ecosystem System Research. NOAA Technical Report NESDIS 117, U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, DC, 29 pp.
Levitus, S., et al., 2005c: EOF analysis of upper ocean heat content, 1956-2003.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L18607, doi:10.1029/2005GL023606.
Levitus, S., J. Antonov, and T. Boyer, 1994: Interannual variability of
temperature at a depth of 125 m in the North Atlantic Ocean. Science, 266, 96�99.
Levitus, S., J. Antonov, and T. Boyer, 2005: Warming of the world ocean,
1955�2003. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L02604, doi:10.1029/2004GL021592.
Levitus, S., J. Antonov, T.P. Boyer, and C. Stephens, 2000: Warming of the world
ocean. Science, 287, 2225�2229.
Levitus, S., J.I. Antonov, and T.P. Boyer, 2005a: Warming of the World Ocean,
1955-2003. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L02604, doi:10.1029/2004GL021592.
Levy, R.C., et al., 2003: Evaluation of the Moderate-Resolution Imaging
Spectroradiometer (MODIS) retrievals of dust aerosol over the ocean during PRIDE.
J. Geophys. Res., 108(D19), 8594, doi:10.1029/2002JD002460.
Lewis, E.R., and S.E. Schwartz, 2005: Sea Salt Aerosol Production: Mechanisms,
Methods, Measurements, and Models: A Critical Review. Geophysical Monograph Vol.
152, American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, 413 pp.
Lewis, S.L., Y. Malhi, and O.L. Phillips, 2005: Fingerprinting the impacts of
global change on tropical forests. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London Ser. B, 359,
doi:10.1098/rstb.2003.1432.
Lewkowicz, A.G., 1992: Factors influencing the distribution and initiation of
active-layer detachment slides on Ellesmere Island, arctic Canada. In: Periglacial
Geomorphology [Dixon, J.C. and A.D. Abrahams (eds.)]. Wiley, New York, pp.
223�250.
Lhomme, N., G.K.C. Clarke, and S.J. Marshall, 2005: Tracer transport in the
Greenland Ice Sheet: constraints on ice cores and glacial history. Quat. Sci.
Rev., 24, 173�194.
Li, C., et al., 2002: Reduced methane emissions from large-scale changes in water
management of China�s rice paddies during 1980-2000. Geophys. Res. Lett., 29, doi:
10.1029/2002GL015370.
Li, J., et al., 2005: Halocarbon emissions estimated from AGAGE measured pollution
events at Trinidad Head, California. J. Geophys. Res., 110, D14308,
doi:10.1029/2004JD005739.
Li, M., P.G. Myers, and H. Freeland, 2005: An examination of historical mixed
layer depths along Line-P in the Gulf of Alaska. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L05613,
doi:10.1029/2004GL021911.
Li, Q., et al., 2005: North American pollution outflow and the trapping of
convectively lifted pollution by upper-level anticyclone. J. Geophys. Res., 110,
D10301, doi:10.1029/2004JD005039.
Li, W., and R. Fu, 2004: Transition of the large-scale atmospheric and land
surface conditions from the dry to the wet season over Amazonia as diagnosed by
the ECMWF re-analysis. J. Clim., 17, 2637�2651.
Li, W., R. Fu, and R.E. Dickinson, 2006: Rainfall and its seasonality over the
Amazon in the 21st century as assessed by the coupled models for the IPCC AR4. J.
Geophys. Res., 111, D02111, doi:10.1029/2005JD006355.
Li, Y.-H., and T.-H. Peng, 2002: Latitudinal change of remineralization ratios in
the oceans and its implication for nutrient cycles. Global Biogeochem. Cycles,
16(4), 1130, doi:10.1029/2001GB001828.
Liang, X., Z. Xie, and M. Huang, 2003: A new parameterization for surface and
groundwater interactions and its impact on water budgets with the variable
infiltration capacity (VIC) land surface model. J. Geophys. Res., 108, 8613,
doi:10.1029/2002JD003090.
Liang, X.Z., et al., 2004: Regional climate model simulation of U.S. precipitation
during 1982�2002. Part I: Annual cycle. J. Clim., 17(18), 3510�3529.
Liang, X.Z., etal., 2006: Regional climate model downscaling of the U.S. summer
climate and future change. J. Geophys. Res., 111, D10108,
doi:10.1029/2005JD006685.
Liao, H., and J.H. Seinfeld, 2005: Global impacts of gas-phase chemistry-aerosol
interactions on direct radiative forcing by anthropogenic aerosols and ozone. J.
Geophys. Res., 110, D18208, doi:10.1029/2005JD005907.
Liao, H., et al., 2003: Interactions between tropospheric chemistry and aerosols
in a unified general circulation model. J. Geophys. Res., 108, 4001.
Liao, H., J.H. Seinfeld, P.J. Adams, and L.J. Mickley, 2004: Global radiative
forcing of coupled tropospheric ozone and aerosols in a unified general
circulation model. J. Geophys. Res., 109, D16207, doi:10.1029/2003JD004456.
Liao, T., C.D. Camp, and Y.L. Yung, 2004: The seasonal cycle of N2O. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 31, L17108, doi:10.1029/2004GL020345.
Lie, �., et al., 2004: Holocene fluctuations of a polythermal glacier in high-
alpine eastern Jotunheimen, central-southern Norway. Quat. Sci. Rev., 23(18�19),
1925�1945.
Liebmann, B., and J.A. Marengo, 2001: Interannual variability of the rainy season
and rainfall in the Brazilian Amazon basin. J. Clim., 14(22), 4308�4318.
Liebmann, B., et al., 2004: An observed trend in Central South American
precipitation. J. Clim., 17, 4357�4367.
Liepert, B., 2002: Observed reductions of surface solar radiation at sites in the
United States and worldwide from 1961 to 1990. Geophys. Res. Lett., 29, 1421.
Liepert, B.G., and I. Tegen, 2002: Multidecadal solar radiation trends in the
United States and Germany and direct tropospheric aerosol forcing. J. Geophys.
Res., 107, doi:10.1029/2001JD000760.
Liepert, B.G., J. Feichter, U. Lohmann, and E. Roeckner, 2004: Can aerosols spin
down the water cycle in a warmer and moister world. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31,
L06207, doi:10.1029/2003GL019060.
Limpasuvan, V., and D.L. Hartmann, 2000: Wave-maintained annular modes of climate
variability. J. Clim., 13, 4414�4429.
Lin, B., et al., 2002: The iris hypothesis: A negative or positive cloud feedback?
J. Clim., 15, 3�7.
Lin, B., T. Wong, B.A. Wielicki, and Y. Hu, 2004: Examination of the decadal
tropical mean ERBS nonscanner radiation data for the iris hypothesis. J. Clim.,
17, 1239�1246.
Lin, C.-Y.C., D.J. Jacob, and A.M. Fiore, 2001: Trends in exceedances of the ozone
air quality standard in the continental United States, 1980-1998. Atmos. Environ.,
35, 3217�3228.
Lin, G.H., et al., 1999: Ecosystem carbon exchange in two terrestrial ecosystem
mesocosms under changing atmospheric CO2 concentrations. Oecologia, 119(1),
97�108.
Lin, J.L., et al., 2006: Tropical intraseasonal variability in 14 IPCC AR4 climate
models. Part I: Convective signals. J. Clim., 19, 2665�2690.
Lin, W.Y., and M.H. Zhang, 2004: Evaluation of clouds and their radiative effects
simulated by the NCAR Community Atmospheric Model against satellite observations.
J. Clim., 17, 3302�3318.
Lindsay, R.W., and H.L. Stern, 2004: A new Lagrangian model of Arctic sea ice. J.
Phys. Oceanogr., 34, 272�283.
Lindsay, R.W., and J. Zhang, 2005: The thinning of arctic sea ice, 1988-2003: Have
we passed a tipping point? J. Clim., 18, 4879�4894.
Lindzen, R.S., and C. Giannitsis, 2002: Reconciling observations of global
temperature change. Geophys. Res. Lett., 29, doi:10.1029/2001GL014074.
Lindzen, R.S., M.-D. Chou, and A.Y. Hou, 2001: Does the Earth have an adaptative
infrared iris? Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 82, 417�432.
Lindzen, R.S., M.-D. Chou, and A.Y. Hou, 2002: Comment on �No evidence for iris�.
Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 83, 1345�1349.
Linsley, B.K., et al., 2004: Geochemical evidence from corals for changes in the
amplitude and spatial pattern of South Pacific interdecadal climate variability
over the last 300 years. Clim. Dyn., 22(1), 1�11.
Lintner, B.R., 2002: Characterizing global CO2 interannual variability with
empirical orthogonal function/principal component (EOF/PC) analysis. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 29(19), 1921, doi:10.1029/2001GL014419.
Lintner,B.R., andJ.C.H. Chiang, 2005: Reorganization of tropical climate during El
Ni�o: aweak temperature gradient approach. J. Clim., 18(24), 5312�5329.
Lionello, P., E. Elvini, and A. Nizzero, 2003: Ocean waves and storm surges in the
Adriatic Sea: intercomparison between the present and the doubled CO2 climate
scenarios. Clim. Res., 23, 217�231.
Lionello, P., F. Dalan, and E. Elvini, 2002: Cyclones in the Mediterranean region:
the present and the doubled CO2 climate scenarios. Clim. Res., 22, 147�159.
Liousse, C., et al., 1996: A global three-dimensional model study of carbonaceous
aerosols. J. Geophys. Res., 101(D14), 19411�19432.
Lipscomb, W.H., 2001: Remapping the thickness distribution in sea ice models. J.
Geophys. Res., 106, 13989�14000.
Lisiecki, L.E., and M.E. Raymo, 2005: A Pliocene-Pleistocene stack of 57 globally
distributed benthic d18O records. Paleoceanography, 20, PA1003,
doi:10.1029/2004PA001071.
Liston, G., 2004: Representing subgrid snow cover heterogeneities in regional and
global models. J. Clim., 17, 1381�1397.
Liu, H., et al., 2004: An eddy-permitting oceanic general circulation model and
its preliminary evaluations. Adv. Atmos. Sci., 21, 675�690.
Liu, H.Q., R.T. Pinker, and B.N. Holben, 2005: A global view of aerosols from
merged transport models, satellite, and ground observations. J. Geophys. Res.,
110(D10), doi:10.1029/2004JD004695.
Liu, J., et al., 2003: Sensitivity of sea ice to physical parameterizations in the
GISS global climate model. J. Geophys. Res., 108, 3053, doi:10.1029/2001JC001167.
Liu, J., et al., 2005: Comparison of surface radiative flux data sets over the
Arctic Ocean. J. Geophys. Res., 110, C02015, doi:10.1029/2004JC002381.
Liu, K.B., 2004: Paleotempestology: Principles, methods, and examples from Gulf
coast lake-sediments. In: Hurricanes and Typhoons: Past, Present and Future
[Murnane, R., and K. Liu (eds.)]. Columbia University Press, New York, pp. 13�57.
Liu, P., et al., 2005: MJO in the NCAR CAM2 with the Tiedtke convective scheme. J.
Clim., 18, 3007�3020.
Liu, P., G.A. Meehl, and G. Wu, 2002: Multi-model trends in the Sahara induced by
increasing CO2. Geophys. Res. Lett., 29, 1881.
Liu, S., et al., 2004: Recent progress in glaciological studies in China. J.
Geogr. Sci., 14(4), 401�410.
Liu, X., and J.E. Penner, 2005: Ice nucleation parameterization for a global
model. Meteorol. Z., 14(4), 499�514.
Liu, X.H., and J.E. Penner, 2002: Effect of Mount Pinatubo H2SO4/H2O aerosol on
ice nucleation in the upper troposphere using a global chemistry and transport
model. J. Geophys. Res., 107(D12), doi:10.1029/2001JD000455.
Liu, Y., and P.H. Daum, 2002: Indirect warming effect from dispersion forcing.
Nature, 419, 580�581.
Liu, Z., et al., 2002: Tropical cooling at the last glacial maximum and
extratropical ocean ventilation. Geophys. Res. Lett., 29, 1409,
doi:10.1029/2001GL013938?.
Liu, Z., et al., 2005: Rethinking tropical ocean response to global warming: The
enhanced equatorial warming. J. Clim., 18, 4684�4700.
Liu, Z., J.E. Kutzbach, and L. Wu, 2000: Modeling climate shift of El Ni�o
variability in the Holocene. Geophys. Res. Lett., 27, 2265�2268.
Liu, Z., S.P. Harrison, J.E. Kutzbach, and B. Otto-Bleisner, 2004: Global monsoons
in the mid-Holocene and oceanic feedback. Clim. Dyn., 22, 157�182.
Liu, Z.Y., et al., 2005: Atmospheric CO2 forcing on glacial thermohaline
circulation and climate. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32(2), L02706,
doi:10.1029/2004GL021929.
Liu, Z.Y., J. Kutzbach, and L.X. Wu, 2000: Modeling climate shift of El Nino
variability in the Holocene. Geophys. Res. Lett., 27(15), 2265�2268.
Lo, F., and M.P. Clark, 2001: Relationships between spring snow mass and summer
precipitation in the southwestern US associated with the North American monsoon
system. J. Clim., 15, 1378�1385.
Locarnini, R.A., et al., 2002: World ocean database 2001. In: NOAA Atlas NESDIS
45. Vol. 4: Temporal Distribution of Temperature, Salinity and Oxygen Profiles
[Levitus, S. (ed.)]. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 332 pp, CD-
ROMs.
Lock, A.P., 2001: The numerical representation of entrainment in parameterizations
of boundary layer turbulent mixing. Mon. Weather Rev., 129, 1148�1163.
Lock, A.P., et al., 2000: A new�boundary layer mixing scheme. Part I: Scheme
description and SCM tests. Mon. Weather Rev., 128, 3187�3199.�
Lockwood, M., and R. Stamper, 1999: Long-term drift of the coronal source magnetic
flux and the total solar irradiance. Geophys. Res. Lett., 26, 2461�2464.
Lockyer, N., and W.J.S. Lockyer, 1902: On some phenomena which suggest a short
period of solar and meteorological changes. Proc. R. Soc. London, 70, 500�504.
Loeb, N.G., and N. Manalo-Smith, 2005: Top-of-atmosphere direct radiative effect
of aerosols over global oceans from merged CERES and MODIS observations. J. Clim.,
18, 3506�3526.
Loeb, N.G., and S. Kato, 2002: Top-of-atmosphere direct radiative effect of
aerosols over the tropical oceans from the Clouds and the Earth�s Radiant Energy
System (CERES) satellite instrument. J. Clim., 15, 1474�1484.
Loh, A.N., J.E. Bauer, and E.R.M. Druffel, 2004: Variable ageing and storage of
dissolved organic components in the open ocean. Nature, 430, 877�881.
Lohar, D., and B. Pal, 1995: The effect of irrigation on premonsoon season
precipitation over south west Bengal, India. J. Clim., 8, 2567�2570.
Lohmann, U. and C. Leck, 2005: Importance of submicron surface active organic
aerosols for pristine Arctic clouds. Tellus, 57B, 261�268.
Lohmann, U., 2002: A glaciation indirect aerosol effect caused by soot aerosols.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 29, doi:10.1029/2001GL014357.
Lohmann, U., and B. K�rcher, 2002: First interactive simulations of cirrus clouds
formed by homogeneous freezing in the ECHAM GCM. J. Geophys. Res., 107,
doi:10.1029/2001JD000767.
Lohmann, U., and G. Lesins, 2002: Stronger constraints on the anthropogenic
indirect aerosol effect. Science, 298, 1012�1016.
Lohmann, U., and J. Feichter, 2001: Can the direct and semi-direct aerosol effect
compete with the indirect effect on a global scale? Geophys. Res. Lett., 28(1),
159�161, doi:10.1029/2000GL012051.
Lohmann, U., and J. Feichter, 2005: Global indirect aerosol effects: A review.
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 5, 715�737.
Lohmann, U., and K. Diehl, 2006: Sensitivity studies of the importance of dust ice
nuclei for the indirect aerosol effect on stratiform mixed-phase clouds. J. Atmos.
Sci., 63, 1338�1347.
Lohmann, U., B. K�rcher, and J. Hendrichs, 2004: Sensitivity studies of cirrus
clouds formed by heterogeneous freezing in ECHAM GCM. J. Geophys. Res., 109,
D16204, doi:10.1029/2003JD004443.
Lohmann, U., et al., 2001: Vertical distributions of sulfur species simulated by
large scale atmospheric models in COSAM: comparison with observations. Tellus,
53B, 646�672.
Lohmann, U., I. Koren, and Y.J. Kaufman, 2006: Disentangling the role of
microphysical and dynamical effects in determining cloud properties over the
Atlantic. Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L09802, doi:10.1029/2005GL024625.
Lohmann, U., J. Feichter, J.E. Penner, and W.R. Leaitch, 2000: Indirect effect of
sulfate and carbonaceous aerosols: a mechanistic treatment. J. Geophys. Res.,
105(D10), 12193�12206.
Lombard, A., et al., 2005: Thermosteric sea level rise for the past 50 years;
comparison with tide gauges and inference on water mass contribution. Global
Planet. Change, 48, 303�312.
Lombard, A., et al., 2006: Perspectives on present-day sea level change: a tribute
to Christian le Provost. Ocean Dyn., 56(5-6), doi:10.1007/s10236-005-0046-x.
London, J., 1957: A Study of Atmospheric Heat Balance. Final Report, Contract AF
19(122)-165, AFCRC-TR57-287, College of Engineering, New York University, New
York, NY. 99 pp.
Longworth, H., J. Marotzke, and T.F. Stocker, 2005: Ocean gyres and abrupt change
in the thermohaline circulation: A conceptual analysis. J. Clim., 18, 2403�2416.
Lopez, A., et al., 2006: Two approaches to quantifying uncertainty in global
temperature changes. J. Clim., 19, 4785�4796.
Lopez, A., et al., 2006:Two approaches to quantifying uncertainty in global
temperature changes. J. Clim.19, 4785�4796.
Lorant, V., andJ-FRoyer, 2001: Sensitivity of equatorial convection to horizontal
resolution in aquaplanet simulations with a variable-resolution GCM. Mon. Weather
Rev., 129(11), 2730�2745.
Lorentz, S.J., et al., 2006: Orbitally driven insolation forcing on Holocene
climate trends: evidence from alkenone data and climate modeling.
Paleoceanography, 21, doi:10.1029/2005PA001152.
Lorenz, E.N., 1963: Deterministic nonperiodic flow. J. Atmos. Sci., 20, 130�141.
Lorenz, E.N., 1967: On the Nature and Theory of the General Circulation of the
Atmosphere. Publication No. 218, World Meteorological Association, Geneva, 161 pp.
Lorenz, E.N., 1975: The physical bases of climate and climate modelling. In:
Climate Predictability. GARP Publication Series 16, World Meteorological
Association, Geneva, pp. 132�136.
Lorenz, P., andD. Jacob, 2005: Influence of regional scale information on the
global circulation: a two-way nested climate simulation. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32,
L18706, doi:10.1029/2005GL023351.
Lorenz,�D.J., and D.L. Hartmann, 2001: Eddy�zonal flow feedback in the Southern
Hemisphere. J. Atmos. Sci., 58, 3312�3327.
Lorius, C., et al., 1990: The ice-core record: climate sensitivity and future
greenhouse warming. Nature, 347, 139�145.
Lough, J.M., 2004: A strategy to improve the contribution of coral data to high-
resolution paleoclimatology. Palaeogeogr. Paleoclimatol. Palaeoecol., 204,
115�143.
Loutre, M.F., and A.L. Berger, 2000: Future climate changes: Are we entering an
exceptionally long interglacial? Clim. Change, 46, 61�90.
Loutre, M.F., D. Paillard, F. Vimeux, and E. Cortijo, 2004: Does mean annual
insolation have the potential to change the climate? Earth Planet. Sci. Lett.,
221(1�4), 1�14.
Loveland, T.R., et al., 2000: Development of a global land cover characteristics
database and IGBP DISCover from 1 km AVHR R data. Int. J. Remote Sens., 21,
1303�1330.
Lovelock, J.E., 1971: Atmospheric fluorine compounds as indicators of air
movements. Nature, 230, 379�381.
Lovins, A.B., 2003: Hydrogen primer. RMI Solutions Newsletter, 19(2), 1�4; 36�39.
Lowe, D.C., and W. Allan, 2002: A simple procedure for evaluating global
cosmogenic 14C production in the atmosphere using neutron monitor data.
Radiocarbon, 44, 149�157.
Lowe, D.C., et al., 2004: Seasonal cycles of mixing ratio and 13C in atmospheric
methane at Suva, Fiji. J. Geophys. Res., 109, D23308 doi:10.1029/2004JD005166.
Lowe, D.C., M.R. Manning, G.W. Brailsford, and A.M. Bromley, 1997: The 1991-1992
atmospheric methane anomaly: Southern hemisphere 13C decrease and growth rate
fluctuations. Geophys. Res. Lett., 24(8), 857�860.
Lowe, J.A., and J.M. Gregory, 2006: Understanding projections of sea level rise in
a Hadley Centre coupled climate model. J. Geophys. Res., 111, C11014,
doi:10.1029/2005JC003421.
LoweJ.A., and J.M. Gregory, 2005: The effects of climate change on storm surges
around the United Kingdom. PhilosTrans. R. Soc. London Ser. A.,363, 1313�1328.
LoweJ.A., J.M. Gregory, and R.A. Flather, 2001: Changes in the occurrence of storm
surges around the United Kingdom under a future climate scenario using a dynamic
storm surge model driven by the Hadley Centre climate models. Clim. Dyn., 18(3�4),
179�188.
Lozhkin, A.V., and P.M. Anderson, 1995: The last interglaciation in northeast
Siberia. Quat. Res., 43, 147�158.
Lu, J., and T.L. Delworth, 2005: Oceanic forcing of the late 20th century Sahel
drought. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L22706, doi:10.1029/2005GL023316.
Lu, J., R.J. Greatbatch, and K.A. Peterson, 2004: Trend in Northern Hemisphere
winter atmospheric circulation during the last half of the twentieth century. J.
Clim., 17, 3745�3760.
Lu, M.-L., and J. Seinfeld, 2005: Study of the aerosol indirect effect by large-
eddy simulation of marine stratocumulus. J. Atmos. Sci., 62, 3909�3932.
Lubinski, D.J., S.L. Forman, and G.H. Miller, 1999: Holocene glacier and climate
fluctuations on Franz Josef Land, Arctic Russia, 80� N. Quat. Sci. Rev., 18(1),
85�108.
Lucarini, V., and G.L. Russell, 2002: Comparison of mean climate trends in the
northern hemisphere between National Centers for Environmental Prediction and two
atmosphere-ocean model forced runs. J. Geophys. Res., 107, 4269.
Lucht, W., et al., 2002: Climatic control of the high-latitude vegetation greening
trend and Pinatubo effect. Science, 296(5573), 1687�1689.
Luckman, B.H., and M.S. Kearney, 1986: Reconstruction of Holocene changes in
alpine vegetation and climate in the Maligne Range, Jasper National Park, Alberta.
Quat. Res., 26(2), 244�261.
Luckman, B.H., and R.J.S. Wilson, 2005: Summer temperatures in the Canadian
Rockies during the last millennium: a revised record. Clim. Dyn., 24(2�3),
131�144.
Lumpkin, R., and K. Speer, 2003: Large-scale vertical and horizontal circulation
in the North Atlantic Ocean. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 33, 1902�1920.
Lunt, D.J., N. de Noblet-Ducoudr�, and S. Charbit, 2004: Effects of a melted
Greenland ice sheet on climate, vegetation, and the cryosphere. Clim. Dyn., 23,
679�694.
Luo, C., N.M. Mahowald, and J. del Corral, 2003: Sensitivity study of
meteorological parameters on mineral aerosol mobilization, transport, and
distribution, J. Geophys. Res., 108 (D15), 4447, doi:10.1029/2003JD003483.
Luo, Y., et al., 2004: Progressive nitrogen limitation of ecosystem responses to
rising atmospheric carbon dioxide. Bioscience, 54, 731�739.
Luo, Y., S.Q. Wan, D.F. Hui, and L.L. Wallace, 2001: Acclimatization of soil
respiration to warming in a tall grass prairie. Nature, 413, 622�625.
Luo, Z., and W.B. Rossow, 2004: Characterising tropical cirrus life cycle,
evolution and interaction with upper tropospheric water vapour using a Lagrangian
trajectory analysis of satellite observations. J. Clim., 17, 4541�4563.
Luterbacher, J., et al., 1999: Reconstruction of monthly NAO and EU indices back
to AD 1675. Geophys. Res. Lett., 26, 2745�2748.
Luterbacher, J., et al., 2002: Extending North Atlantic Oscillation
reconstructions back to 1500. Atmos. Sci. Lett., 2(114�124).
Luterbacher, J., et al., 2002: Reconstruction of sea level pressure fields over
the Eastern North Atlantic and Europe back to 1500. Clim. Dyn., 18(7), 545�561.
Luterbacher, J., et al., 2004: European seasonal and annual temperature
variability, trends, and extremes since 1500. Science, 303(5663), 1499�1503.
Lyman, J.M., J.K. Willis, and G.C. Johnson, 2006: Recent cooling of the upper
ocean. Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L18604, doi:10.1029/2006GL027033.
Lynch, A., P. Uotila, and J.J. Cassano, 2006: Changes in synoptic weather patterns
in the polar regions in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, Part 2:
Antarctic. Int. J. Climatol., 26, 1181�1199.
Lynch, A.H., E.N. Cassano, J.J. Cassano, and L. Lestak, 2003: Case studies of high
wind events in Barrow, Alaska: Climatological context and development processes.
Mon. Weather Rev., 131, 719�732.
Lynch, A.H., J.A. Curry, R.D. Brunner, and J.A. Maslanik, 2004: Toward an
integrated assessment of the impacts of extreme wind events on Barrow, Alaska.
Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 85, 209�221.
Lythe, M.B., D.G. Vaughan, and the BEDMAP Group, 2001: BEDMAP: A new ice thickness
and subglacial topographic model of Antarctica. J. Geophys. Res., 106(B6),
11335�11351.
M�hler, O., et al., 2005: Effect of sulfuric acid coating on heterogeneous ice
nucleation by soot aerosol particles. J. Geophys. Res., 110, D11210,
doi:10.1029/2004JD005169.
M�lg, T., and D.R. Hardy, 2004: Ablation and associated energy balance of a
horizontal glacier surface on Kilimanjaro. J. Geophys. Res., 109, 1�13, D16104,
doi:10.1029/2003JD004338.
M�lg, T., C. Georges, and G. Kaser, 2003a: The contribution of increased incoming
shortwave radiation to the retreat of the Rwenzori Glaciers, East Africa, during
the 20th century. Int. J. Climatol., 23, 291�303, doi:10.1002/joc.877.
M�lg, T., D.R. Hardy, and G. Kaser, 2003b: Solar-radiation-maintained glacier
recession on Kilimanjaro drawn from combined ice-radiation geometry modeling. J.
Geophys. Res., 108(D23), 4731, doi:10.1029/2003JD003546.
Mabuchi, K., Y. Sato, and H. Kida, 2002: Verification of the climatic features of
a regional climate model with BAIM. J. Meteorol. Soc. Japan, 80(4), 621�644.
Mabuchi, K., Y.and H.2005b: Climatic impact of vegetation change in the Asian
tropical region. Part II: Case of the Northern Hemisphere winter and impact on the
extratropical circulation. J. Clim., 18(3), 429�446.
Mabuchi, K., Y.�Sato, and H.�Kida, 2005a: Climatic impact of vegetation change in
the Asian tropical region. Part I: Case of the Northern Hemisphere summer. J.
Clim., 18(3), 410�428.
MacAyeal, D.R., 1993: Binge/Purge oscillations of the Laurentide Ice-Sheet as a
cause of the North-Atlantics Heinrich Events. Paleoceanography, 8(6), 775�784.
MacDonald, G.J., 1990: Role of methane clathrates in past and future climates.
Clim. Change, 16, 247�281.
MacDonald, G.M., and R.A. Case, 2005: Variations in the Pacific Decadal
Oscillation over the past millennium. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32(8), L08703,
doi:10.1029/2005GL022478.
MacDonald, G.M., et al., 2000: Holocene treeline history and climate change across
northern Eurasia. Quat. Res., 53, 302�311.
MacFarling Meure, C., et al., 2006: The Law Dome CO2, CH4 and N2O ice core records
extended to 2000 years BP. Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L14810,
doi:10.1029/2006GL026152.
Machida, T., et al., 1995: Increase in the atmospheric nitrous oxide concentration
during the last 250 years. Geophys. Res. Lett., 22, 2921�2924.
Mack, F., J. Hoffstadt, G. Esser, and J.G. Goldammer, 1996: Modeling the influence
of vegetation fires on the global carbon cycle. In: Biomass Burning and Global
Change [Levine, J.S. (ed)]. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, pp. 149�159.
Mackay, A., R. Battarbee, J. Birks, and F.E. Oldfield (eds.), 2003: Global Change
in the Holocene. Hodder Arnold, London, 480 pp.
Macke, A., M. Mishchenko, and B. Cairns, 1996: The influence of inclusions on
light scattering by large ice particles. J. Geophys. Res., 101(D18), 23311�23316.
Macrander, A., et al., 2005: Interannual changes in the overflow from the Nordic
Seas into the Atlantic Ocean through Denmark Strait. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32,
L06606, doi:10.1029/2004GL021463.
Madden, R.A., and P.R. Julian, 1971: Detection of a 40-50 day oscillation in the
zonal wind in the tropical Pacific. J. Atmos. Sci., 28, 702�708.
Madden, R.A., and V. Ramanathan, 1980: Detecting climate change due to increasing
carbon dioxide. Science, 209, 763�768.
Madec, G., P. Delecluse, M. Imbard, and C. L�vy, 1998: OPA Version 8.1 Ocean
General Circulation Model Reference Manual. ?�Notes du P�le de Mod�lisation No.
11, Institut Pierre-Simon Laplace, Paris, 91 pp.,
http://www.lodyc.jussieu.fr/opa/Docu_Free/Doc_models/Doc_OPA8.1.pdf.
Maga�a, V., and E. Caetano, 2005: Temporal evolution of summer convective activity
over the Americas warm pools. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L02803,
doi:10.1029/2004GL021033.
Maga�a, V., J.A. Amador, and S. Medina, 1999The mid-summer drought over Mexico and
Central America. J. Clim., 12, 1577�1588.
Magi, B.I., and P.V. Hobbs, 2003: Effects of humidity on aerosols in southern
Africa during the biomass burning season. J. Geophys. Res., 108(D13), 8495,
doi:10.1029/2002JD002144.
Magi, B.I., et al., 2005: Properties and chemical apportionment of aerosol optical
depth at locations off the U.S. East Coast in July and August 2001. J. Atmos.
Sci., 62(4), 919�933, doi:10.1175/JAS3263.1.
Magnuson, J.J., et al., 2000: Historical trends in lake and river ice cover in the
Northern Hemisphere. Science, 289, 1743�1746.
Mahaffey, C., A.F. Michaels, and D.G. Capone, 2005: The conundrum of marine N2
fixation. Am. J. Sci., 305(6�8): 546�595.
Mahfouf, J.-F., et al., 1995: The land surface scheme ISBA within the Meteo-France
climate model ARPEGE. Part 1: Implementation and preliminary results.�J. Clim., 8,
2039�2057.
Mahowald, N., et al., 1999: Dust sources and deposition during the Last Glacial
Maximum and current climate: A comparison of model results with paleodata from ice
cores and marine sediments. J. Geophys. Res., 104, 15859�15916.
Mahowald, N.M., and C. Luo, 2003: A less dusty future? Geophys. Res. Lett., 30,
1903.
Mahowald, N.M., and L.M. Kiehl, 2003: Mineral aerosol and cloud interactions.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 30, doi:10.1029/2002GL016762.
Mahowald, N.M., G.C. Rivera, and C. Luo, 2004: Comment on Tegen et al. 2004, on
the �Relative importance of climate and land use in determining present and future
global soil dust emissions�. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L24105,
doi:10.1029/2004GL021272.
Mahowald, N.M., G.D.R. Rivera, and C. Luo, 2004: Comment on �Relative importance
of climate and land use in determining present and future global soil dust
emission� by I. Tegen et al. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31(24), L24105,
doi:10.1029/2004GL021272.
Maier-Reimer, E., U. Mikolajewicz, and A.Winguth, 1996: Future ocean uptake of
CO2: interaction between ocean circulation and biology. Clim. Dyn., 12, 711�721.
Majorowicz, J.A., W.R., Skinner, and J. Safanda, 2004: Large ground warming in the
Canadian Arctic inferred from inversions of temperature logs. Earth Planet. Sci.
Lett., 221, 15�25.
Mak, J.E., M.R. Manning, and D.C. Lowe, 2000: Aircraft observations of d13C of
atmospheric methane over the Pacific in August 1991 and 1993: evidence of an
enrichment in 13CH4 in the Southern Hemisphere. J. Geophys. Res., 105(D1),
1329�1335.
Malhi, Y., and J. Grace, 2000: Tropical forests and atmospheric carbon dioxide.
Trends Ecol. Evol., 15(8), 332�337.
Malhi, Y., and J. Wright, 2004: Spatial patterns and recent trends in the climate
of tropical rainforest regions. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London Ser. B, 359,
doi:10.1098/rstb.2003.1433.
Malhi, Y., and O.L. Phillips, 2004: Tropical forests and global atmospheric
change: a synthesis. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London Ser. B, 359,
doi:10.1098/rstb.2003.1449.
Malhi, Y., et al., 2002: An international network to understand the biomass and
dynamics of Amazonian forests (RAINFOR). J. Veg. Sci., 13, 439�450.
Malm, W.C., et al., 2004: Spatial and monthly trends in speciated fine particle
concentration in the United States. J. Geophys. Res., 109, D03306,
doi:10.1029/2003JD003739.
Maloney, E.D., and D.L. Hartmann, 2001: The sensitivity of the intraseasonal
variability in the NCAR CCM3 to changes in convective parameterization. J. Clim.,
14, 2015�2034.
Maltrud, M.E., R.D. Smith, A.J. Semtner, and R.C. Malone, 1998: Global eddy-
resolving ocean simulations driven by 1985�1995 atmospheric winds.�J. Geophys.
Res., 103, 30825�30853.
Manabe, S., and K. Bryan, 1969: Climate calculations with a combined ocean-
atmosphere model. J. Atmos. Sci., 26, 786�789.
Manabe, S., and R.J. Stouffer, 1980: Sensitivity of a global climate model to an
increase of CO2 concentration in the atmosphere. J. Geophys. Res., 85, 5529�5554.
Manabe, S., and R.J. Stouffer, 1988: Two stable equilibria of a coupled ocean-
atmosphere model. J. Clim., 1, 841�866.
Manabe, S., and R.J. Stouffer, 1994: Multiple-century response of a coupled ocean-
atmosphere model to an increase of atmospheric carbon dioxide. J. Clim., 7, 5�23.
Manabe, S., and R.J. Stouffer, 1995: Simulation of abrupt climate change induced
by fresh water input to the North Atlantic Ocean. Nature, 378, 165�167.
Manabe, S., and R.J. Stouffer, 1996: Low-frequency variability of surface air
temperature in a 1000-year integration of a coupled atmosphere-ocean-land surface
model. J. Clim., 9, 376�393.
Manabe, S., and R.J. Stouffer, 1997: Coupled ocean-atmosphere model response to
freshwater input: Comparison to Younger Dryas event. Paleoceanography, 12,
321�336.
Manabe, S., and R.J. Stouffer, 1999: Are two modes of the thermohaline circulation
stable? Tellus, 51A, 400�411.
Manabe, S., and R.T. Wetherald, 1967: Thermal equilibrium of the atmosphere with a
given distribution of relative humidity. J. Atmos. Sci., 24, 241�259.
Manabe, S., and R.T. Wetherald, 1975: The effects of doubling the CO2
concentration on the climate of a general circulation model. J. Atmos. Sci., 32,
3�15.
Manabe, S., and R.T. Wetherald, 1987: Large-scale changes of soil wetness induced
by an increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide. JAtmosSci., 44, 1211�1235.
Manabe, S., K. Bryan, and M.J. Spelman, 1975: A global ocean-atmosphere climate
model. Part I. The atmospheric circulation. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 5, 3�29.
Manabe, S., R.J. Stouffer, M.J. Spelman, and K. Bryan, 1991: Transient responses
of a coupled ocean atmosphere model to gradual changes of atmospheric CO2. I:
Annual mean response. J. Clim., 4, 785�818.
Manca, B.B., V. Kovacevic, M. Gacic, and D. Viezzoli, 2002: Dense water formation
in the Southern Adriatic Sea and spreading into the Ionian Sea in the period 1997-
1999. J. Mar. Syst., 33, 133�154.
Mangerud, J., V. Astakhov, and J.I. Svendsen, 2002: The extent of the Barents-Kara
Ice Sheet during the Last Glacial Maximum. Quat. Sci. Rev., 21, 111�119.
Mann, M.E., and G.A. Schmidt, 2003: Ground vs. surface air temperature trends:
Implications for borehole surface temperature reconstructions. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 30(12), 1607, doi:10.1029/2003GL017170.
Mann, M.E., and K.A. Emanuel, 2006: Atlantic hurricane trends linked to climate
change. Eos, 87, 233�241.
Mann, M.E., and P.D. Jones, 2003: Global surface temperatures over the past two
millennia. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30(15), 1820, doi:10.1029/2003GL017814.
Mann, M.E., et al., 2003: Optimal surface temperature reconstructions using
terrestrial borehole data. J. Geophys. Res., 108(D7), doi:10.1029/2002JD002532.
Mann, M.E., M.A. Cane, S.E. Zebiak, and A. Clement, 2005a: Volcanic and solar
forcing of the tropical Pacific over the past 1000 years. J. Clim., 18(3),
447�456.
Mann, M.E., R. Bradley, and M.K. Hughes, 2000: Long-term variability in the El
Ni�o/Southern Oscillation and associated teleconnections. In: El Ni�o and the
Southern Oscillation: Multiscale Variability and Global and Regional Impacts
[Diaz, H.F., and V. Markgraf (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp.
357�412.
Mann, M.E., R.S. Bradley, and M.K. Hughes, 1998: Global-scale temperature patterns
and climate forcing over the past six centuries. Nature, 392, 779�787.
Mann, M.E., R.S. Bradley, and M.K. Hughes, 1999: Northern hemisphere temperatures
during the past millennium: Inferences, uncertainties, and limitations. Geophys.
Res. Lett., 26(6), 759�762.
Mann, M.E., S. Rutherford, E. Wahl, and C.M. Ammann, 2005b: Testing the fidelity
of methods used in �proxy-based� reconstructions of past climate. J. Clim.,
18(20), 4097�4107.
Manne, A.S., and R.G. Richels, 2001: An alternative approach to establishing
trade-offs among greenhouse gases. Nature, 410, 675�676.
Manning, A.C., and R.F. Keeling, 2006: Global oceanic and land biotic carbon sinks
from the Scripps atmospheric oxygen flask sampling network. Tellus, 58B, 95�116.
Manning, A.J., et al., 2003: Estimating European emissions of ozone-depleting and
greenhouse gases using observations and a modelling back-attribution technique. J.
Geophys. Res., 108 (D14), 4405, doi:10.1029/2002JD002312.
Manning, M.R., A. Gomez, and G.W. Brailsford, 1997: Annex B11: The New Zealand CO2
measurement programme. In: Report of the Ninth WMO Meeting of Experts on Carbon
Dioxide Concentration and Related Tracer Measurement Techniques. WMO Global
Atmosphere Watch No. 132; WMO TD No. 952, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial
Research Organisation, Melbourne, pp. 120�123.
Manning, M.R., et al., 2005: Short term variations in the oxidizing power of the
atmosphere. Nature, 436, 1001�1004.
Mannstein, H., and U. Schumann, 2005: Aircraft induced contrail cirrus over
Europe. Meteorol. Z., 14, 549�544.
Marani, M., E. Eltahir, and A. Rinaldo, 2001: Geomorphic controls on regional base
flow. Water Resour. Res., 37, 2619�2630.
Marchal, O., et al., 1999: Modelling the concentration of atmospheric CO2 during
the Younger Dryas climate event. Clim. Dyn., 15, 341�354.
Marchal, O., et al., 2002: Apparent long-term cooling of the sea surface in the
northeast Atlantic and Mediterranean during the Holocene. Quat. Sci. Rev., 21
(4�6), 455�483.
Marchal, O., R. Francois, T.F. Stocker, and F. Joos, 2000: Ocean thermohaline
circulation and sedimentary 231Pa/230Th ratio. Paleoceanography, 6, 625�641.
Marchal, O., T.F. Stocker, and F. Joos, 1998: A latitude-depth, circulation-
biogeochemical ocean model for paleoclimate studies. Tellus, 50B, 290�316.
Marchant, R., and H. Hooghiemstra, 2004: Rapid environmental change in African and
South American tropics around 4000 years before present : a review. Earth Sci.
Rev., 66, 217�260.
Marchitto, T.N.J., D.W. Oppo, and W.B. Curry, 2002: Paired benthic foraminiferal
Cd/Ca and Zn/Ca evidence for a greatly increased presence of Southern Ocean Water
in the glacial North Atlantic. Paleoceanography, 17, 1038,
doi:10.1029/2000PA000598.
Marengo, J., and C.A. Nobre, 2001: The hydroclimatological framework in Amazonia.
In: Biogeochemistry of the Amazon Basin [McClaine, M., R. Victoria, and J. Richey
(eds.)]. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, pp. 17�42.
Marengo, J.A., and T. Ambrizzi, 2006: Use of regional climate models in impacts
assessments and adaptation studies from continental to regional and local scales.
In: Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Southern Hemisphere
Meteorology and Oceanography (ICSHMO), Foz do Igua�u, Brazil, 24-28 April 2006.
Brazilian Institute for Space Research (INPE), �S�o Jos� dos Campos, pp. 291�296.
Maria, S., F. Russell, L.M. Turpin, and R.J. Porcja, 2002: FTIR measurements of
functional groups and organic mass in aerosol samples over the Caribbean. Atmos.
Environ., 36, 5185�5196.
Mariotti, A., et al., 2002: The hydrological cycle in the Mediterranean region and
implications for the water budget of the Mediterranean Sea. J. Clim., 15(13),
1674.
Marland, G., et al., 2003: The climatic impacts of land surface change and carbon
management, and the implications for climate-change mitigation policy.
ClimPolicy,3, 149�157.
Marland, G., T.A. Boden, and R.J. Andres, 2006: Global, regional, and national CO2
emissions. In: Trends: A Compendium of Data on Global Change. Carbon Dioxide
Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department of
Energy, Oak Ridge, TN, http://cdiac.esd.ornl.gov/trends/emis/tre_glob.htm.
Marotzke, J., 1997: Boundary mixing and the dynamics of three-dimensional
thermohaline circulation. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 27, 1713�1728.
Marquart, S., and B. Mayer, 2002: Towards a reliable GCM estimation of contrail
radiative forcing. Geophys. Res. Lett., 29(8), doi:10.1029/2001GL014075.
Marquart, S., M. Ponater, F. Mager, and R. Sausen, 2003: Future development of
contrail cover, optical depth, and radiative forcing: Impacts of increasing air
traffic and climate change. J. Clim., 16, 2890�2904.
Marra, M.J., 2003: Last interglacial beetle fauna from New Zealand. Quart. Res.,
59, 122�131.
Marsh, N.D., and H. Svensmark, 2000a: Low cloud properties influenced by cosmic
rays. Phys. Rev. Lett., 85, 5004�5007.
Marsh, N.D., and H. Svensmark, 2000b: Cosmic rays, clouds, and climate. Space Sci.
Rev., 94, 215�230.
Marsh, R., 2000: Recent variability of the North Atlantic thermohaline circulation
inferred from surface heat and freshwater fluxes. J. Clim., 13(18), 3239�3260.
Marshak, A., et al., 2006: Impact of three-dimensional radiative effects on
satellite retrievals of cloud droplet sizes. J. Geophys. Res., 111, D09207,
doi:10.1029/2005JD006686.
Marshall, G.J., 2003: Trends in the Southern Annular Mode from observations and
reanalyses. J. Clim., 16, 4134�4143.
Marshall, G.J., A. Orr, N.P.M. van Lipzig, and J.C. King, 2006: The impact of a
changing Southern Hemisphere Annular Mode on Antarctic Peninsula summer
temperatures. J. Clim., 19, 5388�5404.
Marshall, G.J., et al., 2004: Causes of exceptional atmospheric circulation
changes in the Southern Hemisphere. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L14205,
doi:10.1029/2004GL019952.
Marshall, J.C., C. Hill, L. Perelman, and A. Adcroft, 1997: Hydrostatic, quasi-
hydrostatic and non-hydrostatic ocean modeling. J. Geophys. Res., 102, 5733�5752.
Marsland, S.J., et al., 2003: The Max-Planck-Institute global ocean/sea ice model
with orthogonal curvilinear coordinates. Ocean Modelling, 5, 91�127.
Marti, O., et al., 2005: The New IPSL Climate System Model: IPSL-CM4. Note du P�le
de Mod�lisation No. 26, Institut Pierre Simon Laplace des Sciences de
l�Environnement Global, Paris,
http://dods.ipsl.jussieu.fr/omamce/IPSLCM4/DocIPSLCM4/FILES/DocIPSLCM4.pdf.
Martin E., E. Brun, and Y. Durand, 1994: Sensitivity of the French Alps snow cover
to the variation of climatic variables. AnnGeophys., 12, 469�477.
Martin, G.M., D.W. Johnson, and A. Spice, 1994: The measurement and
parametrization of effective radius of droplets in warm stratiform clouds. J.
Atmos. Sci., 51, 1823�1842.
Martin, G.M., et al., 2004: Evaluation of the Atmospheric Performance of
HadGAM/GEM1. Hadley Centre Technical Note No. 54, Hadley Centre for Climate
Prediction and Research/Met Office, Exeter, UK,
http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/research/hadleycentre/pubs/HCTN/index.html.
Martin, G.M., et al., 2006: The physical properties of the atmosphere in the new
Hadley Centre Global Environmental Model, HadGEM1. Part I: Model description and
global climatology. J. Clim., 19, 1274�1301.
Martin, R.V., et al., 2002: Interpretation of TOMS observations of tropical
tropospheric ozone with a global model and in-situ observations. J. Geophys. Res.,
107(D18), 4351, doi:10.1029/2001JD001480.
Martin, R.V., et al., 2003b: Global and regional decreases in tropospheric
oxidants from photochemical effects of aerosols. J. Geophys. Res., 108(D3), 4097,
doi:10.1029/2002JD002622.
Martin, S.T., et al., 2004: Effects of the physical state of tropospheric
ammonium-sulfate-nitrate particles on global aerosol direct radiative forcing.
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 4, 183�214.
Martinerie, P., G.P. Brasseur, and C. Granier, 1995: The chemical composition of
ancient atmospheres: a model study constrained by ice core data. J. Geophys. Res.,
100, 14291�14304.
Martinez-Castro, D., et al., 2006: Sensitivity studies of the RegCM-3 simulation
of summer precipitation, temperature and local wind field in the Caribbean region.
Theor. Appl. Climatol., 86, 5�22.
Martis, A., G.J. van Oldenborgh, and G. Burgers, 2002: Predicting rainfall in the
Dutch Caribbean � More than El Ni�o? Int. J. Climatol., 22, 1219�1234.
Martonchik, J.V., et al., 2004: Comparison of MISR and AERONET aerosol optical
depths over desert sites. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L16102,
doi:10.1029/2004GL019807.
Maslanik, J.A., A.H. Lynch, M.C. Serreze, and W. Wu, 2000: A case study of
regional climate anomalies in the Arctic: performance requirements for a coupled
model. J. Clim., 13, 383�401.
Maslowski, W., et al? ., 2004: On climatological mass, heat, and salt transports
through the Barents Sea and Fram Strait from a pan-Arctic coupled ice-ocean model
simulation. J. Geophys. Res., 109, C03032, doi:10.1029/2001JC001039.
Massom, R.A., et al., 2001: Snow on Antarctic sea ice: a review of physical
characteristics. Rev. Geophys., 39(3), 413�445
Massom, R.A., et al., 2004: Precipitation over the interior East Antarctic ice
sheet related to midlatitude blocking-high activity. J. Clim., 17, 1914�1928.
Masson-Delmotte, V., et al., 2005a: Rapid climate variability during warm and cold
periods in polar regions and Europe. Comptes Rendus Geoscience, 337(10�11),
935�946.
Masson-Delmotte, V., et al., 2005b: GRIP deuterium excess reveals rapid and
orbital-scale changes in Greenland moisture origin. Science, 309(5731), 118�121.
Masson-Delmotte, V., et al., 2006: Past and future polar amplification of climate
change: climate model intercomparisons and ice-core constraints. Clim. Dyn., 26,
513�529.
Masson, V., et al., 2000: Holocene climate variability in Antarctica based on 11
ice cores isotopic records. Quat. Res., 54, 348�358.
Matsumi, Y., et al., 2002: Quantum yields for production of O(1D) in the
ultraviolet photolysis of ozone: Recommendation based on evaluation of laboratory
data. J. Geophys. Res., 104(D3), doi:10.1029/2001JD000510.
Matsumoto, K., and N. Gruber, 2005: How accurate is the estimation of
anthropogenic carbon in the ocean? An evaluation of the delta C* method. Global
Biogeochem. Cycles, 19, GB3014, doi:10.1029/2004GB002397.
Matthews, E., 1983: Global vegetation and land-use: new high-resolution data-bases
for climate studies. J. Clim. Appl. Meteorol., 22, 474�487.
Matthews, H.D., 2005: Decrease of emissions required to stabilize atmospheric CO2
due to positive carbon cycle-climate feedbacks. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L21707,
doi:10.1029/2005GL023435.
Matthews, H.D., A.J. Weaver, M. Eby, and K.J. Meissner, 2003: Radiative forcing of
climate by historical land cover change. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30(2), 271�274.
Matthews, H.D., et al., 2004: Natural and anthropogenic climate change:
Incorporating historical land cover change, vegetation dynamics and the global
carbon cycle. Clim. Dyn., 22, 461�479.
Matthews, H.D., M. Eby, A.J. Weaver, and B.J. Hawkins, 2005: Primary productivity
control of simulated carbon cycle-climate feedbacks. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32,
L14708, doi:10.1029/2005GL022941.
Matthews, J.A., et al., 2005: Holocene glacier history of Bj�rnbreen and climatic
reconstruction in central Jotunheimen, Norway, based on proximal glaciofluvial
stream-bank mires. Quat. Sci. Rev., 24(1�2), 67�90.
Matthews, R., and R. Wassmann, 2003: Modelling the impacts of climate change and
methane emission reductions on rice production: a review. Eur. J. Agron., 19,
573�598.
Matthias, I., et al., 2004: Multiyear aerosol observations with dual wavelength
Raman lidar in the framework of EARLINET. J. Geophys. Res., 109, D13203,
doi:10.1029/2004JD004600.
Matulla C., H. Scheifinger, A. Menzel, and E. Koch, 2003: Exploring two methods
for statistical downscaling of Central European phenological time series.
IntB.JBiometeorol., 48, 56�64.
Maxwell, R.M., and N.L. Miller, 2005: Development of a coupled land surface and
groundwater model. J. Hydrometeorol., 6, 233�247.
May, W., 2004: Potential future changes in the Indian summer monsoon due to
greenhouse warming: analysis of mechanisms in a global time-slice experiment.
Clim. Dyn., 22, 389�414.
May, W., 2004a: Simulation of the variability and extremes of daily rainfall
during the Indian summer monsoon for present and future times in a global time-
slice experiment. Clim. Dyn., 22, 183�204.
May, W., 2004b: Potential of future changes in the Indian summer monsoon due to
greenhouse warming: analysis of mechanisms in a global time-slice experiment.
Clim. Dyn., 22, 389�414.
May, W., and E. Roeckner, 2001: A time-slice experiment with the ECHAM4 AGCM at
high resolution: The impact of horizontal resolution on annual mean climate
change. Clim. Dyn., 17, 407�420.
Mayer, M., C. Wang, M. Webster, and R. Prinn, 2000: Linking air pollution to
global chemistry and climate. J. Geophys. Res., 105, 22869�22896.
Mayewski, P.A., et al., 2004: Holocene climate variability. Quat. Res., 62 (3),
243�255.
Maykut, G.A., and N. Untersteiner, 1971: Some results from a time-dependent
thermodynamic model of sea ice. J. Geophys. Res., 76, 1550�1575.
Maynard, K., and J.-F. Royer, 2004a: Effects of realistic land-cover change on a
greenhouse-warmed African climate. Clim. Dyn., 22(4), 343�358.
Maynard, K., and J.-F. Royer, 2004b: Sensitivity of a general circulation model to
land surface parameters in African tropical deforestation experiments. Clim. Dyn.,
22(6/7), 555�572.
Maynard, K., J.-F. Royer, and F. Chauvin, 2002: Impact of greenhouse warming on
the West African summer monsoon. Clim. Dyn., 19, 499�514.
McAvaney, B.J., et al., 2001: Model evaluation. In: Climate Change 2001: The
Scientific Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report
of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Houghton, J.T., et al. (eds.)].
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp.
471�525.
McBride, J.L., and N. Nicholls, 1983: Seasonal relationships between Australian
rainfall and the Southern Oscillation. Mon. Weather Rev., 111, 1998�2004.
McBride, J.L., M.R. Haylock, and N. Nicholls, 2003: Relationships between the
Maritime Continent heat source and the El Ni�o-Southern Oscillation phenomenon. J.
Clim., 16, 2905�2914.
McCabe, G.J., M.P. Clark, and M.C. Serreze, 2001: Trends in northern hemisphere
surface cyclone frequency and intensity. J. Clim., 14, 2763�2768.
McCarthy, M.P., and R. Toumi, 2004: Observed interannual variability of tropical
troposphere relative humidity. J. Clim., 17, 3181�3191.
McCormack, J.P., 2003: The influence of the 11-year solar cycle on the quasi-
biennial oscillation. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30 (22), 2162,
doi:10.1029/2003GL018314.
McCormick, M.P., 1987: SAGE II: An overview. Adv. Space Res., 7, 219�226.
McCulloch, A., and P.M. Midgley, 2001: The history of methyl chloroform emissions:
1951-2000. Atmos. Environ., 35, 5311�5319.
McDonagh, E.L., et al., 2005: Decadal changes in the south Indian Ocean
thermocline. J. Clim., 18, 1575�1590.
McDonald, K.C., et al., 2004: Variability in springtime thaw in the terrestrial
high latitudes: monitoring a major control on the biospheric assimilation of
atmospheric CO2 with spaceborne microwave remote sensing. Earth Interactions, 8,
Paper No. 20.
McDonald, R.E., et al., 2005: Tropical storms: Representation and diagnosis in
climate models and the impacts of climate change. Clim. Dyn., 25, 19�36.
McDonald, R.E., et al., 2005: Tropical storms: representation and diagnosis in
climate models and the impacts of climate change. Clim. Dyn., 25, 19�36.
McElwain, J.C., and W.G. Chaloner, 1995: Stomatal density and index of fossil
plants track atmospheric carbon dioxide in the Palaeozoic. Ann. Bot.(London), 76,
389�395.
McFarlane, N.A., G.J. Boer, J.-P. Blanchet, and M. Lazare, 1992: The Canadian
Climate Centre second-generation general circulation model and its equilibrium
climate. J. Clim., 5, 1013�1044.
McFiggans, G., 2005: Marine aerosols and iodine emissions. Nature, 433, E13.
McFiggans, G., et al., 2004: Direct evidence for coastal iodine particles from
Laminaria macroalgae - linkage to emissions of molecular iodine. Atmos. Chem.
Phys., 4, 701�713.
McFiggans, G., et al., 2006: The effect of aerosol composition and properties on
warm cloud droplet activation. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 2593�2649.
McGregor, H.V., and M.K. Gagan, 2004: Western Pacific coral d18O records of
anomalous Holocene variability in the El Ni�o-Southern Oscillation. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 31(11), doi:10.1029/2004GL019972.
McGregor, J.L., 2004: Regional climate modelling activities at CSIRO. In:
Symposium on Water Resource and its Variability in Asia in the 21st Century, 1-2
March 2004, Epochal Tsukuba (International Congress Center), Tsukuba, Ibaraki,
Japan. Meteorological Research Institute, Japan Meteorological Agency, Tsukuba,
Japan, pp. 68�71.
McGregor, J.L., and K.C. Nguyen, 2003: Simulations of the East Asian and
Australian monsoons using a variable-resolution model. In: Proceedings of the 2nd
Workshop on Regional Climate Modeling for Monsoon System, Yokohama, Japan. GAME
Publication No. 39, FRSGC and GAME International Science Panel, Yokohama,
pp.117�120.
McGregor, J.L., and M.R. Dix, 2001: The CSIRO conformal-cubic atmospheric GCM. In:
IUTAM Symposium on Advances in Mathematical Modelling of Atmosphere and Ocean
Dynamics [Hodnett, P.F. (ed.])]. Kluwer Academic,Dordrecht, pp. 307�315.
McGregor, J.L., J.J. Katzfey, and K.C. Nguyen, 1998: Fine Resolution Simulations
of Climate Change for Southeast Asia. Final report for a research project
commissioned by Southeast Asian Regional Committee for START (SARCS), CSIRO
Atmospheric Research, Aspendale, Vic., 35 pp. + 3 CD-ROMs.
McGregor, J.L., K.C. Nguyen, and J.J. Katzfey, 2002: Regional climate simulations
using a stretched-grid global model. In: Research Activities in Atmospheric and
Oceanic Modelling [Ritchie, H. (ed.)]. Report No. 32, WMO/TD-No. 1105, World
Meteorological Organisation, Geneva,pp. 15�16.
McGuffie, K., et al., 1995: Global climate sensitivity to tropical deforestation.
Global PlanetChange, 10, 97�128.
McGuire, A.D. III, et al., 2001: Carbon balance of the terrestrial biosphere in
the twentieth century: Analyses of CO2, climate and land use effects with four
process-based ecosystem models. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 15, 183�206.
McInnes, K. L., et al. (2004). Climate change in Tasmania. A report undertaken for
Hydro Tasmania by the Climate Impact GroupC/0919. CSIRO Atmospheric Research,
Aspendale, Vic, 49 pp., http://www.cmar.csiro.au/e-print/open/mcinnesskl_2004a.pdf
McInnes, K. L., et al. (2005). Climate change in Eastern Victoria: Stage 2 report:
the effect of climate change on storm surges. A project undertaken for the
Gippsland Coastal Board. CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research, Aspendale, Vic.:
37 pp. http://www.cmar.csiro.au/e-print/open/mcinnes_2005b.pdf
McInnes, K.L., et al, 2003: Assessment of climate change, impacts and possible
adaptation strategies relevant to South Australia. Consultancy report undertaken
for the South Australian Government by the Climate Impact Group, CSIRO Atmospheric
Research, Aspendale, VIC, Australia, 61pp. http://www.cmar.csiro.au/e-
print/open/mcinnes_2003a.pdf
McIntyre, S., and R. McKitrick, 2003: Corrections to the Mann et al. (1998) proxy
database and northern hemispheric average temperature series. Energy Environ., 14,
751�771.
McIntyre, S., and R. McKitrick, 2005a: Hockey sticks, principal components, and
spurious significance. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32(3), L03710, ?
doi:10.1029/2004GL021750.
McIntyre, S., and R. McKitrick, 2005b: The M&M critique of the MBH98 Northern
Hemisphere climate index: Update and implications. Energy Environ., 16, 69�99.
McIntyre, S., and R. McKitrick, 2005c: Reply to comment by von Storch and Zorita
on �Hockey sticks, principal components, and spurious significance�. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 32(20), L20714, doi:10.1029/2005GL023089.
McKenzie, R.L., B.J. Connor, and G.E. Bodeker, 1999: Increased summertime UV
observed in New Zealand in response to ozone loss. Science, 285, 1709�1711.
McKinley, G.A., et al., 2004b: Pacific dominance to global air-sea CO2 flux
variability: A novel atmospheric inversion agrees with ocean models. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 31, L22308, doi:10.1029/2004GL021069.
McKinley, G.A., M.J. Follows, and J. Marshall, 2004a: Mechanisms of air-sea CO2
flux variability in the equatorial Pacific and the North Atlantic. Global
Biogeochem. Cycles, 18, GB2011, doi:10.1029/2003GB002179.
McLaren, A.S., R.H. Bourke, J.E. Walsh, and R.L. Weaver, 1994: Variability in sea-
ice thickness over the North Pole from 1958 to 1992. In: The Polar Oceans and
Their Role in Shaping the Global Environment [Johannessen, O.M., R.D. Muench, and
J.E. Overland (eds.)]. American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC,pp. 363�371.
McLaughlin, F.A., E.C. Carmack, R.W. Macdonald, and J.K.B. Bishop, 1996: Physical
and geochemical properties across the Atlantic Pacific water mass front in the
southern Canadian Basin. J. Geophys. Res., 101(C1), 1183�1197.
McLinden, C., et al., 2000: Stratospheric ozone in 3-D models: a simple chemistry
and the cross-tropopause flux. J. Geophys. Res., 105, 14653�14665.
McManus, J.F., et al., 2002: Thermohaline circulation and prolonged interglacial
warmth in the North Atlantic. Quat. Res., 58, 17�21.
McManus, J.F., et al., 2004: Collapse and rapid resumption of Atlantic meridional
circulation linked to deglacial climate changes. Nature, 428, 834�837.
McNeil, B.I., et al., 2003: Anthropogenic CO2 uptake by the ocean based on the
global chlorofluorocarbon data set. Science, 299(5604), 235�239.
McPhaden, M.J., and D.X. Zhang, 2002: Slowdown of the meridional overturning
circulation in the upper Pacific Ocean. Nature, 415(6872), 603�608.
McPhaden, M.J., and D.X. Zhang, 2004: Pacific Ocean circulation rebounds. Geophys.
Res. Lett., 31(18), L18301, doi:10.1029/2004GL020727.
McPhaden, M.J., et al., 1998: The Tropical Ocean � Global Atmosphere (TOGA)
observing system: a decade of progress. J. Geophys. Res., 103(C7), 14169�14240.
Mearns, L.O., et al., 2005: NARCCAP, North American Regional Climate Change
Assessment Program, A multiple AOGCM and RCM climate scenario project over North
America. Preprints of the American Meteorological Society 16th Conference on
Climate Variations and Change. 9-13 January, 2005. Paper J6.10, American
Meteorological Society, Washington, DC, pp. 235�238.
Mears, C.A., and F.J. Wentz, 2005: The effect of diurnal correction on satellite-
derived lower tropospheric temperature. Science, 309, 1548�1551.
Mears, C.A., M.C. Schabel, and F.J. Wentz, 2003: A reanalysis of the MSU channel 2
tropospheric temperature record. J. Clim., 16, 3650�3664.
Mechoso, C.R., et al., 1995: The seasonal cycle over the tropical Pacific in
general circulation model. Mon. Weather Rev., 123, 2825�2838.
Mecking, S., M.J. Warner, and J.L. Bullister, 2006: Temporal changes in pCFC-12
ages and AOU along two hydrographic sections in the eastern subtropical North
Pacific. Deep-Sea Res., 53(1), 169�187.
Meehl, G.A., and A. Hu, 2006: Mega droughts in the Indian monsoon and southwest
North America and a mechanism for associated multi-decadal sea surface temperature
anomalies. J. Clim., 19, 1605�1623.
Meehl, G.A., and C. Tebaldi, 2004: More intense, more frequent, and longer lasting
heat waves in the 21st century. Science, 305, 994�997.
Meehl, G.A., and J.M. Arblaster, 2003: Mechanisms for projected future changes in
south Asian monsoon precipitation. Clim. Dyn., 21, 659�675.
Meehl, G.A., C. Tebaldi, and D. Nychka, 2004a: Changes in frost days in
simulations of twenty-first century climate. Clim. Dyn., 23, 495�511.
Meehl, G.A., et al., 2001: Factors that affect the amplitude of El Ni�o in global
coupled climate models. Clim. Dyn., 17, 515�526.
Meehl, G.A., et al., 2003: Solar and greenhouse gas forcing and climate response
in the 20th century. J. Clim., 16, 426�444.
Meehl, G.A., et al., 2004: Combinations of natural and anthropogenic forcings in
twentieth-century climate. J. Clim., 17, 3721�3727.
Meehl, G.A., et al., 2005b: Overview of the coupled model intercomparison project.
Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 86, 89�93.
Meehl, G.A., et al., 2005c: How much more global warming and sea level rise?
Science, 307, 1769�1772.
Meehl, G.A., et al., 2006b: Climate change projections for the twenty-first
century and climate change commitment in the CCSM3. J. Clim., 19, 2597�2616.
Meehl, G.A., et al.2006:Climate change in the 20th and 21st centuries and climate
change commitment in the CCSM3J. Clim., 19, 2597�2616.
Meehl, G.A., H. Teng, and G.W. Branstator, 2006a: Future changes of El Ni�o in two
global coupled climate models. Clim. Dyn., 26, 549�566.
Meehl, G.A., J.M. Arblaster, and C. Tebaldi, 2005a: Understanding future patterns
of precipitation extremes in climate model simulations. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32,
L18719, doi:10.1029/2005GL023680.
Meehl, G.A., W.M. Washington, J.M. Arblaster, and A. Hu, 2004b: Factors affecting
climate sensitivity in global coupled models. J. Clim., 17, 1584�1596.
Meerk�tter, R., et al., 1999: Radiative forcing by contrails. Ann. Geophys., 17,
1080�1094.
Meier, H.E.M, 2002: Regional ocean climate simulations with a 3D ice-ocean model
for the Baltic Sea. Part 2: results for sea ice. Clim. Dyn., 19, 255�266.
Meier, H.E.M, 2006: Baltic Sea climate in the late twenty-first century: a
dynamical downscaling approach using two global models and two emission scenarios.
Clim. Dyn., 27(1)39�68, doi:10.1007/s00382-006-0124-x.
Meier, H.E.M., R. D�scher, and A. Halkka, 2004: Simulated distributions of Baltic
sea-ice in warming climate and consequences for the winter habitat of the Baltic
Sea ringed seal. Ambio, 33, 249�256.
Meier, M.F., M.B. Dyurgerov, and G.J. McCabe, 2003: The health of glaciers: Recent
changes in glacier regime. Clim. Change, 59, 123�135.
Meinshausen, M., 2006: What does a 2�C target mean for greenhouse gas
concentrations? A brief analysis based on multi-gas emission pathways and several
climate sensitivity uncertainty estimates. In: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change
[Schellnhuber, H.J., et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, New York, NY, pp.
265�279.
Meissner, K.J., A.J. Weaver, H.D. Matthews, and P.M. Cox, 2003: The role of land
surface dynamics in glacial inception: a study with the UVic Earth System Model.
Clim. Dyn., 21, 7�8.
Meland, M.Y., E. Jansen, and H. Elderfield, 2005: Constraints on SST estimates for
the northern North Atlantic/Nordic Seas during the LGM. Quat. Sci. Rev., 24(7�9),
835�852.
Meleshko, V.P., et al., 2004: Anthropogenic climate changes in Northern Eurasia in
the 21stcentury. RussMeteorolHydrol., 7, 5�26.
Melillo, J.M., et al., 1995: Vegetation/ecosystem modeling and analysis project:
Comparing biogeography and biogeochemistry models in a continental-scale study of
terrestrial ecosystem responses to climate change and CO2 doubling. Global
Biogeochem. Cycles, 9, 407�437.
Melillo, J.M., et al., 2001: Nitrous oxide emissions from forests and pastures of
various ages in the Brazilian Amazon. J. Geophys. Res., 106(D24), 34179�34188.
Melillo, J.M., et al., 2002: Soil warming and carbon-cycle feedbacks to the
climate system. Science, 298, 2173�2176.
Mellor, G.L., and L. Kantha, 1989: An ice-ocean coupled model. J. Geophys. Res.,
94, 10937�10954.
Mellor, G.L., and T. Yamada, 1982: Development of a turbulence closure model for
geophysical fluid problems. Rev. Geophys., 20, 851�875.
Mendelssohn, R., S.J. Bograd, F.B. Schwing, and D.M. Palacios, 2005: Teaching old
indices new tricks: A state-space analysis of El Ni�o related climate indices.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L07709, doi:10.1029/2005GL022350.
Menon, S., A.D. Del Genio, D. Koch, and G. Tselioudis, 2002a: GCM simulations of
the aerosol indirect effect: sensitivity to cloud parametrization and aerosol
burden. J. Atmos. Sci., 59, 692�713.
Menon, S., and A. Del Genio, 2007: Evaluating the impacts of carbonaceous aerosols
on clouds and climate. In: Human-Induced Climate Change: An Interdisciplinary
Assessment [Schlesinger, M., et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, UK, in press.
Menon, S., and L. Rotstayn, 2006: The radiative influence of aerosol effects on
liquid-phase cumulus and stratiform clouds based on sensitivity studies with two
climate models. Clim. Dyn., 27, 345�356.
Menon, S., et al., 2003: Evaluating aerosol/cloud/radiation process
parametrizations with single-column models and Second Aerosol Characterization
Experiment (ACE-2) cloudy column observations. J. Geophys. Res., 108(D24), 4762,
doi:10.1029/2003JD003902.
Menon, S., J.E. Hansen, L. Nazarenko, and Y. Luo, 2002b: Climate effects of black
carbon aerosols in China and India. Science, 297, 2250�2253.
Menounos, B., et al., 2004: Early Holocene glacier advance, southern Coast
Mountains, British Columbia, Canada. Quat. Sci. Rev., 23(14�15), 1543�1550.
Men�ndez, C.G., A.C. Saulo, and Z.-X. Li, 2001: Simulation of South American
wintertime climate with a nesting system. Clim. Dyn., 17, 219�231.
Men�ndez, C.G., M.F. Cabr�, and M.N.Nu�ez, 2004: Interannual and diurnal
variability of January precipitation over subtropical South America simulated by a
regional climate model. CLIVAR Exchanges, 29, 1�3.
Mercer, J.H., 1968: Antarctic ice and Sangamon sea level. Int. Assoc. Sci. Hydrol.
Symp., 79, 217�225.
Mercer, J.H., 1978: West Antarctic ice sheet and CO2 greenhouse effect: a threat
of disaster. Nature, 271, 321�325.
Meredith, M.P., and J.C. King, 2005: Rapid climate change in the ocean west of the
Antarctic Peninsula during the second half of the 20th century. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 32, L19604, doi:1029/2005GL024042.
Merryfield, W.J., 2006: Changes to ENSO under CO2 doubling in a multimodel
ensemble. J. Clim., 19, 4009�4027.
Mestas-Nunez, A.M., and D.B. Enfield, 1999: Rotated global modes of non-ENSO sea
surface temperature variability. J. Clim., 12, 2734�2745.
Meyer, R., et al., 2002: Regional radiative forcing by line-shaped contrails
derived from satellite data. J. Geophys. Res., 107(D10), 4104,
doi:10.1029/2001JD000426.
Meyers, G., 1996: Variation of the Indonesian throughflow and the El Nino-Southern
Oscillation. J. Geophys. Res., 101, 12255�12263.
Mickley, L.J., D.J. Jacob, and D. Rind, 2001: Uncertainty in preindustrial
abundance of tropospheric ozone: implications for radiative forcing calculations.
J. Geophys. Res., 106, 3389�3399.
Mickley, L.J., D.J. Jacob, B.D. Field, and D. Rind, 2004: Climate response to the
increase in tropospheric ozone since preindustrial times: a comparison between
ozone and equivalent CO2 forcings. J. Geophys. Res., 109, D05106,
doi:10.1029/2003JD003653.
Mickley, L.J., D.J. Jacob, B.D. Field, and D. Rind, 2004: Effects of future
climate change on regional air pollution episodes in the United States. Geophys.
Res. Lett., 30, 1862, doi:10.1029/2003GL017933.
Mickley, L.J., et al., 1999: Radiative forcing from tropospheric ozone calculated
with a unified chemistry�climate model. J. Geophys. Res., 104(D23), 30153�30172.
Mieding, B., 2005: Reconstruction of Millennial Aerosol-Chemical Ice Core Records
from the Northeast Greenland: Quantification of Temporal Changes in the
Atmospheric Circulation, Emission and Deposition. Reports on Polar and Marine
Research No. 513, Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research,
Bremerhaven, 119 pp.
Mielke, P.W., 1991: The application of multivariate permutation methods based on
distance functions in the earth sciences. Earth Sci. Rev., 31, 55�71.
Miguez-Macho, G., G.L. Stenchikov, and A. Robock, 2004: Spectral nudging to
eliminate the effects of domain position and geometry in regional climate model
simulations. J. Geophys. Res., 109, D13104, doi:10.1029/2003JD004495.
Mikaloff Fletcher, S.E., et al., 2004a: CH4 sources estimated from atmospheric
observations of CH4 and its 13C/12C isotopic ratios: 1. Inverse modeling of source
processes. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 18, GB4004, doi:10.1029/2004GB002223.
Mikaloff Fletcher, S.E., et al., 2004b: CH4 sources estimated from atmospheric
observations of CH4 and its 13C/12C isotopic ratios: 2. Inverse modeling of CH4
fluxes from geographical regions. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 18,
doi:10.1029/2004GB002224.
Mikaloff Fletcher, S.E., et al., 2006: Inverse estimates of anthropogenic CO2
uptake, transport, and storage by the ocean. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 18,
doi:10.1029/2005GB002530.
Mikami, M., et al., 2006: Aeolian dust experiment on climate impact: an overview
of Japan-China Joint Project ADEC. Global Planet. Change, 52, 142�172,
doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2006.03.001.
Mikolajewicz, U., and R. Voss, 2000: The role of the individual air-sea flux
components in CO2-induced changes of the ocean�s circulation and climate. Clim.
Dyn., 16, 627�642.
Mikolajewicz, U., et al., 2005: Simulating Arctic sea ice variability with a
coupled regional atmosphere-ocean-sea ice model. Meteorol. Z., 14, 793�800.
Milankovitch, M., 1941: Kanon der Erdbestrahlungen und seine Anwendung auf das
Eiszeitenproblem. Belgrade. English translation by Pantic, N., 1998: Canon of
Insolation and the Ice Age Problem. Alven Global, 636 pp.
Miller, B.R., et al., 1998: Atmospheric trend and lifetime of
chlorodifluoromethane (HCFC-22) and the global tropospheric OH concentration. J.
Geophys. Res., 103(D11), 13237�13248, doi:10.1029/98JD00771.
Miller, J.R., G.L. Russell, and G. Caliri, 1994: Continental-scale river flow in
climate models. J. Clim., 7, 914�928.
Miller, L., and B.C. Douglas, 2004: Mass and volume contributions to 20th century
global sea level rise. Nature, 428, 406�409.
Miller, R.L., 1997: Tropical thermostats and low cloud cover. J. Clim., 10,
409�440.
Miller, R.L., G.A. Schmidt, and D.T. Shindell, 2006: Forced variations of annular
modes in the 20th century IPCC AR4 simulations. J. Geophys. Res., 111, D18101,
doi:10.1029/2005JD006323.
Miller, R.L., I. Tegen, and J. Perlwitz, 2004b: Surface radiative forcing by soil
dust aerosols and the hydrologic cycle. J. Geophys. Res., 109, D04203,
doi:10.1029/2003JD004085.
Miller, R.L., J. Perlwitz, and I. Tegen, 2004a: Feedback upon dust emission by
dust radiative forcing through the planetary boundary layer. J. Geophys. Res.,
109, D24209, doi:10.1029/2004JD004912.
Millero, F.J., et al., 2002: Dissociation constants for carbonic acid determined
from field measurements. Deep-Sea Res. I, 49, 1705�1723.
Millet, D.B., and A.H. Goldstein, 2004: Evidence of continuing methylchloroform
emissions from the United States. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L17101,
doi:10.1029/2004GL020166.
Millot, C., J.-L. Fuda, J. Candela, and Y. Tber, 2006: Large warming and
salinification of the Mediterranean outflow due to changes in its composition.
Deep-Sea Res. I, 53, 656�666.
Milly, P.C.D, and A.B. Schmakin, 2002: Global modeling of land water and energy
balances, Part I: The Land Dynamics (LaD) model. J. Hydrometeorol., 3, 301�310.
Milly, P.C.D., A. Cazenave, and M.C. Gennero, 2003: Contribution of climate-driven
change in continental water storage to recent sea-level rise. Proc. Natl. Acad.
Sci. U.S.A., 100(213), 13158�13161.
Milly, P.C.D., and A.B. Shmakin, 2002: Global modeling of land water and energy
balances: 1. The land dynamics (LaD) model. J. Hydrometeorol., 3, 283�299.
Milly, P.C.D., K.A. Dunne, and A.V. Vecchia, 2005: Global patterns of trends in
streamflow and water availability in a changing climate. Nature, 438, 347�350.
Milly, P.C.D., R.T. Wetherald, K.A. Dunne, and T.L. Delworth, 2002: Increasing
risk of great floods in a changing climate. Nature, 415, 514�517.
Min, S.-K., A. Hense, and W.-T. Kwon, 2005: Regional-scale climate change
detection using a Bayesian decision method. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L03706,
doi:10.1029/2004GL021028.
Min, S.-K., A. Hense, H. Paeth, and W.-T. Kwon, 2004: A Bayesian decision method
for climate change signal analysis. Meteorol. Z., 13, 421�436.
Min, S.-K., and A. Hense, 2006a: A Bayesian approach to climate model evaluation
and multi-model averaging with an application to global mean surface temperatures
from IPCC AR4 coupled climate models. Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L08708,
doi:10.1029/2006GL025779.
Min, S.-K., and A. Hense, 2006b: A Bayesian assessment of climate change using
multi-model ensembles. Part I: Global mean surface temperature. J. Clim., 19,
3237�3256.
Min, S.-K., S. Legutke, A. Hense, and W.-T. Kwon, 2005: Climatology and internal
variability in a 1000-year control simulation with the coupled climate model ECHO-
G�I. Near-surface temperature, precipitation and mean sea level pressure. Tellus,
57A, 605�621.
Min, S.K., E.H. Park, and W.T. Kwon, 2004: Future projections of East Asian
climate change from Multi-AOGCM ensembles of IPCC SRES scenario simulations. J.
Meteorol. Soc. Japan, 82(4), 1187�1211.
Minami, H., Y. Kano, and K. Ogawa, 1998: Long-term variations of potential
temperature and dissolved oxygen of the Japan Sea Water. J. Oceanogr., 55,
197�205.
Ming, Y., and L.M. Russell, 2002: Thermodynamic equilibrium of organic-electrolyte
mixtures in aerosol particles. Am. Inst. Chem. Eng. J., 48, 1331�1348.
Ming, Y., et al., 2005b: Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory general circulation
model investigation of the indirect radiative effects of anthropogenic sulfate
aerosol. J. Geophys. Res., 110, D22206, doi:10.1029/2005JD006161.
Ming, Y., et al., 2007: Modelling the interactions between aerosols and liquid
water clouds with a self-consistent cloud scheme in a general circulation model.
J. Atmos. Sci., 64(4), 1189�1209.
Ming, Y., V. Ramaswamy, L.J. Donner, and V.T.J. Phillips, 2006: A new
parametrization of cloud droplet activation applicable to general circulation
models. J. Atmos. Sci., 63(4), 1348�1356.
Ming, Y., V. Ramaswamy, P.A. Ginoux, and L.H. Horowitz, 2005a: Direct radiative
forcing of anthropogenic organic aerosol. J. Geophys. Res., 110, D20208,
doi:10.1029/2004JD005573.
Ministry for the Environment, 2004: Climate Change Effects and Impacts Assessment:
A Guidance Manual for Local Government in New Zealand. New Zealand Climate Change
Office, Ministry for the Environment, Wellington,
http://www.climatechange.govt.nz/resources/local-govt/effects-impacts-
may04/index.html.
Minnis, P., 2005: Reply. J. Clim., 18, 2783�2784.
Minnis, P., et al., 1993: Radiative climate forcing by the Mt. Pinatubo eruption.
Science, 259, 1411�1415.
Minnis, P., et al., 1998: Transformation of contrails into cirrus during SUCCESS.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 25, 1157�1160.
Minnis, P., J.K. Ayers, R. Palikonda, and D. Phan, 2004: Contrails, cirrus trends,
and climate. J. Clim., 17, 1671�1685.
Minschwaner, K., A.E. Dessler, and S. Parnchai, 2006: Multi-model analysis of the
water vapour feedback in the tropical upper troposphere. J. Clim., 19, 5455�5464.
Minschwaner, K., and A.E. Dessler, 2004: Water vapor feedback in the tropical
upper troposphere: model results and observations. J. Clim., 17, 1272�1282.
Mircea, M., et al., 2005: Importance of the organic aerosol fraction for modeling
aerosol hygroscopic growth and activation: a case study in the Amazon Basin.
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 5, 3111�3126.
Mishchenko, M.I., et al., 1999: Aerosol retrievals over the ocean by use of
channels 1 and 2 AVHRR data: sensitivity analysis and preliminary results. Appl.
Opt., 38, 7325�7341.
Misra, V., P.A. Dirmeyer, and B.P. Kirtman, 2003: Dynamic downscaling of seasonal
simulations over South America. J. Clim., 16, 103�117.
Mitchell, J.F.B., C.A. Wilson, and W.M. Cunningham, 1987: On CO2 climate
sensitivity and model dependence of results. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 113,
293�322.
Mitchell, J.F.B., et al., 2001: Detection of climate change and attribution of
causes. In: Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Contribution of Working
Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change [Houghton, J.T., et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 695�738.
Mitchell, J.F.B., S. Manabe, V. Meleshko, and T. Tokioka, 1990: Equilibrium
climate change � and its implications for the future. In: Climate Change. The IPCC
Scientific Assessment. Contribution of Working Group 1 to the First Assessment
Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Houghton, J.L., G.J.
Jenkins, and J.J. Ephraums (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United
Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 137�164.
Mitchell, J.F.B., T.C. Johns, W.J. Ingram, and J.A. Lowe, 2000: The effect of
stabilising atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations on global and regional
climate change. Geophys. Res. Lett., 27, 2977�2980.
Mitchell, J.M. Jr., 1963: On the world-wide pattern of secular temperature change.
In: Changes of Climate. Proceedings of the Rome Symposium Organized by UNESCO and
the World Meteorological Organization, 1961. Arid Zone Research Series No. 20,
UNESCO, Paris, pp. 161�181.
Mitchell, T.D., 2003: Pattern scaling: an examination of the accuracy of the
technique for describing future climates. Clim. Change, 60(3), 217�242.
Mitchell, T.D., and P.D. Jones, 2005: An improved method of constructing a
database of monthly climatological observations and associated high-resolution
grids. Int. J. Climatol., 25, 693�712.
Mitchell, T.P., and J.M. Wallace, 1992: The annual cycle in equatorial convection
and sea-surface temperature. J. Clim., 5(10), 1140�1156.
Mitchell, W., J. Chittleborough, B. Ronai, and G.W. Lennon, 2001: Sea level rise
in Australia and the Pacific. In: Pacific Islands Conference on Climate Change,
Climate Variability and Sea Level Rise, National Tidal Facility Australia,
Rarotonga, Cook Islands, 3-7 April 2000. Flinders Press, Adelaide, Australia, pp.
47�57.
Mitchum, G.T., 1994: Comparison of Topex sea surface heights and tide gauge sea
levels. J. Geophys. Res., 99(C12), 24541�24554.
Mitchum, G.T., 2000: An improved calibration of satellite altimetric heights using
tide gauge sea levels with adjustment for land motion. Mar. Geodesy, 23, 145�166.
Mitrovica, J.X., et al., 2006: Reanalysis of ancient eclipses, astronomic and
geodetic data: a possible route to resolving the enigma of global sea level rise.
Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 243, 390�399.
Mitrovica, J.X., M. Tamisiea, J.L. Davis, and G.A. Milne, 2001: Recent mass
balance of polar ice sheets inferred from patterns of global sea-level change.
Nature, 409, 1026�1029.
Mix, A.C., A.E. Morey, N.G. Pisias, and S.W. Hostetler, 1999: Foraminiferal faunal
estimates of paleotemperature: Circumventing the no-analog problem yields cool ice
age tropics. Paleoceanography, 14, 350�359.
Mizuta, R., ? et al.,2006: 20km-mesh global climate simulations usingJMA-GSM
model. Mean climate states.J. Meteorol. Soc. Japan.,84, 165�185.
Mizuta, R., et al., 2005: Changes in extremes indices over Japan due to global
warming projected by a global 20-km-mesh atmospheric model. Scientific Online
Letters on the Atmosphere, 1 153�156.
M�ller, J., and G. Brasseur, 1999: Sources of upper tropospheric HOx: A three-
dimensional study. J. Geophys. Res., 104(D1), 1705�1716.
M�ller, S.A., F. Joos, N.R. Edwards, and T.F. Stocker, 2006: Water mass
distribution and ventilation time scales in a cost-efficient, 3-dimensional ocean
model. J. Clim., 19, 5479�5499.
Mo, K.C., and J. Nogu�s-Paegle, 2001: The Pacific-South American modes and their
downstream effects. Int. J. Climatol., 21, 1211�1229.
Moberg, A., et al., 2005: Highly variable Northern Hemisphere temperatures
reconstructed from low- and high-resolution proxy data. Nature, 433(7026),
613�617.
Moise, A., R. Colman, and H. Zhang, 2005: Coupled model simulations of current
Australian surface climate and its changes under greenhouse warming: An analysis
of 18 CMIP2 models. AustMeteorol.Mag., 54, 291�307.
Molinari, R.L., 2004: Annual and decadal variability in the western subtropical
North Atlantic: signal characteristics and sampling methodologies. Prog.
Oceanogr., 62(1), 33�66.
Molteni, F., Kuchraski, F., and Corti, S., 2006: On the predictability of flow-
regime properties on interannual to interdecadal timescales. In: Predictability of
Weather and Climate [Palmer, T. and R. Hagedorn (eds.)]. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, UK.
Monaghan, A.J., D.H. Bromwich, and S.-H. Wang, 2006: Recent trends in Antarctic
snow accumulation from Polar MM5 simulationsPhilosTrans. R. Soc. London Ser. A.,
364, 1683�1708.
Monaghan, A.J., et al., 2006: Insignificant change in Antarctic snowfall since the
International Geophysical Year. Science, 313(5788), 827�831.
Monahan, A.H., 2002: Stabilisation of climate regimes by noise in a simple model
of the thermohaline circulation. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 32, 2072�2085.
Monahan, A.H., and A. Dai, 2004: The spatial and temporal structure of ENSO
nonlinearity. J. Clim., 17, 3026�3036.
Monahan, A.H., J.C. Fyfe, and L. Pandolfo, 2003: The vertical structure of
wintertime climate regimes of the Northern Hemisphere extratropical atmosphere. J.
Clim., 16, 2005�2021.
Monnin, E., et al., 2001: Atmospheric CO2 concentrations over the last glacial
termination. Science, 291(5501), 112�114.
Monnin, E., et al., 2004: Evidence for substantial accumulation rate variability
in Antarctica during the Holocene, through synchronization of CO2 in the Taylor
Dome, Dome C and DML ice cores. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 224(1�2), 45�54.
Montoya, M., et al., 2005: The Earth System Model of Intermediate Complexity
CLIMBER-3a. Part I: Description and performance for present day conditions. Clim.
Dyn., 25, 237�263, doi:10.1007/s00382-005-0044-1.
Montoya, M., H. von Storch, and T.J. Crowley, 2000: Climate simulation for 125,000
years ago with a coupled ocean-atmosphere General Circulation Model. J. Clim., 13,
1057�1070.
Montzka, S.A., et al., 1999: Present and future trends in the atmospheric burden
of ozone depleting halogens. Nature, 398, 690�694.
Montzka, S.A., et al., 2003: A decline in tropospheric bromine. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 30(15), 1826, doi:10.1029/2003GL017745.
Montzka, S.A., et al., 2003: Controlled substances and other source gases. In:
Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 2002. World Meteorological Organization,
Geneva, pp. 1.1�1.83.
Moore, N., and S. Rojstaczer, 2001: Irrigation-induced rainfall and the Great
Plains. J. Appl. Meteorol., 40, 1297�1309.
Moran, K., et al., 2006: The Cenozoic palaeoenvironment of the Arctic Ocean.
Nature, 441, 601�605.
Morgan, C.G., et al., 2004: Isotopic fractionation of nitrous oxide in the
stratosphere: Comparison between model and observations. J. Geophys. Res., 109,
D04305, doi:10.1029/2003JD003402.
Morimoto, S., S. Aoki, T. Nakazawa, and T. Yamanouchi , 2006: Temporal variations
of the carbon isotopic ratio of atmospheric methane observed at Ny �lesund,
Svalbard from 1996 to 2004. Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L01807,
doi:10.1029/2005GL024648.
Morison, J., M. Steele, and R. Andersen, 1998: Hydrography of the upper Arctic
Ocean measured from the nuclear submarine USS Pargo. Deep-Sea Res. I, 45(1),
15�38.
Moros, M., J.T. Andrews, D.E. Eberl, and E. Jansen, 2006: Holocene history of
drift ice in the northern North Atlantic: Evidence for different spatial and
temporal modes. Paleoceanography, 21, PA2017, doi:10.1029/2005PA001214.
Morrill, C., et al., 2006: Holocene variations in the Asian monsoon inferred from
the geochemistry of lake sediments in central Tibet. Quat. Res., 65(2), 232�243.
Morrill, C., J.T. Overpeck, and J.E. Cole, 2003: A synthesis of abrupt changes in
the Asian summer monsoon since the last deglaciation. The Holocene, 13, 465�476.
Morris, E.M., and D. G. Vaughan, 2003: Glaciological climate relationships spatial
and temporal variation of surface temperature on the Antarctic Peninsula and the
limit of viability of ice shelves. In: Antarctic Peninsula Climate Variability:
Historical and Paleoenvironmental Perspectives [Domack, E., et al. (eds.)].
Antarctic Research Series 79, American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, pp.
61�68.
Morris, E.M., and R. Mulvaney, 2004: Recent variations in surface mass balance of
the Antarctic Peninsula ice sheet. J. Glaciol., 50, 257�267.
Mosier, A., et al., 1998: Closing the global N2O budget: N2O emissions through the
agricultural nitrogen cycle-OECD/IPCC.IEA phase II development of IPCC guidelines
for national greenhouse gas inventory methodology. Nutrient Cycling in
Agroecosystems, 52, 225�248.
Mosley-Thompson, E., T.A. Mashiotta, and L.G. Thompson, 2003: High resolution ice
core records of Late Holocene volcanism: Current and future contributions from the
Greenland PARCA cores. In: Volcanism and the Earth�s Atmosphere [Robock, A., and
C. Oppenheimer (eds.)]. Geophysical Monograph 139, American Geophysical Union,
Washington, DC, pp. 153�164.
Moss, R.H., and S.H. Schneider, 2000: Uncertainties in the IPCC TAR:
Recommendations to Lead Authors for more consistent assessment and reporting. In:
Guidance Papers on the Cross-Cutting Issues of the Third Assessment Report of the
IPCC [Pachauri, R., et al. (eds.)]. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change,
Geneva, pp. 33�51.
Mote, P.W., 2006: Climate-driven variability and trends in mountain snowpack in
western North America. J. Clim., 19(23), 6209�6220.
Mote, P.W., A.F. Hamlet, M.P. Clark, and D.P. Lettenmaier, 2005: Declining
mountain snowpack in western North America. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 86, 39�49.
Mote, P.W., and N.J. Mantua, 2002: Coastal upwelling in a warmer future. Geophys.
Res. Lett., 29(23), 2138, doi:10.1029/2002GL016086.
Mouchet, A., and L. Fran�ois, 1996: Sensitivity of a global oceanic carbon cycle
model to the circulation and to the fate of organic matter: Preliminary results.
Phys. Chem. Earth, 21, 511�516.
Mouillot, F., and C.B. Field, 2005: Fire history and the global carbon budget: a
1� x 1� fire history reconstruction for the 20th century. Global Change Biol., 11,
398�420.
Mouillot, F., et al., 2006: Global carbon emissions from biomass burning in the
20th century. Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L01801, doi:10.1029/2005GL024707.
Moulin, C., and I. Chiapello, 2004: Evidence of the control of summer atmospheric
transport of African dust over the Atlantic by Sahel sources from TOMS satellites
(1979-2000). Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L02107, doi:10.1029/2003GL018931.
Moulin, C., H.R. Gordon, V.F. Banzon, and R.H. Evans, 2001: Assessment of Saharan
dust absorption in the visible from SeaWiFS imagery. J. Geophys. Res., 106(D16),
18239�18249.
Moum, J.N., D.R. Caldwell, J.D. Nash, and G.D. Gunderson, 2002: Observations of
boundary mixing over the continental slope. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 32, 2113�2130.
Moy, C.M., G.O. Seltzer, D.T. Rodbell, and D.M. Anderson, 2002: Variability of El
Nino/Southern Oscillation activity at millennial timescales during the Holocene
epoch. Nature, 420(6912), 162�165.
Mudelsee, M., 2001: The phase relations among atmospheric CO2 content, temperature
and global ice volume over the past 420 ka. Quat. Sci. Rev., 20, 583�589.
Muhs, D.R., K.R. Simmons, and B. Steinke, 2002: Timing and warmth of the last
interglacial period: New U-series evidence from Hawaii and Bermuda and a new
fossil compilation for North America. Quat. Sci. Rev., 21, 1355�1383.
Muhs, D.R., T.A. Ager, and J.E. Beget, 2001: Vegetation and paleoclimate of the
last interglacial period, central Alaska. Quat. Sci. Rev., 20, 41�61.
Mullan, A.B., 1995: On the linearity and stability of Southern Oscillation -
climate relationships for New Zealand. Int. J. Climatol., 15, 1365�1386.
Mullan, A.B., D.S. Wratt, and J.A. Renwick, 2001a: Transient model scenarios of
climate changes for New Zealand. Weather and Climate, 21, 3�34.
Mullan, A.B., M.J. Salinger, C.S. Thompson, and A.S.Porteous, 2001b: The New
Zealand climate: present and future. In: Effects of Climate Change and Variation
in New Zealand: An Assessment using the CLIMPACTS System [Warrick, R.A., G.J.
Kenny, and J.J. Harman, (eds.)]. International Global Change Institute, University
of Waikato, pp11�31.
Mullan, B., A. Porteous, D. Wratt, and M. Hollis, 2005: Changes in Drought Risk
with Climate Change. NIWA Client Report WLG2005-23, National Institute for Water
and Atmosphere Research, Wellington, New Zealand, 68pp.
Munk, W., 2002: Twentieth century sea level: An enigma. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.
U.S.A., 99, 6550�6555.
Munk, W., 2003: Ocean freshening, sea level rising. Science, 300, 2041�2043.
Murayama, T., et al., 2001: Ground-based network observation of Asian dust events
of April 1998 in East Asia. J. Geophys. Res., 106, 18345�18360.
Murphy, B.F., I. Marsiat, and P. Valdes, 2002: Atmospheric contributions to the
surface mass balance of Greenland in the HadAM3 atmospheric model. J. Geophys.
Res., 107, 4556.
Murphy, D.M., 2005: Something in the air. Science, 307, 1888�1890.
Murphy, E.J., A. Clarke, C. Symon, and J. Priddle, 1995: Temporal variation in
Antarctic sea-ice: analysis of a long term fast-ice record from the South Orkney
Islands. Deep-Sea. Res., 42, l045�1062.
Murphy, J.M., 1995: Transient response of the Hadley Centre coupled ocean-
atmosphere model to increasing carbon dioxide. Part III: analysis of global-mean
response using simple models. J. Clim., 8, 496�514.
Murphy, J.M., et al., 2004: Quantification of modelling uncertainties in a large
ensemble of climate change simulations. Nature, 430, 768�772.
Murray, R.J., 1996: Explicit generation of orthogonal grids for ocean models. J.
Comput. Phys., 126, 251�273.
Murray, R.J., N.L. Bindoff, and C.J.C. Reason, 2007: Modelling decadal changes on
the Indian Ocean Section I5 at 32�S. J. Clim., in press.
Muscheler, R., et al., 2007: Solar activity during the last 1000 yr inferred from
radionuclide records. Quat. Sci. Rev., 26, 82-97,
doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2006.07.012.
Muscheler, R., F. Joos, S.A. M�ller, and I. Snowball, 2005: Climate - How unusual
is today�s solar activity? Nature, 436(7050), E3�E4.
Myhre, G., A. Myhre, and F. Stordal, 2001: Historical evolution of radiative
forcing of climate. Atmos. Environ., 35, 2361�2373.
Myhre, G., and A. Myhre, 2003: Uncertainties in radiative forcing due to surface
albedo changes caused by land-use changes. J. Clim., 16, 1511�1524.
Myhre, G., and F. Stordal, 2001: On the tradeoff of the solar and thermal infrared
radiative impact of contrails. Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 3119�3122.
Myhre, G., and F. Stordal, 2001a: Global sensitivity experiments of the radiative
forcing due to mineral aerosols. J. Geophys. Res., 106, 18193�18204.
Myhre, G., and F. Stordal, 2001b: On the tradeoff of the solar and thermal
infrared radiative impact of contrails. Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 3119�3122.
Myhre, G., E.J. Highwood, K.P. Shine, and F. Stordal, 1998: New estimates of
radiative forcing due to well mixed greenhouse gases. Geophys. Res. Lett., 25,
2715�2718.
Myhre, G., et al., 2003: Modelling the solar radiative impact of aerosols from
biomass burning during the Southern African Regional Science Initiative (SAFARI
2000) experiment. J. Geophys. Res., 108, 8501, doi:10.1029/2002JD002313.
Myhre, G., et al., 2004a: Intercomparison of satellite retrieved aerosol optical
depth over ocean. J. Atmos. Sci., 61, 499�513.
Myhre, G., et al., 2004b: Uncertainties in the radiative forcing due to sulfate
aerosols. J. Atmos. Sci., 61, 485�498.
Myhre, G., et al., 2005b: Intercomparison of satellite retrieved aerosol optical
depth over ocean during the period September 1997 to December 2000. Atmos. Chem.
Phys., 5, 1697�1719.
Myhre, G., M.M. Kvalev�g, and C.B. Schaaf, 2005a: Radiative forcing due to
anthropogenic vegetation change based on MODIS surface albedo data. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 32, L21410, doi:10.1029/2005GL024004.
Myhre, G., T.F. Berglen, C.E.L. Myhre, and I.S.A. Isaksen, 2004: The radiative
effect of the anthropogenic influence on the stratospheric sulfate aerosol layer.
Tellus, 56B, 294�299.
Nabuurs, G.J., et al., 2003: Temporal evolution of the European forest sector
carbon sink from 1950 to 1999. Global Change Biol., 9, 152�160.
Nadelhoffer, K., et al., 2004: Decadal-scale fates of N-15 tracers added to oak
and pine stands under ambient and elevated N inputs at the Harvard Forest (USA).
For. Ecol. Manage., 196, 89�107.
Nagashima, T., et al., 2006: The effect of carbonaceous aerosols on surface
temperature in the mid twentieth century. Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L04702,
doi:10.1029/2005GL024887.
Nagurnyi, A.P., V.G. Korostolev, and V.V. Ivanov, 1999: Multiyear variability of
sea ice thickness in the Arctic basin measured by elastic-gravity waves on the ice
surface. Meteorol. Hydrol., 3, 72�78 (in Russian).
Naja, M., and H. Akimoto, 2004: Contribution of regional pollution and long-range
transport to the Asia-Pacific region: Analysis of long-term ozonesonde data over
Japan. J. Geophys. Res., 109, 1306, doi:10.1029/2004JD004687.
Naja, M., H. Akimoto, and J. Staehelin, 2003: Ozone in background and
photochemically aged air over central Europe: analysis of long-term ozonesonde
data from Hohenpeissenberg and Payerne. J. Geophys. Res., 108, 4063,
doi:10.1029/2002JD002477.
Nakajima, T., A. Higurashi, K. Kawamoto, and J. Penner, 2001: A possible
correlation between satellite-derived cloud and aerosol microphysical
parameters. ?Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 1171�1174.
Nakajima, T., and A. Higurashi, 1998: A use of two-channel radiances for an
aerosol characterization from space. Geophys. Res. Lett., 25, 3815�3818.
Nakajima, T., et al., 1996: Aerosol optical properties in the Iranian region
obtained by ground-based solar radiation measurements in the summer of 1991. J.
Appl. Meteorol., 35, 1265�1278.
Nakano, H., and N. Suginohara, 2002: Effects of bottom boundary layer
parameterization on reproducing deep and bottom waters in a World Ocean model. J.
Phys. Oceanogr., 32, 1209�1227.
Nakashiki, N., et al., 2006: Recovery of thermohaline circulation under CO2
stabilization and overshoot scenarios. Ocean Modelling, 15, 200�217.
Nakazawa, T., S. Moromoto, S. Aoki, and M. Tanaka, 1997: Temporal and spatial
variations of the carbon isotopic ratio of atmospheric carbon dioxide in the
Western Pacific region. J. Geophys. Res., 102, 1271�1285.
Nakicenovic, N., A. Gr�bler, and A. McDonald (eds), 1998: Global Energy
Perspectives. Cambridge University Press, New York, NY, 299 pp.
Nakicenovic, N., and R. Swart (eds.), 2000: Special Report on Emissions Scenarios.
A Special Report of Working Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY,
USA, 599 pp.
Nan, Z., Z. Gao, S. Li, and T. Wu, 2003: Permafrost changes in the northern limit
of permafrost on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau in the last 30 years. Acta Geogr. Sin.,
58(6), 817�823 (in Chinese).
Nanjundiah, R.S., V. Vidyunmala, and J. Srinivasan, 2005: The impact of increase
in CO2 on the simulation of tropical biennial oscillations (TBO) in 12 coupled
general circulation models. Atmos. Sci. Lett., 6, 183�191.
Naqvi, S.W.A., et al., 2000: Increased marine production of N2O due to
intensifying anoxia on the Indian continental shelf. Nature, 408(6810), 346�349.
National Climatic Data Center, 2002: Data Documentation for Data Set 9645 ???World
Weather Records � NCAR Surface (World Monthly Surface Station Climatology). U.S.
Department of Commerce, NOAA, National Climatic Data Center, Asheville, NC, 17 pp.
National Climatic Data Center, 2005: World Meteorological Organization, World
Weather Records, 1991-2000, Volumes I-VI. U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA,
National Climatic Data Center, Asheville, NC, CD-ROM format.
Naud, C.M., A.D. Del Genio, and M. Bauer, 2006: Observational constraints on cloud
thermodynamic phase in midlatitude storms. J. Clim., 19, 5273�5288.
Naveau, P., and C.M. Ammann, 2005: Statistical distributions of ice core sulphate
from climatically relevant volcanic eruptions. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L05711,
doi:10.1029/2004GL021732.
Neale, R., and J. Slingo, 2003: The maritime continent and its role in the global
climate: A GCM study. J. Clim., 16, 834�848.�
Neelin, J.D., and H.�Su, 2005: Moist teleconnection mechanisms for the tropical
South American and Atlantic sector. J. Clim., 18(18), 3928�3950.
Neelin, J.D., et al., 2006: Tropical drying trends in global warming models and
observations. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.U.S.A., 103, 6110�6115.
Neftel, A., E. Moor, H. Oeschger, and B. Stauffer, 1985: Evidence from polar ice
cores for the increase in atmospheric CO2 in the past 2 centuries. Nature, 315,
45�47.
Neftel, A., et al., 1982: Ice core sample measurements give atmospheric CO2
content during the Past 40,000 Yr. Nature, 295, 220�223.
Negri, A.J., R.F. Adler, L.M. Xu, and J. Surratt, 2004: The impact of Amazonian
deforestation on dry season rainfall. J. Clim., 17(6), 1306�1319.
Neill, C., et al., 2005: Rates and controls of nitrous oxide and nitric oxide
emissions following conversion of forest to pasture in Rond�nia. Nutrient Cycling
in Agroecosystems, 71, 1�15.
Nelson, F.E. (ed.), 2004a: Circumpolar Active Layer Monitoring (CALM) Workshop.
Permafrost and Periglacial Processes, 15(2), 99�188.
Nelson, F.E. (ed.), 2004b: Eurasian contributions to the Circumpolar Active Layer
Monitoring (CALM) Workshop. Polar Geogr., 28(4), 253�340.
Nelson, F.E., O.A. Anisimov, and N.I. Shiklomanov, 2001: Subsidence risk from
thawing permafrost. Nature, 410, 889�890.
Nemani, R., et al., 2002: Recent trends in hydrologic balance have enhanced the
terrestrial carbon sink in the United States. Geophys. Res. Lett., 29(10), 1468,
doi:10.1029/2002GL014867.
Nemani, R.R., et al., 2003:�Climate-driven increases in global terrestrial net
primary production from 1982 to 1999.�Science, 300, 1560�1563.
Nenes, A., and J.H. Seinfeld, 2003: Parametrization of cloud droplet formation in
global climate models. J. Geophys. Res., 108, doi:10.1029/2002JD002911.
Nenes, A., et al., 2002: Can chemical effects on cloud droplet number rival the
first indirect effect? Geophys. Res. Lett., 29, 1848, doi:10.1029/2002GL015295.
Nepstad, D., et al., 2004: Amazon drought and its implications for forest
flammability and tree growth: a basin-wide analysis. Global Change Biol., 10(5),
704�717.
Nerem, R.S., and G.T. Mitchum, 2001: Observations of sea level change from
satellite altimetry. In: Sea Level Rise: History and Consequences [Douglas, B.C.,
M.S. Kearney, and S.P. Leatherman (eds.)]. Academic Press, San Diego, pp. 121�163.
Nerem, R.S., et al., 1999: Variations in global mean sea level associated with the
1997-1998 ENSO event: Implications for measuring long term sea level change.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 26, 3005�3008.
Nesbitt, S.W., R.Y. Zhang, and R.E. Orville, 2000: Seasonal and global NOx
production by lightning estimated from the Optical Transient Detector (OTD).
Tellus, 52B, 1206�1215.
Nesje, A., �. Lie, and S.O. Dahl, 2000: ?Is the North Atlantic Oscillation
reflected in Scandinavian glacier mass balance records? J. Quat. Sci., 15(6),
587�601.
Nesje, A., and S.O. Dahl, 2003: The �Little Ice Age� - only temperature? The
Holocene, 13(1), 139�145.
Nesje, A., et al., 2005: Holocene climate variability in the Northern North
Atlantic region: A review of terrestrial and marine evidence. In: The Nordic Seas:
An Integrated Perspective [Drange, H., et al. (eds.)]. Geophysical Monographs Vol.
158, American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, pp. 289�322.
Nesje, A., S.O. Dahl, and J. Bakke, 2004: Were abrupt late glacial and early-
Holocene climate changes in northwest Europe linked to freshwater outbursts to the
North Atlantic and Arctic oceans? The Holocene, 14, 299�310.
Nesje, A., S.O. Dahl, C. Andersson, and J.A. Matthews, 2000: The lacustrine
sedimentary sequence in Sygneskardvatnet, western Norway: a continuous, high-
resolution record of the Jostedalsbreen ice cap during the Holocene. Quat. Sci.
Rev., 19, 1047�1065.
Nesme-Ribes, E., et al., 1993: Solar dynamics and its impact on solar irradiance
and the terrestrial climate. J. Geophys. Res., 98, 18923�18935.
Nevison, C., T. Lueker, and R.F. Weiss, 2004b: Quantifying the nitrous oxide
source from coastal upwelling. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 18, GB1018,
doi:10.1029/2003GB002110.
Nevison, C.D., D.E. Kinnison, and R.F. Weiss, 2004a: Stratospheric influences on
the tropospheric seasonal cycles of nitrous oxide and chlorofluorocarbons.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L20103, doi:10.1029/2004GL020398.
Nevison, C.D., et al., 2005: Southern Ocean ventilation inferred from seasonal
cycles of atmospheric N2O and O2/N2 at Cape Grim, Tasmania. Tellus, 57B, 218�229.
Nevison, C.D., J.H. Butler, and J.W. Elkins, 2003: Global distribution of N2O and
the N2O/AOU yield in the subsurface ocean. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 17(4), 1119,
doi:10.1029/2003GB002068.
Nevison, C.D., S. Solomon, and R.S. Gao, 1999: Buffering interactions in the
modeled response of stratospheric O3 to increased NOx and HOx. J. Geophys. Res.,
104(D3), 3741�3754, 10.1029/1998JD100018.
Nevison, C.D., T. Lueker, and R.F. Weiss, 2004: Quantifying the nitrous oxide
source from coastal upwelling. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 18, GB1018,
doi:10.1029/2003GB002110.
New, M., and M. Hulme, 2000: Representing uncertainty in climate change scenarios:
a Monte Carlo approach. IntegrAssessJ., 1, 203�213.
New, M., B.C. Hewitson, C. Jack, and R.Washington, 2003: Sensitivity of southern
African rainfall to soil moisture. CLIVAR Exchanges, 27, 45�47.
New, M.G., M. Hulme, and P.D. Jones, 2000: Representing twentieth-century space-
time climate variability. Part II: development of 1901-96 monthly grids of
terrestrial surface climate. J. Clim., 13, 2217�2238.
Newchurch, M.J., et al., 2003: Evidence for slowdown in stratospheric ozone loss:
first stage of ozone recovery. J. Geophys. Res., 108(D16), 4507,
doi:10.1029/2003JD003471.
Newman, M., G.P. Compo, and M.A. Alexander, 2003: ENSO-forced variability of the
PDO. J. Clim., 16, 3853�3857.
Newman, P.A., et al., 2006: When will the Antarctic ozone hole recover? Geophys.
Res. Lett., 33, L12814, doi:10.1029/2005GL025232.
Newman, P.A., S.R. Kawa, and E.R. Nash, 2004: On the size of the Antarctic ozone
hole. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L21104, doi:10.1029/2004GL020596.
Newton, I., 1675: Letter to Robert Hooke, February 5, 1675. In: Andrews, R., 1993:
The Columbia Dictionary of Quotations. Columbia University Press, New York, 1090
pp.
Ngo-Duc, T., et al., 2005: Effects of land water storage on the global mean sea
level over the last half century. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L09704,
doi:10.1029/2005GL022719.
NGRIP (North Greenland Ice Core Project), 2004: High-resolution record of Northern
Hemisphere climate extending into the last interglacial period. Nature, 431,
147�151.
Nguetsop, V.F., S. Servant-Vildary, and M. Servant, 2004: Late Holocene climate
changes in west Africa, a high resolution diatom record from equatorial Cameroon.
Quat. Sci. Rev., 23(5�6), 591�609.
Nguyen, K.C., and K.J.E. Walsh, 2001: Interannual, decadal, and transient
greenhouse simulation of tropical cyclone-like vortices in a regional climate
model of the South Pacific. J. Clim., 14, 3043�3054.
Nicholls, N., 2003: Continued anomalous warming in Australia. Geophys. Res. Lett.,
30, doi:10.1029/2003GL017037.
Nicholls, N., 2005: Climate variability, climate change, and the Australian snow
season. Aust. Meteorol. Mag., 54, 177�185.
Nicholls, N., P. Della-Marta, and D. Collins, 2005: 20th century changes in
temperature and rainfall in New South Wales. Aust. Meteorol. Mag., 53, 263�268.
Nicholson, S.E., 2001: Climatic and environmental change in Africa during the last
two centuries. Clim. Res., 17, 123�144.
Nicolini, M., et al., 2002: January and July regional climate simulation over
South America. J. Geophys. Res., 107(D22), 4637, doi:10.1029/2001JD000736.
Nightingale, P.D., et al., 2000: In situ evaluation of air-sea gas exchange
parameterisations using novel conservative and volatile tracers. Global
Biogeochem. Cycles, 14(1), 373�387.
Nijssen, B., et al., 2003: Simulation of high latitude hydrological processes in
the Torne-Kalix basin: PILPS Phase 2(e) 2: Comparison of model results with
observations. Global Planet. Change, 38, 31�53.
Nilsson, S., et al., 2003: The missing �missing sink�. Forestry Chronicle, 79(6),
1071�1074.
Niu, G.-Y., and Z.-L. Yang, 2004: Effects of vegetation canopy processes on snow
surface energy and mass balances. J. Geophys. Res., 109, D23111,
doi:10.1029/2004JD004884.
Niyogi, D., et al., 2004: Direct observations of the effects of aerosol loading on
net ecosystem CO2 exchanges over different landscapes. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31,
L20506, doi:10.1029/2004GL020915.
Nober, F.J., H.-F. Graf, and D. Rosenfeld, 2003: Sensitivity of the global
circulation to the suppression of precipitation by anthropogenic aerosols. Global
Planet. Change, 37, 57�80.
Nobre, P., A. Moura, and L. Sun, 2001: Dynamic downscaling of seasonal climate
prediction over Nordeste Brazil with ECHAM3 and NCEP�s regional spectral models at
IRI. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 82, 2787�2796.
Nohara, D., A. Kitoh, M. Hosaka, and T. Oki, 2006: Impact of climate change on
river discharge projected by multi-model ensemble. J. Hydrometeorol., 7,
1076�1089.
Noone, D., and I. Simmonds, 2002: Annular variations in moisture transport
mechanisms and the abundance of delta O-18 in Antarctic snow. J. Geophys. Res.,
107, 4742, doi:10.1029/2002JD002262.
Norby, R.J., and C.M. Iversen, 2006: Nitrogen uptake, distribution, turnover, and
efficiency of use in a CO2-enriched sweetgum forest. Ecology, 87, 5�14.
Nordhaus, W.D., 1997: Discounting in economics and climate change: an editorial
comment. Clim. Change, 37, 315�328.
Nordhaus, W.D., 1997: Discounting in economics and climate change: an editorial
comment. Clim. Change, 37, 315�328.
Norris, J.R., 1998a: Low cloud type over the ocean from surface observations. Part
I: relationship to surface meteorology and the vertical distribution of
temperature and moisture. J. Clim., 11, 369�382.
Norris, J.R., 1998b: Low cloud type over the ocean from surface observations. Part
II: geographical and seasonal variations. J. Clim., 11, 383�403.
Norris, J.R., and C.P. Weaver, 2001: Improved techniques for evaluating GCM
cloudiness applied to the NCAR CCM3. J. Clim., 14, 2540�2550.
Norris, J.R., and S.F. Iacobellis, 2005: North pacific cloud feedbacks inferred
from synoptic-scale dynamic and thermodynamic relationships. J. Clim., 18,
4862�4878.
North, G.R., and M. Stevens, 1998: Detecting climate signals in the surface
temperature record. J. Clim., 11, 563�577.
North, G.R.,�K.-Y.�Kim, S.S.P.�Shen, and J.W.�Hardin, 1995: Detection of forced
climate signals. Part 1: Filter theory. J. Climate, 8, 401�408.
NorthGRIP Members, 2004: High-resolution climate record of the northern hemisphere
back into the last interglacial period. Nature, 431, 147�151.
Norton, W.A., 2003: Sensitivity of northern hemisphere surface climate to
simulation of the stratospheric polar vortex. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30(12),
doi:10.1029/2003GL016958.
Notholt, J., et al., 2005: Influence of tropospheric SO2 emissions on particle
formation and the stratospheric humidity. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L07810,
doi:10.1029/2004GL022159.
Notholt, J., et al., 2005: Influence of tropospheric SO2 emissions on particle
formation and the stratospheric humidity. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L07810,
doi:10.1029/2004GL022159.
Novakov, T., D.A. Hegg, and P.V. Hobbs, 1997: Airborne measurements of
carbonaceous aerosols on the East coast of the United States. J. Geophys. Res.,
102(D25), 30023�20030.
Novakov, T., D.A. Hegg, and P.V. Hobbs, 1997: Airborne measurements of
carbonaceous aerosols on the East coast of the United States. J. Geophys. Res.,
102(D25), 30023�20030.
Novakov, T., et al., 2003: Large historical changes of fossil-fuel black carbon
aerosols. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30(6), 1324, doi:10.1029/2002GL016345.
Novakov, T., et al., 2003: Large historical changes of fossil-fuel black carbon
aerosols. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30(6), 1324, doi:10.1029/2002GL016345.
Novakov, T., et al., 2003: Large historical changes of fossil-fuel black carbon
aerosols. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30(6), 1324.
Novelli, P.C., et al., 1999: Molecular hydrogen in the troposphere: global
distribution and budget. J. Geophys. Res., 104(D23), 30427�30444.
Nowak, R.S., D.S. Ellsworth, and S.D. Smith, 2004: Functional responses of plants
to elevated atmospheric CO2 � do photosynthetic and productivity data from FACE
experiments support early predictions? New Phytol., 162, 253�280.
Nozawa, T., T. Nagashima, H. Shiogama, and S. Crooks, 2005: Detecting natural
influence on surface air temperature in the early twentieth century. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 32, L20719, doi:10.1029/2005GL023540.
Nozawa, T., T. Nagashima, H. Shiogama, and S.A. Crooks, 2005: Detecting natural
influence on surface air temperature change in the early twentieth century.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L20719, doi:10.1029/2005GL023540.
Nozawa, T., T. Nagashima, H. Shiogama, and S.A. Crooks, 2005: Detecting natural
influence on surface air temperature change in the early twentieth century.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L20719, doi:10.1029/2005GL023540.
NRC (National Research Council), 1991: Rethinking the Ozone Problem in Urban and
Regional Air Pollution. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 524 pp.
NRC (National Research Council), 2003: Understanding Climate Change Feedbacks.
National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 152 pp.
NRC (National Research Council), 2006: Surface Temperature Reconstructions for the
Last 2,000 Years. National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 196 pp.
O�Doherty, S., et al., 2004: Rapid growth of hydrofluorocarbon 134a and
hydrochlorofluorocarbons 141b, 142b, and 22 from Advanced Global Atmospheric Gases
Experiment (AGAGE) observations at Cape Grim, Tasmania, and Mace Head, Ireland. J.
Geophys. Res., 109, D06310, doi:10.1029/2003JD004277.
O�Dowd, C.D., 2002: On the spatial extent and evolution of coastal aerosol plumes.
J. Geophys. Res., 107(D19), 8105, doi:10.1029/2001JD000422.
O�Dowd, C.D., et al., 2002a: Coastal new particle formation: Environmental
conditions and aerosol physicochemical characteristics during nucleation bursts.
J. Geophys. Res., 107(D19), 8107, doi:10.1029/2000JD000206.
O�Dowd, C.D., et al., 2002b: A dedicated study of New Particle Formation and Fate
in the Coastal Environment (PARFORCE): Overview of objectives and achievements. J.
Geophys. Res., 107(D19), 8108, doi:10.1029/2001JD000555.
O�Dowd, C.D., et al., 2004: Biogenically driven organic contribution to marine
aerosols. Nature, 431, 676�680.
O�Dowd, C.D., J.A. Lowe, and M.H. Smith, 1999: Coupling sea-salt and sulphate
interactions and its impact on cloud droplet concentration predictions. Geophys.
Res. Lett., 26, 1311�1314.
O�Farrell, S.P., 1998: Investigation of the dynamic sea ice component of a coupled
atmosphere sea-ice general circulation model. J. Geophys. Res., 103, 15751�15782.
O�Hagan, A., and J. Forster, 2004: Kendall�s Advanced Theory of Statistics. Volume
2b, Bayesian Inference. Arnold, London, 480 pp.
O�Neill, B., 2003: Economics, natural science, and the costs of global warming
potentials. Clim. Change, 58, 251�260.
O�Neill, B.C., 2000: The jury is still out on global warming potentials. Clim.
Change, 44, 427�443.
Obata, A., and Y. Kitamura, 2003: Interannual variability of the sea-air exchange
of CO2 from 1961 to 1998 simulated with a global ocean circulation-biogeochemistry
model. J. Geophys. Res., 108, 3337, doi:10.1029/2001JC001088.
Oberman, N.G., and G.G. Mazhitova, 2001: Permafrost dynamics in the northeast of
European Russia at the end of the 20th century. Norwegian J. Geogr., 55, 241�244.
Oechel, W.C, et al., 2000: Acclimation of ecosystem CO2 exchange in the Alaskan
Arctic in response to decadal climate warming. Nature, 406, 978�981.
Oerlemans, J., 2001: Glaciers and Climate Change. A. A. Balkema, Lisse, The
Netherlands, 148 pp.
Oerlemans, J., 2005: Extracting a climate signal from 169 glacier records.
Science, 308, 675�677.
Oerlemans, J., and B.K. Reichert, 2000: Relating glacier mass balance to
meteorological data by using a seasonal sensitivity characteristic. J. Glaciol.,
46, 1�6.
Oerlemans, J., and J.P.F. Fortuin, 1992: Sensitivity of glaciers and small ice
caps to greenhouse warming. Science, 258, 115�117.
Oerlemans, J., et al., 1998: Modeling the response of glaciers to climate warming.
Clim. Dyn., 14, 267�274.
Oerlemans, J., et al., 2006: Estimating the contribution from Arctic glaciers to
sea-level change in the next hundred years. Ann. Glaciol., 42, 230�236.
Oeschger, H., et al., 1984: Late glacial climate history from ice cores. In:
Climate Processes and Climate Sensitivity [Hansen, J.E., and T. Takahashi (eds.)].
American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, pp. 299�306.
Ogawa, K., and T. Schmugge, 2004: Mapping surface broadband emissivity of the
Sahara desert using ASTER and MODIS data. Earth Interactions, 8(7), 1�14.
Ogle, S.M., M.D. Eve, F.J. Breidt, and K. Paustian, 2003: Uncertainty in
estimating land use and management impacts on soil organic carbon storage for US
agroecosystems between 1982 and 1997. Global Change Biol., 9, 1521�1542.
Oglesby, R.J., et al., 2002: Thresholds in atmosphere-soil moisture interactions:
results from climate model studies. J. Geophys. Res., 107(14),
doi:10.1029/2001JD001045.
Oh, J-H et al., 2004: Regional climate simulation for Korea using dynamic
downscaling and statistical adjustment. JMeteorol.SocJapan, 82(6), 1629�1643.
Ohmura, A., 2001: Physical basis for the temperature/melt-index method. J. Appl.
Meteorol., 40, 753�761.
Ohmura, A., 2004: Cryosphere during the twentieth century. In: The State of the
Planet: Frontiers and Challenges in Geophysics [Sparks, R.S.J. and C.J.
Hawkesworth (eds.)]. Geophysical Monograph 150, International Union of Geodesy and
Geophysics, Boulder, CO and American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, pp.
239�257.
Ohmura, A., M. Wild, and L. Bengtsson, 1996: Present and future mass balance of
the ice sheets simulated with GCM. Ann. Glaciol., 23, 187�193.
Oinas, V., et al., 2001: Radiative cooling by stratospheric water vapor: big
differences in GCM results. Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 2791�2794.
Oki, T., and Y.C. Sud, 1998: Design of total runoff integrating pathways (TRIP)�A
global river channel network. Earth Interactions, 2, 1�37.
Okin, G.S., N. Mahowald, O.A. Chadwick, and P. Artaxo, 2004: Impact of desert dust
on the biogeochemistry of phosphorus in terrestrial ecosystems. Global Biogeochem.
Cycles, 18, GB2005, doi:10.1029/2003GB002145.
Oleson, K.W., et al., 2003: Assessment of global climate model land surface albedo
using MODIS data. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30(8), 1443, doi:10.1029/2002GL016749.
Oleson, K.W., et al., 2004: Technical Description of the Community Land Model
(CLM). NCAR Technical Note NCAR/TN-461+STR, National Center for Atmospheric
Research, Boulder, CO, 173 pp.
Oleson, K.W., G.B. Bonan, S. Levis, and M. Vertenstein, 2004: Effects of land use
change on U.S. climate: Impact of surface datasets and model biogeophysics. Clim.
Dyn., 23, 117�132.
Oliver, K.I.C., A.J. Watson, and D.P. Stevens, 2005: Can limited ocean mixing
buffer rapid climate change? Tellus, 57A, 676�690.
Olivier, J.G.J., A.F. Bouwman, K.W. Van Der Hoek, and J.J.M. Berdowski, 1998:
Global air emission inventories for anthropogenic sources of NOx, NH3 and N2O in
1990.�Environ. Pollut.,�102(1, S1), 135�148.
Olivier, J.G.J., and J.J.M. Berdowski, 2001: Global emissions sources and sinks.
In: The Climate System [Berdowski, J., R. Guicherit, and B.J. Heij (eds.)]. A.A.
Balkema/Swets & Zeitlinger, Lisse, The Netherlands, pp. 33�78, updated at
http://www.mnp.nl/edgar/.
Olivier, J.G.J., et al., 2005: Recent trends in global greenhouse emissions:
regional trends 1970�2000 and spatial distribution of key sources in 2000.
Environ. Sci., 2, 81�99.
Olivi�, D.J.L., P.F.J. van Velthoven, A.C.M. Beliaars, and H.M. Kelder, 2004:
Comparison between archived and off-line diagnosed convective mass fluxes in the
chemistry transport model TM3. J. Geophys. Res., 109, D11303,
doi:10.1029/2003JD004036.
Ollinger, S.V., and J.D. Aber, 2002: The interactive effects of land use, carbon
dioxide, ozone, and N deposition. Global Change Biol., 8, 545�562
Olsen, S.C., C.A. McLinden, and M.J. Prather, 2001: Stratospheric N2O-NOy system:
testing uncertainties in a three-dimensional framework. J. Geophys. Res., 106,
28771�28784.
Olson, J., et al., 1997: Results from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climatic
Change Photochemical Model Intercomparison (PhotoComp). J. Geophys. Res., 102(D5),
5979�5991.
Oltmans, S.J., et al., 2006: Long-term changes in tropospheric ozone. Atmos.
Environ., 40, 3156�3173.
Oman, L., et al., 2005: Climatic response to high latitude volcanic eruptions. J.
Geophys. Res., 110, D13103, doi:10.1029/2004JD005487.
Omstedt, A., and D. Chen, 2001: Influence of atmospheric circulation on the
maximum ice extent in the Baltic Sea. J. Geophys. Res., 106, 4493�4500.
Ono, T., et al., 2001: Temporal increases of phosphate and apparent oxygen
utilization in the subsurface waters of western subarctic Pacific from 1968 to
1998. Geophys. Res. Lett., 28(17), 3285�3288.
Oort, A.H., and T.H. Vonder Haar, 1976: On the observed annual cycle in the ocean-
atmosphere heat balance over the Northern Hemisphere. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 6,
781�800.
Oouchi, K., et al., 2006: Tropical cyclone climatology in a global-warming climate
as simulated in a 20km-mesh global atmospheric model: Frequency and wind intensity
analyses. J. Meteorol. Soc. Japan, 84, 259�276.
Oppenheimer, M., 1998: Global warming and the stability of the West Antarctic Ice
Sheet. Nature, 393, 325�332.
Oppenheimer, M., and R.B. Alley, 2005: Ice sheets, global warming, and Article 2
of the UNFCCC. Clim. Change, 68, 257�267.
Oppo, D.W., J.F. McManus, and J.L. Cullen, 2003: Deepwater variability in Holocene
epoch. Nature, 422, 277�278.
Opsteegh, J.D., R.J. Haarsma, F.M. Selten, and A. Kattenberg, 1998: ECBILT: A
dynamic alternative to mixed boundary conditions in ocean models. Tellus, 50A,
348�367.
Oram, D.E., 1999: Trends of Long-Lived Anthropogenic Halocarbons in the Southern
Hemisphere and Model Calculations of Global Emissions. PhD Thesis, University of
East Anglia, Norwich, UK, 249 pp.
Oram, D.E., et al., 1998: Growth of fluoroform (CHF3, HFC-23) in the background
atmosphere. Geophys. Res. Lett., 25, 35�38, doi:10.1029/97GL03483.
Ord��ez, C., et al., 2005: Changes of daily surface ozone maxima in Switzerland in
all seasons from 1992 to 2002 and discussion of summer 2003. Atmos. Chem. Phys.,
5, 1187�1203.
Oren, R., et al., 2001: Soil fertility limits carbon sequestration by forest
ecosystems in a CO2-enriched atmosphere. Nature, 411(6836), 469�472.
Orr, J.C., et al., 2001: Estimates of anthropogenic carbon uptake from four three-
dimensional global ocean models. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 15(1), 43�60,
doi:10.1029/1999GB001256.
Orr, J.C., et al., 2005: 21st century decline in ocean carbonate and high latitude
aragonitic organisms. Nature, 437, 681�686.
Orr, J.C., et al., 2005: Anthropogenic ocean acidification over the twenty-first
century and its impact on calcifying organisms. Nature, 437, 681�686.
Orsi, A.H., W.M. Smethie, and J.L. Bullister, 2002: On the total input of
Antarctic waters to the deep ocean: A preliminary estimate from chlorofluorocarbon
measurements. J. Geophys. Res., 107(C8), 3122, doi:10.1029/2001JC000976.
Osborn, G., and B.H. Luckman, 1988: Holocene glacier fluctuations in the Canadian
Cordillera (Alberta and British Columbia). Quat. Sci. Rev., 7(2), 115�128.
Osborn, T.J., 2004: Simulating the winter North Atlantic Oscillation: the roles of
internal variability and greenhouse gas forcing. Clim. Dyn., 22, 605�623.
Osborn, T.J., and K.R. Briffa, 2004: The real color of climate change? Science,
306(5296), 621�622.
Osborn, T.J., and K.R. Briffa, 2006: The spatial extent of 20th-century warmth in
the context of the past 1200 years. Science, 311, 841�844.
Osborn, T.J., and M. Hulme, 1997: Development of a relationship between station
and grid-box rainday frequencies for climate model evaluation. J. Clim., 10,
1885�1908.
Osborn, T.J., et al., 1999: Evaluation of the North Atlantic Oscillation as
simulated by a coupled climate model. Clim. Dyn., 15, 685�702.
Osborn, T.J., S. Raper, and K.R. Briffa, 2006: Simulated climate change during the
last 1000 years: comparing the ECHO-G general circulation model with the MAGICC
simple climate model. Clim. Dyn., 27, 185�197.
Osborn, T.J., S.C.B. Raper, and K.R. Briffa, 2006: Simulated climate change during
the last 1,000 years: comparing the ECHO-G general circulation model with the
MAGICC simple climate model. Clim. Dyn., 27 (2�3), 185�197, doi:10.1007/s00382-
006-0129-5.
Osborne, S.R., J.M. Haywood, P.N. Francis, and O. Dubovik, 2004: Short-wave
radiative effects of biomass burning aerosol during SAFARI2000. Q. J. R. Meteorol.
Soc., 130, 1423�1448.
Osborne, T.M., et al., 2004: Influence of vegetation on the local climate and
hydrology in the tropics: sensitivity to soil parameters. Clim. Dyn., 23, 45�61.
Osterkamp, T.E., 2003: A thermal history of permafrost in Alaska. In: Proceedings
of the 8th International Conference on Permafrost, 21-25 July 2003, Zurich,
Switzerland [Phillips, M., S.M. Springman, and L.U. Arenson (eds.)]. A.A. Balkema,
Lisse, the Netherlands, pp. 863�867.
Osterkamp, T.E., 2005: The recent warming of permafrost in Alaska. Global Planet.
Change, 49, 187�202, doi: 10.1016/j.gloplacha.2005.09.001.
Otter�, O.H., et al., 2004: Transient response of the Atlantic meridional
overturning circulation to enhanced freshwater input to the Nordic Seas-Arctic
Ocean in the Bergen Climate Model. Tellus, 56A, 342�361.
Otto-Bliesner, B.L., 1999: El Nino La Nina and Sahel precipitation during the
middle Holocene. Geophys. Res. Lett., 26(1), 87�90.
Otto-Bliesner, B.L., et al., 2003: Modeling El Nino and its tropical
teleconnections during the last glacial-interglacial cycle. Geophys. Res. Lett.,
30(23), 2198, doi:10.1029/2003GL018553.
Otto-Bliesner, B.L., et al., 2006: Climate sensitivity of moderate- and low-
resolution versions of CCSM3 to preindustrial forcings. J. Clim., 19, 2567�2583.
Otto-Bliesner, B.L., et al., 2006b: Last Glacial Maximum and Holocene climate in
CCSM3. J. Clim., 19, 2567�2583.
Otto-Bliesner, B.L., S.J. Marshall, J.T. Overpeck, and G. Miller, 2006a:
Simulating Arctic climate warmth and icefield retreat in the Last Interglaciation.
Science, 311, 1751�1753.
Overpeck, J., and K.E. Trenberth, 2004: A Multi-Millennia Perspective on Drought
and Implications for the Future. Proceedings of a joint CLIVAR/PAGES/IPCC
Workshop, 18-21 Nov. 2003, Tucson, AZ. University Corporation for Atmospheric
Research, Boulder CO, 30 pp.
Overpeck, J.T., et al., 2006: Paleoclimatic evidence for future ice sheet
instability and rapid sea level rise. Science, 311(5768), 1747�1750.
Oyama, M.D., and C.A. Nobre, 2004: Climatic consequences of a large-scale
desertification in northeast Brazil: a GCM simulation study. J. Clim., 17(16),
3203�3213.
Pacala, S.W., et al., 2001: Consistent land- and atmosphere-based US carbon sink
estimates. Science, 292, 2316�2320.
Pacanowski, R.C., K. Dixon, and A. Rosati, 1993: The GFDL Modular Ocean Model
Users Guide, Version 1.0. GFDL Ocean Group Technical Report No. 2, Geophysical
Fluid Dynamics Laboratory, Princeton, NJ.
Paciorek, C.J., J.S. Risbey, V. Ventura, and R.D. Rosen, 2002: Multiple indices of
Northern Hemisphere cyclone activity, winters 1949-99. J. Clim., 15, 1573�1590.
Paeth, H., A. Hense, R. Glowienka-Hense, and R. Voss, 1999: The North Atlantic
Oscillation as an indicator for greenhouse-gas induced regional climate change.
Clim. Dyn., 15, 953�960.
Paeth, H., and J. Feichter, 2006: Greenhouse-gas versus aerosol forcing and
African climate response. Clim Dyn., 26(1), 35�54.
Paeth, H., K. Born, D. Jacob, and R. Podzun, 2005: Regional dynamic downscaling
over West Africa: model validation and comparison of wet and dry years.
MeteorolZ., 14(3), 349�367.
Paeth,H., andA. Hense, 2004: SST versus climate change signals in West African
rainfall: 20th-century variations and future projections. Clim. Change, 65(1�2):
179�208.
Pagani, M., et al., 2005: Marked decline in atmospheric carbon dioxide
concentrations during the Paleogene. Science, 309(5734), 600�603.
Page, S., et al., 2002: The amount of carbon released from peat and forest fires
in Indonesia during 1997. Nature, 320, 61�65.
Pahlow, M., and U. Riebesell, 2000, Temporal trends in deep ocean Redfield ratios.
Science, 287, 831�833.
Pahlow, M., and U. Riebesell, 2000: Temporal trends in deep ocean Redfield ratios.
Science, 287(5454), 831�833.
Paillard, D., 1998: The timing of Pleistocene glaciations from a simple multiple-
state climate model. Nature, 391, 378�381.
Pal, J.S., F. Giorgi, and X. Bi, 2004: Consistency of recent European summer
precipitation trends and extremes with future regional climate projections.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L13202, doi:10.1029/2004GL019836.
Palikonda, R., P. Minnis, D.P. Duda, and H. Mannstein, 2005: Contrail coverage
derived from 2001 AVHRR data over the continental United States of America and
surrounding area. Meteorol. Z., 14, 525�536.
Palmer, A.S., et al., 2002: Antarctic volcanic flux ratios from Law Dome ice
cores. Ann. Glaciol., 35, 329�332.
Palmer, M.A., L.J. Gray, M.R. Allen, and W.A. Norton, 2004: Solar forcing of
climate: model results. Adv. Space Res., 34, 343�348.
Palmer, M.H., H.L. Bryden, J.L. Hirschi, and J. Marotzke, 2004: Observed changes
in the South Indian Ocean gyre circulation, 1987-2002. Geophys. Res. Lett.,
31(15), L15303, doi:15310.11029/12004GL020506.
Palmer, P.I., et al., 2003: Eastern Asian emissions of anthropogenic halocarbons
deduced from aircraft concentration data. J. Geophys. Res., 108(D24), 4753,
doi:10.1029/2003JD003591.
Palmer, P.I., et al., 2003a: Inverting for emissions of carbon monoxide from Asia
using aircraft observations over the western Pacific. J. Geophys. Res., 108(D21),
8828, doi:10.1029/2003JD003397.
Palmer, P.I., et al., 2003b: Mapping isoprene emissions over North America using
formaldehyde column observations from space. J. Geophys. Res., 108, 4180,
doi:10.1029/2002JD002153.
Palmer, T.N., 1986: Influence of the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans on
Sahelrainfall, Nature, 322, 251�253.
Palmer, T.N., 1999: Predicting uncertainty in forecasts of weather and climate.
Rep. Prog. Phys., 63, 71�116.
Palmer, T.N., 2001: A nonlinear dynamical perspective on model error: A proposal
for non-local stochastic-dynamic parametrization in weather and climate prediction
models. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 127, 279�303.
Palmer, T.N., 2005: Global warming in a nonlinear climate - Can we be sure?
Europhys. News, 36, 42�46.
Palmer, T.N., and J. R�is�nen, 2002: Quantifying the risk of extreme seasonal
precipitation events in a changing climate. Nature, 415, 512�514.
Palmer, T.N., and J. Shukla, 2000: Editorial (for special issue on DSP/PROVOST).
Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 126, 1989�1990.
Palmer, T.N., et al., 2004: Development of a European multimodel ensemble system
for seasonal to interannual prediction (DEMETER). Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 85,
853�872.
Palmer, T.N., et al., 2005: Representing model uncertainty in weather and climate
prediction. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., 33, 4.1�4.31.
Palutikof, J.P., C.M. Goodess, S.J. Watkins, and T. Holt, 2002: Generating
rainfall and temperature scenarios at multiple sites: examples from the
Mediterranean. J. Clim., 15, 3529�3548.
Pan, W., M.A. Tatang, G.J. McRae, and R.G. Prinn, 1997: Uncertainty analysis of
direct radiative forcing by anthropogenic sulfate aerosols. J. Geophys. Res.,
102(D18), 21915�21924.
Pan, Z., E.S. Takle, and F. Otieno., 2001: Evaluation of uncertainties in regional
climate change simulations. J. Geophys. Res., 106(D16), 17735�17752.
Pan, Z., M. Segal, R.W. Arritt, and E.S. Takle, 2004: On the potential change in
solar radiation over the US due to increases of atmospheric greenhouse gases.
RenewEnergy, 29(11), 1923�1928.
Pant, G.B., and K. Rupa Kumar, 1997: Climates of South Asia. John Wiley & Sons,
Chichester, 320pp.
Pardaens, A.K., H.T. Banks, J.M. Gregory, and P.R. Rowntree, 2003: Freshwater
transports in HadCM3. Clim. Dyn., 21, 177�195.
Parekh, P., M.J. Follows, and E. Boyle, 2005: Decoupling of iron and phosphate in
the global ocean. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 19, doi:10.1029/2004GB002280.
Parizek, B.R., and R.B. Alley, 2004: Implications of increased Greenland surface
melt under global-warming scenarios: Ice-sheet simulations. Quat. Sci. Rev., 23,
1013�1027.
Parizek, B.R., R.B. Alley, and C.L. Hulbe, 2003: Subglacial thermal balance
permits ongoing grounding-line retreat along the Siple Coast of West Antarctica.
Ann. Glaciol., 36, 251�256.
Park, R.J., et al., 2004: Global simulation of tropospheric ozone using the
University of Maryland Chemical Transport Model (UMD-CTM): 1. Model description
and evaluation. J. Geophys. Res., 109, D09301, doi:10.1029/2003JD004266.
Parker, D.E., et al., 1997: A new global gridded radiosonde temperature database
and recent temperature trends. Geophys. Res. Lett., 24, 1499�1452.
Parker, D.E., L.V. Alexander, and J. Kennedy, 2004: Global and regional climate in
2003. Weather, 59, 145�152.
Parkinson, C.L., 1990: Search for the Little Ice Age in Southern Ocean sea-ice
records. Ann. Glaciol., 14, 221�225.
Parkinson, C.L., et al., 1987: Arctic Sea Ice, 1973-1976: Satellite Passive-
Microwave Observations. NASA SP-489, National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, Washington, DC, 296 pp.
Parrish, D.D., et al., 2004: Changes in the photochemical environment of the
temperate North Pacific troposphere in response to increased Asian emissions. J.
Geophys. Res., 109, D23S18, doi:10.1029/2004JD004978.
Parrish, R.H., F.B. Schwing, and R. Mendelssohn, 2000: Midlatitude wind stress:
the energy source for climatic regimes in the North Pacific Ocean. Fish.
Oceanogr., 9, 224�238.
Pasini, A., M. Lor�, and F. Ameli, 2006: Neural network modelling for the analysis
of forcings/temperatures relationships at different scales in the climate system.
Ecol. Model., 191, 58�67.
Paterson, W.S.B., 2004: The Physics of Glaciers, Ed. 3.A, Elsevier, Oxford, UK,
496pp.
Patra, P.K., et al., 2005: Role of biomass burning and climate anomalies for land-
atmosphere carbon fluxes based on inverse modeling of atmospheric CO2. Global
Biogeochem. Cycles, 19, GB3005, doi:10.1029/2004GB002258 .
Pauling, A., J. Luterbacher, C. Casty, and H. Wanner, 2006: 500 years of gridded
high-resolution precipitation reconstructions over Europe and the connection to
large-scale circulation. Clim. Dyn., 26, 387�405.
Paull, C.K., et al., 2003: An experiment demonstrating that marine slumping is a
mechanism to transfer methane from seafloor gas-hydrate deposits into the upper
ocean and atmosphere. Geo.-Marine Lett., 22, 198�203.
Pavelin, E.G., C.E. Johnson, S. Rughooputh, and R. Toumi, 1999: Evaluation of pre-
industrial surface ozone measurements made using Sch�nbein�s method. Atmos.
Environ., 33, 919�929.
Pavlov, A.V., 1996: Permafrost-climate monitoring of Russia: analysis of field
data and forecast. Polar Geogr., 20(1), 44�64.
Pavolonis, M.J., J.R. Key, and J.J. Cassano, 2004: A study of the Antarctic
surface energy budget using a polar regional atmospheric model forced with
satellite-derived cloud properties. Mon. Weather Rev., 132, 654�661.
Payne, A.J., et al., 2004: Recent dramatic thinning of largest West Antarctic ice
stream triggered by oceans. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L23401,
doi:10.1029/2004GL021284.
Pearson, P.N., and M.R. Palmer, 2000: Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations
over the past 60 million years. Nature, 406, 695�699.
Pelly, J.L., and B.J. Hoskins, 2003a: A new perspective on blocking. J. Atmos.
Sci., 60, 743�755.
Pelly, J.L., and B.J. Hoskins, 2003b: How well does the ECMWF Ensemble Prediction
System predict blocking? Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 129, 1683�1702.
Peltier, W.R., 1994: Ice age paleotopography. Science, 265, 195�201.
Peltier, W.R., 1996: Mantle viscosity and ice age ice sheet topography. Science,
273, 1359�1364.
Peltier, W.R., 1998: Postglacial variations in the level of the sea: implications
for climate dynamics and solid-earth geophysics. Rev. Geophys., 36, 603�689.
Peltier, W.R., 2001: Global glacial isostatic adjustment and modern instrumental
records of relative sea level history. In: Sea Level Rise: History and
Consequences [Douglas, B.C., M.S. Kearney, and S.P. Leatherman (eds.)]. Academic
Press, San Diego, pp. 65�95.
Peltier, W.R., 2002: On eustatic sea level history: Last Glacial Maximum to
Holocene. Quat. Sci. Rev., 21(1�3), 377�396.
Peltier, W.R., 2004: Global glacial isostasy and the surface of the ice-age Earth:
the ICE-5G(VM2) model and GRACE. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., 32, 111�149.
Peltier, W.R., and R.G. Fairbanks, 2006: Global glacial ice volume and last
glacial maximum duration from an extended Barbados sea level record. Quat. Sci.
Rev., 25, 3322-3337.
Peltier, W.R., I. Shennan, R. Drummond, and B. Horton, 2002: On the postglacial
isostatic adjustment of the British Isles and the shallow viscoelastic structure
of the earth. Geophys. J. Int., 148(3), 443�475.
Penduff, T., B. Barnier, W.K. Dewar, and J.J. O�Brien, 2004: Dynamical response of
the oceanic eddy field to the North Atlantic Oscillation: A model-data comparison.
J. Phys. Oceanogr., 34, 2615�2629.
Peng, T.-H., et al., 1998: Quantification of decadal anthropogenic CO2 uptake in
the ocean based on dissolved inorganic carbon measurements. Nature, 396(6711),
560�563.
Peng, T.-H., R. Wanninkhof, and R.A. Feely, 2003: Increase of anthropogenic CO2 in
the Pacific Ocean over the last two decades. Deep-Sea Res. II, 50, 3065�3082.
Peng, Y., and U. Lohmann, 2003: Sensitivity study of the spectral dispersion of
the cloud droplet size distribution on the indirect aerosol effect. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 30(10), 1507, doi:10.1029/2003GL017192.
Peng, Y., et al., 2002: The cloud albedo-cloud droplet effective radius
relationship for clean and polluted clouds from ACE and FIRE. J. Geophys. Res.,
107(D11), doi:10.1029/2002JD000281.
Penner, J. E., et al., 2002: A comparison of model- and satellite-derived aerosol
optical depth and reflectivity. J. Atmos. Sci., 59, 441�460.
Penner, J., et al., 2001: Aerosols, their direct and indirect effects. In: Climate
Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Third
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Houghton,
J.T., et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and
New York, NY, USA, pp. 289�348.
Penner, J., R. Dickinson, and C. O�Neill, 1992: Effects of aerosol from biomass
burning on the global radiation budget. Science, 256, 1432�1434.
Penner, J.E., et al. ?(eds.), 1999: Aviation and the Global Atmosphere. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 373 pp.
Penner, J.E., et al., 1997: Anthropogenic aerosols and climate change: A method
for calibrating forcing. In: Assessing Climate Change: Results from the Model
Evaluation Consortium for Climate Assessment [Howe, W., and A. Henderson-Sellers
(eds.)]. Gordon & Breach Science Publishers, Sydney, Australia, pp. 91�111.
Penner, J.E., et al., 2001: Aerosols, their direct and indirect effects. In:
Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the
Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
[Houghton, J.T., et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United
Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 289�348.
Penner, J.E., et al., 2006: Model intercomparison of indirect aerosol effects.
Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss., 6, 1579�1617.
Penner, J.E., et al., 2007: Effect of black carbon on mid-troposphere and surface
temperature trends. In: Human-Induced Climate Change: An Interdisciplinary
Assessment [Schlesinger, M., et al., (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, UK, in press.
Penner, J.E., S.Y. Zhang, and C.C. Chuang, 2003: Soot and smoke aerosol may not
warm climate. J. Geophys. Res., 108(D21), 4657, doi:10.1029/2003JD003409.
Penner, J.E., X. Dong, and Y. Chen, 2004: Observational evidence of a change in
radiative forcing due to the indirect aerosol effect. Nature, 427, 231�234.
Penner., J.E., et al., 2006: Model intercomparison of indirect aerosol effects.
Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss., 6, 1579�1617.
Perlwitz, J., and H.-F. Graf, 2001: Troposphere-stratosphere dynamic coupling
under strong and weak polar vortex conditions. Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 271�274.
Perlwitz, J., and N. Harnik, 2003: Observational evidence of a stratospheric
influence on the troposphere by planetary wave reflection. J. Clim., 16,
3011�3026.
Perlwitz, J., I. Tegen, and R.L. Miller, 2001: Interactive soil dust aerosol model
in the GISS GCM 1. Sensitivity of the soil dust cycle to radiative properties of
soil dust aerosols. J. Geophys. Res., 106(D16), doi:10.1029/2000JD900668.
Perry, K.D., S.S. Cliff, and M.P. Jimenez-Cruz, 2004: Evidence for hygroscopic
mineral dust particles from the Intercontinental Transport and Chemical
Transformation Experiment. J. Geophys. Res., 109, D23S28,
doi:10.1029/2004JD004979.
Peteet, D., 1995: Global Younger Dryas. Quat. Int., 28, 93�104.
Peters, M.E., and C.S. Bretherton, 2005: A simplified model of the Walker
circulation with an interactive ocean mixed layer and cloud-radiative feedbacks.
J. Clim., 18, 4216�4234.
Peterson, B.J., et al., 2002: Increasing river discharge to the Arctic Ocean.
Science, 298, 2171�2173.
Peterson, L.C., G.H. Haug, K.A. Hughen, and U. R�hl, 2000: Rapid changes in the
hydrologic cycle of the tropical Atlantic during the last glacial. Science, 290,
1947�1951.
Peterson, T.C., et al., 1998: Homogeneity adjustments of in situ atmospheric
climate data: A review. Int. J. Climatol., 18, 1493�1517.
Peterson, T.C., et al., 1999: Global rural temperature trends. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 26, 329�332.
Peterson, T.C., et al., 2002: Recent changes in climate extremes in the Caribbean
region. J. Geophys. Res., 107(D21), 4601, doi:10.1029/2002JD002251.
Petit, J.R., et al., 1999: Climate and atmospheric history of the past 420,000
years from the Vostok ice core, Antarctica. Nature, 399, 429�436.
Petkova, N., E. Koleva, and V. Alexandrov, 2004: Snow cover variability and change
in mountainous regions of Bulgaria, 1931-2000. Meteorol. Z., 13(1), 19�23.
Petoukhov, V., et al., 2000: CLIMBER-2: A climate system model of intermediate
complexity. Part I: Model description and performance for present climate. Clim.
Dyn., 16, 1�17.
Petoukhov, V., et al., 2005: EMIC Intercomparison Project (EMIP-CO2): Comparative
analysis of EMIC simulations of current climate and equilibrium and transient
responses to atmospheric CO2 doubling. Clim. Dyn., 25, 363�385,
doi:10.1007/s00382-005-0042-3.
Pettersson, O., 1914: Climate variations in historic and prehistoric time. Svenska
Hydrogr. - Biol. Komm. Skriften, 5, 1�26.
Pettersson, R., P. Jansson, and P. Holmlund, 2003: Cold surface layer thinning on
Storglaci�ren, Sweden, observed by repeated ground penetrating radar surveys. J.
Geophys. Res., 108(F1), 6004, doi:10.1029/2003JF000024.
Peylin, P., et al., 2005: Multiple constraints on regional CO2 flux variations
over land and oceans. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 19, GB1011,
doi:10.1029/2003GB002214.
Peyron, O., et al., 2005: Lateglacial climate in the Jura Mountains (France) based
on different quantitative reconstruction approaches from pollen, lake-levels, and
chironomids. Quat. Res., 62(2), 197�211.
Pezza, A.B., and I. Simmonds, 2005: The first South Atlantic hurricane:
Unprecedented blocking, low shear and climate change. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32,
L15712, doi:10.1029/2005GL023390.
Pfister, C., 1992: Monthly temperature and precipitation in central Europe 1525-
1979: quantifying documentary evidence on weather and its effects. In: Climatic
Variations and Forcing Mechanisms of the Last 2000 Years. [Jones, P.D., R.S.
Bradley, and J. Jouzel (eds.)]. Springer Verlag, Berlin and Heidelberg, 649 pp.
Pham, M., O. Boucher, and D. Hauglustaine, 2005: Changes in atmospheric sulfur
burdens and concentrations and resulting radiative forcings under IPCC SRES
emission scenarios for 1990-2100. J. Geophys. Res., 110, D06112,
doi:10.1029/2004JD005125.
Philipona, R., et al., 2004: Radiative forcing - measured at Earth�s surface -
corroborate the increasing greenhouse effect. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L03202,
doi:10.1029/2003GL018765.
Phillips, O.L., et al., 1998: Changes in the carbon balance of tropical forests:
evidence from long-term plots. Science, 282(5388), 439�442.
Phillips, T.J., and P.J. Gleckler, 2006: Evaluation of continental precipitation
in 20th century climate simulations: The utility of multi-model statistics. Water
Resour. Res., 42, W03202, doi:10.1029/2005WR004313.
Phillips, T.J., et al., 2004: Evaluating parameterizations in general circulation
models: Climate simulation meets weather prediction. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 85,
1903�1915.
Phillips, V.T.J., T.W. Choularton, A.M. Blyth, and J. Latham, 2002: The influence
of aerosol concentrations on the glaciation and precipitation of a cumulus cloud.
Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 128(581), 951�971.
Piani, C., D.J. Frame, D.A. Stainforth, and M.R. Allen, 2005: Constraints on
climate change from a multi-thousand member ensemble of simulations. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 32, L23825, doi:10.1029/2005GL024452.
Pickering, K.E., et al., 2001: Trace gas transport and scavenging in PEM-Tropics B
South Pacific convergence zone convection. J. Geophys. Res., 106(D23),
doi:10.1029/2001JD000328.
Pielke, R.A. Jr., 2005: Are there trends in hurricane destruction? Nature, 438,
E11.
Pielke, R.A. Jr., et al., 2005: Hurricanes and global warming. Bull. Am. Meteorol.
Soc., 86, 1571�1575.
Pielke, R.A. Sr., 2001: Influence of the spatial distribution of vegetation and
soils on the prediction of cumulus convective rainfall. Rev. Geophys., 39(2),
151�177.
Pielke, R.A. Sr., and T. Matsui, 2005: Should light wind and windy nights have the
same temperature trends at individual levels even if the boundary layer averaged
heat content change is the same? Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L21813,
doi:10.1029/2005GL024407.
Pielke, R.A. Sr., et al., 2002: The influence of land-use change and landscape
dynamics on the climate system � Relevance to climate change policy beyond the
radiative effect of greenhouse gases. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London Ser. A, 360,
1705�1719.
Pierce, D.W., et al., 2006: Anthropogenic warming of the oceans: observations and
model results. J. Clim., 19, 1873�1900.
Pierce, D.W., T.P. Barnett, and M. Latif, 2000: Connections between the Pacific
Ocean tropics and midlatitudes on decadal time scales. J. Clim., 13, 1173�1194.
Pierrehumbert, R.T., 1995: Thermostats, radiator fins, and the local runaway
greenhouse. J. Atmos. Sci., 52, 1784�1806.
Pierrehumbert, R.T., 1999: Subtropical water vapour as a mediator of rapid global
climate change. In: Mechanisms of Global Climate Change at Millennial Timescales.
Geophysical Monograph 112, American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, pp.
339�361.
Pierrehumbert, R.T., and R. Roca, 1998: Evidence for control of Atlantic
subtropical humidity by large scale advection. Geophys. Res. Lett., 25, 4537�4540.
Pierrehumbert, R.T., H. Brogniez, and R. Roca, 2007: On the relative humidity of
the Earth�s atmosphere. In: The General Circulation [Schneider, T., and A. Sobel
(eds.)]. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, in press.
Pinker, R.T., B. Zhang, and E.G. Dutton, 2005: Do satellites detect trends in
surface solar radiation? Science, 308, 850�854.
Pinto, J.G., T. Spangehl, U. Ulbrich, and P. Speth, 2006: Assessment of winter
cyclone activity in a transient ECHAM4-OPYC3 GHG experiment. Meteorol. Z., 15,
279�291.
Pinto, J.P., and M.A.K. Khalil, 1991: The stability of tropospheric OH during ice
ages, inter-glacial epochs and modern times. Tellus, 43B, 347�352.
Pinty, B., et al., 2006: Simplifying the interaction of land surfaces with
radiation for relating remote sensing products to climate models. J. Geophys.
Res., 111, D02116, doi:10.1029/2005JD005952.
Pitari, G., E. Mancini, V. Rizi, and D.T. Shindell, 2002: Impact of future climate
and emissions changes on stratospheric aerosols and ozone. J. Atmos. Sci., 59,
414�440.
Pitman, A.J., and B.J. McAvaney, 2004: Impact of varying the complexity of the
land surface energy balance on the sensitivity of the Australian climate to
increasing carbon dioxide. Clim. Res., 25(3), 191�203.
Pitman, A.J., B.J. McAvaney, N. Bagnound, and B. Chemint, 2004: Are inter-model
differences in AMIP-II near surface air temperature means and extremes explained
by land surface energy balance complexity. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L05205,
doi:10.1029/2003GL019233.
Plag, H.-P., 2006: Recent relative sea level trends: an attempt to quantify the
forcing factors. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London A, 364(1841), 821�844.
Platnick, S., et al., 2000: The role of background cloud microphysics in the
radiative formation of ship tracks. J. Atmos. Sci., 57, 2607�2624.
Platt, U., W. Allan, and D.C. Lowe, 2004: Hemispheric average Cl atom
concentration from 13C/12C ratios in atmospheric methane. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 4,
2393�2399.
Plattner, G.-K., F. Joos, T.F. Stocker, and O. Marchal, 2001: Feedback mechanisms
and sensitivities of ocean carbon uptake under global warming. Tellus, 53B,
564�592.
Plaut, G., and E. Simonnet, 2001: Large�scale circulation classification, weather
regimes, and local climate over France, the Alps, and Western Europe. Clim. Res.,
17, 303�324.
Plummer, D.A., et al., 2006: Climate and climate change over North America as
simulated by the Canadian Regional Climate Model. J. Clim., 19, 3112�3132.
Pollack, H.N., and J.E. Smerdon, 2004: Borehole climate reconstructions: Spatial
structure and hemispheric averages. J. Geophys. Res., 109, D11106,
doi:10.1029/2003JD004163.
Pollack, H.N., and S.P. Huang, 2000: Climate reconstruction from subsurface
temperatures. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., 28, 339�365.
Pollack, H.N., S. Huang, and J.E. Smerdon, 2006: Five centuries of climate change
in Australia: The view from underground. J. Quat. Sci, 21(7), 701�706.
Polvani, L.M. and P.J. Kushner, 2002: Tropospheric response to stratospheric
perturbations in a relatively simple general circulation model. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 29, doi:10.1029/2001GL014284.
Polyakov, I.V., et al., 2003a: Long-term ice variability in Arctic marginal seas.
J. Clim., 16, 2078�2085.
Polyakov, I.V., et al., 2003b: Variability and trends of air temperature and
pressure in the maritime Arctic, 1875-2000. J. Clim., 16, 2067�2077.
Polyakov, I.V., et al., 2004: Variability of the intermediate Atlantic water of
the Arctic Ocean over the last 100 years. J. Clim., 17(23), 4485�4497.
Polyakov, I.V., et al., 2005: One more step toward a warmer Arctic. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 32, L17605, doi:10.1029/2005GL023740.
Polzin, K.L., J.M. Toole, J.R. Redwell, and R.W. Schmitt, 1997: Spatial
variability of turbulent mixing in the abyssal ocean. Science, 276, 93�96.
Ponater, M., S. Marquart, and R. Sausen, 2002: Contrails in a comprehensive global
climate model: Parametrization and radiative forcing results. J. Geophys. Res.,
107(D13), doi:10.1029/2001JD000429.
Ponater, M., S. Marquart, R. Sausen, and U. Schumann, 2005: On contrail climate
sensitivity. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L10706, doi:10.1029/2005GL022580.
Pons, A., J. Guiot, J.L. Debeaulieu, and M. Reille, 1992: Recent contributions to
the climatology of the last glacial interglacial cycle based on French pollen
sequences. Quat. Sci. Rev., 11(4), 439�448.
Ponte, R.M., 2006: Low frequency sea level variability and the inverted barometer
effect. J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol., 23(4), 619�629.
Pope, V.D., and R.A. Stratton, 2002: The processes governing horizontal resolution
sensitivity in a climate model. Clim. Dyn., 19, 211�236.
Pope, V.D., M.L. Gallani, P.R. Rowntree, and R.A. Stratton, 2000: The impact of
new physical parametrizations in the Hadley Centre climate model: HadAM3. Clim.
Dyn., 16, 123�146.
Pope, V.Dand R.A. Stratton, 2002: The processes governing resolution sensitivity
in a climate model. Clim. Dyn., 19, 211�236.
Popper, K.R., 1934: The Logic of Scientific Discovery. English edition: Routledge,
London (1992), 544 pp.
Porter, S.C., 2001: Snowline depression in the tropics during the last glaciation.
Quat. Sci. Rev., 20, 1067�1091.
Posfai, M., et al., 2003: Individual aerosol particles from biomass burning in
southern Africa: 1. Compositions and size distributions of carbonaceous particles.
J. Geophys. Res., 108(D13), 8483, doi:10.1029/2002JD002291.
Potter, G.L., and R.D. Cess, 2004: Testing the impact of clouds on the radiation
budgets of 19 atmospheric general circulation models. J. Geophys. Res., 109,
doi:10.1029/2003JD004018.
Potter, R.A., and M.S. Lozier, 2004: On the warming and salinification of the
Mediterranean outflow waters in the North Atlantic. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31(1),
L01202, doi:10.1029/2003GL018161.
Power, S., C. Folland, A. Colman, and V. Mehta, 1999: Inter-decadal modulation of
the impact of ENSO on Australia. Clim. Dyn., 15, 319�324.
Power, S., et al., 1998: Australian temperature, Australian rainfall, and the
Southern Oscillation, 1910-1996: Coherent variability and recent changes.
AustMeteorolMag., 47, 85�101.
Power, S., et al., 1999: Interdecadal modulation of the impact of ENSO on
Australia. Clim. Dyn., 15, 319�324.
Power, S.B., and R. Colman, 2006: Multi-decadal predictability in a coupled GCM.
Clim. Dyn., 26, 247�272.
Power, S.B., M.H. Haylock, R. Colman, and X. Wang, 2006: The predictability of
interdecadal changes in ENSO activity and ENSO teleconnections. J. Clim., 19,
4755�4771.
Prata, A., W. Rose, S. Self, and D. O�Brien, 2003: Global, long-term sulphur
dioxide measurements from TOVS data: a new tool for studying explosive volcanism
and climate. In: Volcanism and the Earth�s Atmosphere [Robock, A., and C.
Oppenheimer (eds).]. Geophysical Monograph 139, American Geophysical Union,
Washington, DC, pp. 75�92.
Prather, M., 1994: Lifetimes and eigenstates in atmospheric chemistry. Geophys.
Res. Lett., 21, 801�804.
Prather, M.J., 2002: Lifetimes of atmospheric species: integrating environmental
impacts. Geophys. Res. Lett., 29(22), 2063, doi:10.1029/2002GL016299
Prather, M.J., 2003: Atmospheric science: an environmental experiment with H2?
Science, 302, 581�583.
Prather, M.J., et al., 2001: Atmospheric chemistry and greenhouse gases. In:
Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the
Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
[Houghton, J.T., et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United
Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 239�287.
Preminger,�D.G., and S.R. Walton, 2005: A new model of total solar irradiance
based on sunspot areas. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L14109, doi:10.1029/2005GL022839.
Prentice, I.C., and D. Jolly, 2000: Mid-Holocene and glacial-maximum vegetation
geography of the northern continents and Africa. J. Biogeogr., 27(3), 507�519.
Prentice, I.C., and T. Webb, 1998: BIOME 6000: reconstructing global mid-Holocene
vegetation patterns from palaeoecological records. J. Biogeogr., 25(6), 997�1005.
Prentice, I.C., D. Jolly, and BIOME 6000 participants, 2000: Mid-Holocene and
glacial-maximum vegetation geography of the northern continents and Africa. J.
Biogeogr., 27, 507�519.
Prentice, I.C., et al., 2001: The Carbon Cycle and Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide. In:
Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the
Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
[Houghton, J.T., et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United
Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 99�181.
Price, C., and D. Rind, 1994a: Possible implications of global climate change on
global lightning distributions and frequencies. J. Geophys. Res., 99(D5),
doi:10.1029/94JD00019.
Price, C., and D. Rind, 1994b: The impact of a 2xCO2 climate on lightning-caused
fires. J. Clim., 7, 1484�1494.
Price, C., J. Penner, and M. Prather, 1997: NOx from lightning 1. Global
distribution based on lightning physics. J. Geophys. Res., 102(D5),
doi:10.1029/96JD03504.
Prieto, R, et al., 2001: Interannual oscillations and trend of snow occurrence in
the Andes region since 1885. Aust. Meteorol. Mag., 50(2), 164.
Prinn, R.G., 2004: Non-CO2 greenhouse gases. In: The Global Carbon Cycle [Field,
C., and M. Raupach (eds.)]. Island Press, Washington, DC, pp. 205�216.
Prinn, R.G., et al., 1990: Atmospheric emissions and trends of nitrous oxide
deduced from ten years of ALE-GAGE data. J. Geophys. Res., 95, 18369�18385.
Prinn, R.G., et al., 2000: A history of chemically and radiatively important gases
in air deduced from ALE/GAGE/AGAGE. J. Geophys. Res., 105, 17751�17792.
Prinn, R.G., et al., 2001: Evidence for substantial variations of atmospheric
hydroxyl radicals in the past two decades. Science, 292, 1882�1888.
Prinn, R.G., et al., 2005a: Evidence for variability of atmospheric hydroxyl
radicals over the past quarter century. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L07809,
doi:10.1029/2004GL022228.
Prinn, R.G., et al., 2005b: The ALE/GAGE/AGAGE Network: DB1001. Carbon Dioxide
Information and Analysis World Data Center,
http://cdiac.esd.ornl.gov/ndps/alegage.html.
Proshutinsky, A., et al., 2004: Secular sea level change in the Russian sector of
the Arctic Ocean. J. Geophys. Res., 109(C3), C03042, doi:10.1029/2003JC002007.
Proshutinsky, A.Y., and M.A. Johnson, 1997: Two circulation regimes of the wind-
driven Arctic Ocean. J. Geophys. Res., 102(C6), 12493�12514.
Prospero, J.M., and P.J. Lamb, 2003: African droughts and dust transport to the
Caribbean: Climate change implications. Science, 302, 1024�1027.
Prospero, J.M., et al., 2002: Environmental characterization of global sources of
atmospheric soil dust identified with the NIMBUS 7 total ozone mapping
spectrometer (TOMS) absorbing aerosol product. Rev. Geophys., 40,
doi:10.1029/2000RG000095.
Pryor, S.C., J.T. School, and R.J. Barthelmie, 2005b: Potential climate change
impacts on wind speeds and wind energy density in northern Europe: ? Results from
empirical downscaling of multiple AOGCMs. Clim. Res., 29, 183�198.
Pryor, S.C., R.J. Barthelmie, and E. Kjellstr�m, 2005a: Potential climate change
impact on wind energy resources in northern Europe: Analyses using a regional
climate model. Clim. Dyn., 25, 815�835.
Putaud, J.P., et al., 2004: European aerosol phenomenology-2: chemical
characteristics of particulate matter at kerbside, urban, rural and background
sites in Europe. Atmos. Environ., 38, 2579�2595.
Pyle, J., et al., 1996: Global Tracer Transport Models: Report of a Scientific
Symposium, Bermuda, 10-13 Dec. 1990. WCRP CAS/JSC Report No. 24 (World
Meteorological Organization, TD-No.770, Geneva, Switzerland), 186 pp.
Pyle, J., et al., 2005: Ozone and climate: a review of interconnections. In:
Special Report on Safeguarding the Ozone Layer and Global Climate System: Issues
Related to Hydrofluorocarbons and Perfluorocarbons [Metz., B., et al. (eds.)].
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp.
83�132.
P�pin, L., D. Raynaud, J.-M. Barnola, and M.F. Loutre, 2001: Hemispheric roles of
climate forcings during glacial-interglacial transitions, as deduced from the
Vostok record and LLN-2D model experiments. J. Geophys. Res., 106(D23),
31885�31892.
P�tron, G., et al., 2004: Monthly CO surface sources inventory based on the 2000-
2001 MOPITT data. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L21107, doi:10.1029/2004GL020560.
Qian, H., Y. Yin, and Y. Ni, 2003: Tropical Indian Ocean subsurface dipole mode
and diagnostic analysis of dipole event in 1997-1998. J. Appl. Meteorol. Sci., 14,
129�139 (in Chinese).
Qian, T., A. Dai, K.E. Trenberth, and K.W. Oleson, 2006: Simulation of global land
surface conditions from 1948 to 2002: Part I: Forcing data and evaluations. J.
Hydrometeorol., 7, 953�975.
Qian, Y., and F. Giorgi, 2000: Regional climatic effects of anthropogenic
aerosols? The case of Southwestern China. Geophys. Res. Lett., 27(21),
doi:10.1029/2000GL011942.
Qin, D., S. Liu, and P. Li, 2006: Snow cover distribution, variability, and
response to climate change in Western China. J. Clim., 19, 1820�1833.
Qiu, G., Y. Zhou, D. Guo, and Y. Wang, 2000: The map of geocryological
regionalization and classification in China. In: Geocryology in China [Zhou, Y.,
D. Guo, G. Qiu, G. Cheng, and S. Li (eds.)]. Science Press, Beijing (in Chinese).
The digital version of the map is available at the National Snow and Ice Data
Center, University of Colorado at Boulder, Boulder, CO,
http://nsidc.org/data/ggd603.html.
Qu, X., and A. Hall, 2005: Surface contribution to planetary albedo variability in
cryosphere regions. J. Clim., 18, 5239�5252.
Quaas, J., and O. Boucher, 2005: Constraining the first aerosol indirect radiative
forcing in the LMDZ GCM using POLDER and MODIS satellite data. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 32, L17814, doi:10.1029/2005GL023850.
Quaas, J., O. Boucher, and F.-M. Br�on, 2004: Aerosol indirect effects in POLDER
satellite data and the Laboratoire de M�t�orologie Dynamique-Zoom (LMDZ) general
circulation model. J. Geophys. Res., 109, doi:10.1029/2003JD004317.
Quaas, J., O. Boucher, and U. Lohmann, 2006: Constraining the total aerosol
indirect effect in the LMDZ and ECHAM4 GCMs using MODIS satellite data. Atmos.
Chem. Phys., 6, 947-955.
Quadfasel, D., A. Sy, D. Wells, and A. Tunik, 1991: Warming in the Arctic. Nature,
350(6317), 385.
Quadrelli, R., and J.M. Wallace, 2004: A simplified linear framework for
interpreting patterns of northern hemisphere wintertime climate variability. J.
Clim., 17, 3728�3744.
Quay, P., et al., 2000: Atmospheric (CO)-C-14: A tracer of OH concentration and
mixing rates. J. Geophys. Res., 105(D12), 15147�15166.
Quay, P., et al., 2003: Changes in the 13C/12C of dissolved inorganic carbon in
the ocean as a tracer of anthropogenic CO2 uptake. Global Biogeochem. Cycles,
17(1), 1004, doi:10.1029/2001GB001817.
Quesada, C.A., et al., 2004: Seasonal and depth variation of soil moisture in a
burned open savanna (campo sujo) in central Brazil. Ecol. Appl., 14, S33�41.
Quetelet, A., 1854: Rapport de la Conf�rence, tenue � Bruxelles, sur l�invitation
du gouvernement des Etats-Unis d�Am�rique, � l�effet de s�entendre sur un syst�me
uniform d�observations m�t�orologiques � la mer. Annuaire de l�Observatoire Royal
de Belgique, 21, 155�167.
Quinn, P.K., and T.S. Bates, 2005: Regional aerosol properties: comparisons from
ACE 1, ACE 2, Aerosols99, INDOEX, ACE Asia, TARFOX, and NEAQS. J. Geophys. Res.,
110, D14202, doi:10.1029/2004JD004755.
R�denbeck, C., S. Houweling, M. Gloor, and M. Heimann, 2003a: Time-dependent
atmospheric CO2 inversions based on interannually varying tracer transport.
Tellus, 55B, 488�497.
R�denbeck, C., S. Houweling, M. Gloor, and M. Heimann, 2003b: CO2 flux history
1982�2001 inferred from atmospheric data using a global inversion of atmospheric
transport. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 3, 2575�2659.
R�thlisberger, F., and M.A. Geyh, 1985: Glacier variations in Himalayas and
Karakorum. Z. Gletscherkunde Glazialgeologie, 21, 237�249.
R�thlisberger, R., et al., 2004: Ice core evidence for the extent of past
atmospheric CO2 change due to iron fertilisation. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31(16),
L16207, doi:10.1029/2004GL020338.
Rachold, V., et al., 2003: Modern terrigenous organic carbon input to the Arctic
Ocean. In: Organic Carbon Cycle in the Arctic Ocean: Present and Past [Stein, R.,
and R.W. Macdonald (eds.)]. Springer Verlag, Berlin, pp. 33�55.
Raes, F., T. Bates, F. McGovern, and M. Van Liedekerke, 2000: The 2nd Aerosol
Characterization Experiment (ACE-2): general overview and main results. Tellus,
52B, 111�125.
Rahmstorf, S., 1996: On the freshwater forcing and transport of the Atlantic
thermohaline circulation. Clim. Dyn., 12, 799�811.
Rahmstorf, S., 2001: Abrupt climate change. In: Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences,
Vol.1 [Steele, J., S. Thorpe, and K. Turekian (eds.)]. Academic Press, London, pp.
1�6.
Rahmstorf, S., 2002: Ocean circulation and climate during the past 120,000 years.
Nature, 419, 207�214.
Rahmstorf, S., and A. Ganopolski, 1999: Long-term global warming scenarios
computed with an efficient coupled climate model. Clim. Change, 43, 353�367.
Rahmstorf, S., and H.J. Schellnhuber, 2006: Der Klimawandel. Beck Verlag, Munich,
144 pp.
Rahmstorf, S., et al., 2005: Thermohaline circulation hysteresis: A model
intercomparison. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L23605, doi:10.1029/2005GL023655.
Raich, J., and W. Schlesinger, 1992: The global carbon dioxide flux in soil
respiration and its relationship to vegetation and climate. Tellus, 44B, 81�99.
Rajendran, K., A. Kitoh, and S. Yukimoto, 2004: South and East Asian summer
monsoon climate and variation in the MRI coupled model (MRI-CGM2). J. Clim., 17,
763�782.
Ramachandran, S., V. Ramaswamy, G.L. Stenchikov, and A. Robock, 2000: Radiative
impact of the Mt. Pinatubo volcanic eruption: Lower stratospheric response. J.
Geophys. Res., 105(D19), 24409�24429.
Ramanathan, V., 1975: Greenhouse effect due to chlorofluorocarbons: Climatic
implications. Science, 190, 50�52.
Ramanathan, V., 1981: The role of ocean-atmosphere interactions in the CO2 climate
problem. J. Atmos. Sci., 38, 918�930.
Ramanathan, V., 1988: The greenhouse theory of climate change: A test by an
inadvertent global experiment. Science, 240, 293�299.
Ramanathan, V., et al., 2001b: Indian Ocean experiment: An integrated analysis of
the climate forcing and effects of the great Indo-Asian haze. J. Geophys. Res.,
106(D22), 28371�28398.
Ramanathan, V., et al., 2005: Atmospheric brown clouds: Impacts on South Asian
climate and hydrological cycle. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.U.S.A., 102(15), 5326�5333.
Ramanathan, V., P.J. Crutzen, J.T. Kiehl, and D. Rosenfeld, 2001a: Atmosphere:
aerosols, climate, and the hydrological cycle. Science, 294, 2119�2124.
Ramankutty, N., and J.A. Foley, 1999: Estimating historical changes in global land
cover: croplands from 1700 to 1992. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 14, 997�1027.
Ramaswamy, V., et al., 2001: Radiative forcing of climate change. In: Climate
Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Third
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Houghton,
J.T., et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and
New York, NY, USA, pp. 349�416.
Ramaswamy, V., et al., 2006b: Anthropogenic and natural influences in the
evolution of lower stratospheric cooling. Science, 311, 1138�1141.
Ramaswamy, V., S. Ramachandran, G. Stenchikov, and A. Robock, 2006a: A model study
of the effect of Pinatubo volcanic aerosols on the stratospheric temperatures. In:
Frontiers of Climate Modeling [Kiehl, J.T., and V. Ramanathan (eds.)]. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 152�178.
Ramillien, G., et al., 2006: Interannual variations of the mass balance of the
Antarctica and Greenland ice sheets from GRACE. Global Planet. Change, 53,
198�208.
Ramstein, G., et al., 1998: Cloud processes associated with past and future
climate changes, Clim. Dyn., 14, 233�247.
Randall, C.E., R.M. Bevilacqua, J.D. Lumpe, and K.W. Hoppel, 2001: Validation of
POAM III aerosols: Comparison to SAGE II and HALOE. J. Geophys. Res., 106,
27525�27536.
Randall, D.A., et al., 1996: A revised land surface parameterization (SiB2) for
GCMs. Part III: The greening of the Colorado State University General Circulation
Model. J. Clim., 9, 738�763.
Randall, D.A., et al., 2003: Confronting models with data: The GEWEX Cloud Systems
Study. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 84, 455�469.
Randall, D.A., et al., 2006: Cloud feedbacks. In: Frontiers in the Science of
Climate Modeling [Kiehl, J.T., and V. Ramanathan (eds.)]. Proceedings of a
symposium in honor of Professor Robert D. Cess.
Randall, D.A., K.-M. Xu, R.C.J. Somerville, and S. Iacobellis, 1996: Single-column
models and cloud ensemble models as links between observations and climate models.
J. Clim., 9, 1683�1697.
Randel, W.J., and F. Wu, 2006: Biases in stratospheric temperature trends derived
from historical radiosonde data. J. Clim., 19, 2094�2104.
Randel, W.J., et al., 2004: Interannual changes of stratospheric water vapor and
correlations with tropical tropopause temperatures. J. Atmos. Sci., 61, 2133�2148.
Randel, W.J., et al., 2006: Decreases in stratospheric water vapor after 2001:
Links to changes in the tropical tropopause and the Brewer-Dobson circulation. J.
Geophys. Res., 111, D12312, doi:10.1029/2005JD006744.
Randerson, J.T., C.B. Field, I.Y. Fung, and C.B. Tans, 1999: Increases in early
season ecosystem uptake explain recent changes in the seasonal cycle of the
atmospheric CO2 at high northern latitudes. Geophys. Res. Lett., 26, 2765�2768.
Randerson, J.T., et al., 2002a: Net ecosystem production: A comprehensive measure
of net carbon accumulation by ecosystems. Ecol. Appl., 12(4), 937�947.
Randerson, J.T., et al., 2002b: Seasonal and latitudinal variability of
troposphere ?14CO2: Post bomb contributions from fossil fuels, oceans, the
stratosphere, and the terrestrial biosphere. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 16(4),
1112, doi:10.1029/2002GB001876.
Randerson, J.T., et al., 2002c: A possible global covariance between terrestrial
gross primary production and 13C discrimination: Consequences for the atmospheric
13C budget and its response to ENSO. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 16(4), 1136,
doi:10.1029/2001GB001845.
Randerson, J.T., et al., 2002d: Carbon isotope discrimination of arctic and boreal
biomes inferred from remote atmospheric measurements and a biosphere-atmosphere
model. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 16(3), doi:10.1029/2001GB001435.
Randerson, J.T., et al., 2005: Fire emissions from C-3 and C-4 vegetation and
their influence on interannual variability of atmospheric CO2 and ?13CO2. Global
Biogeochem. Cycles, 19(2), GB2019, doi:10.1029/2004GB002366.
Randles, C.A., L.M. Russell, and V. Ramaswamy, 2004: Hygroscopic and optical
properties of organic sea salt aerosol and consequences for climate forcing.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L16108, doi:10.1029/2004GL020628.
Raper, S.C.B., and R.J. Braithwaite, 2005: The potential for sea level rise: New
estimates from glacier and ice cap area and volume distributions. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 32, L05502, doi:10.1029/2004GL021981.
Raper, S.C.B., and R.J. Braithwaite, 2006: Low sea level rise projections from
mountain glaciers and icecaps under global warming. Nature, 439, 311�313.
Raper, S.C.B., J.M. Gregory, and R.J. Stouffer, 2002: The role of climate
sensitivity and ocean heat uptake on AOGCM transient temperature response. J.
Clim., 15, 124�130.
Raper, S.C.B., J.M. Gregory, and T.J. Osborn, 2001: Use of an upwelling-diffusion
energy balance model to simulate and diagnose A/OGCM results. Clim. Dyn., 17,
601�613.
Raper, S.C.B., O. Brown, and R.J. Braithwaite, 2000: A geometric glacier model for
sea-level change calculations. J. Glaciol., 46, 357�368.
Raper, S.C.B., T.M.L. Wigley, and R.A. Warrick, 1996: Global sea-level rise: past
and future. In: Sea-Level Rise and Coastal Subsidence: Causes, Consequences and
Strategies [Milliman, J.D., and B.U. Haq (eds.)]. Kluwer Academic Publishers,
Dordrecht, The Netherlands, pp. 11�46.
Raphael, M.N., and M.M. Holland, 2006: Twentieth century simulation of the
Southern Hemisphere climate in coupled models. Part 1: Large scale circulation
variability. Clim. Dyn., 26, 217�228, doi:10.1007/s00382-005-0082-8.
Rasch, P.J., 2000: A comparison of scavenging and deposition processes in global
models: results from the WCRP Cambridge Workshop of 1995. Tellus, 52B, 1025�1056.
Rasch, P.J., and J.E. Kristj�nsson, 1998. A comparison of the CCM3 model climate
using diagnosed and predicted condensate parametrizations. J. Clim., 11,
1587�1614.
Rauthe, M., A. Hense, and H. Paeth, 2004: A model intercomparison study of climate
change-signals in extratropical circulation. Int. J. Climatol., 24, 643�662.
Rauthe, M., and H. Paeth, 2004: Relative importance of Northern Hemisphere
circulation modes in predicting regional climate change. J. Clim., 17, 4180�4189.
Ravelo, A.C., et al., 1997: Pliocene carbonate accumulation along the California
margin. Paleoceanography, 12, 729�741.
Raven, J., et al., 2005: Ocean Acidification Due to Increasing Atmospheric Carbon
Dioxide. The Royal Society, London, 60 pp.
Raymo, M.E., and G.H. Rau, 1992: Plio-Pleistocene atmospheric CO2 levels inferred
from POM d13C at DSDP Site 607. Eos, 73, 95.
Raymo, M.E., B. Grant, M. Horowitz, and G.H. Rau, 1996: Mid-Pliocene warmth:
Stronger greenhouse and stronger conveyor. Mar. Micropaleontol., 27(1�4), 313�326.
Raymo, M.E., et al., 1989: Late Pliocene variation in northern hemisphere ice
sheets and North Atlantic deep water circulation. Paleoceanography, 4, 413�446.
Raymond, P.A., and J.J. Cole, 2003: Increase in the export of alkalinity from
North America�s largest river. Science, 301, 88�91.
Raynaud, D., et al., 2005: The record for marine isotopic stage 11. Nature,
436(7047), 39�40.
Raynaud, D., J. Chappellaz, C. Ritz, and P. Martinerie, 1997: Air content along
the Greenland Ice Core Project core: A record of surface climatic parameters and
elevation in central Greenland. J. Geophys. Res., 102, 26607�26614.
Rayner, N.A., et al., 2003: Global analyses of sea surface temperature, sea ice,
and night marine air temperature since the late nineteenth century. J. Geophys.
Res., 108(D14), doi:10.1029/2002JD002670.
Rayner, P.J., et al., 2005: Two decades of terrestrial carbon fluxes from a Carbon
Cycle Data Assimilation System (CCDAS). Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 19,
doi:10.1029/2004GB002254.
Rayner, P.J., I.G. Enting, R.J. Francey, and R. Langenfelds, 1999: Reconstructing
the recent carbon cycle from atmospheric CO2, d13C and O2/N2 observations. Tellus,
51B(2), 213�232.
Read, W.G., L. Froidevaux, and J.W. Waters, 1993: Microwave limb sounder
measurements of stratospheric SO2 from the Mt. Pinatubo volcano. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 20(12), 1299�1302.
Reader, M., and G. Boer, 1998: The modification of greenhouse gas warming by the
direct effect of sulphate aerosols. Clim. Dyn., 14, 593�607.
Reale, O., P. Dirmeyer, and A. Schlosser, 2002: Modeling the effect of land
surface evaporation variability on precipitation variability. II: Time- and space-
scale structure. J. Hydrometeorol., 3(4), 451�466.
Reason, C., and A. Keibel, 2004: Tropical Cyclone Eline and its unusual
penetration and impacts over the southern African mainland. Weather Forecasting,
19(5), 789�805.
Reason, C.J.C., and M. Rouault,2005: Links between the Antarctic Oscillation and
winter rainfall over western South Africa. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L07705,
doi:10.1029/2005GL022419.
Reddy, M.S., and O. Boucher, 2004: A study of the global cycle of carbonaceous
aerosols in the LMDZT general circulation model. J. Geophys. Res., 109, D14202,
doi:10.1029/2003JD004048.
Reddy, M.S., et al., 2005b: Estimates of global multicomponent aerosol optical
depth and direct radiative perturbation in the Laboratoire de M�t�orologie
Dynamique general circulation model. J. Geophys. Res., 110, D10S16,
doi:10.1029/2004JD004757.
Reddy, M.S., O. Boucher, Y. Balanski, and M. Schulz, 2005a: Aerosol optical depths
and direct radiative perturbations by species and source type. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 32, L12803, doi:10.1029/2004GL021743.
Redi, M.H., 1982: Oceanic isopycnal mixing by coordinate rotation. J. Phys.
Oceanogr., 12, 1154�1158.
Reich, P.B., et al., 2006: Nitrogen limitation constrains sustainability of
ecosystem response to CO2. Nature, 440, 922�925, doi:10.1038/nature04486.
Reichert, B.K., L. Bengtsson, and J. Oerlemans, 2001: Midlatitude forcing
mechanisms for glacier mass balance investigated using general circulation models.
J. Clim., 14(17), 3767�3784.
Reichert, B.K., L. Bengtsson, and J. Oerlemans, 2002a: Recent glacier retreat
exceeds internal variability. J. Clim., 15, 3069�3081.
Reichert, B.K., R. Schnur, and L. Bengtsson, 2002b: Global ocean warming tied to
anthropogenic forcing. Geophys. Res. Lett., 29(11), 1525.
Reid, G.C., 1991: Solar irradiance variations and the global sea surface
temperature record. J. Geophys. Res., 96, 2835�2844.
Reid, J.S., et al., 1999: Use of the Angstrom exponent to estimate the variability
of optical and physical properties of aging smoke particles in Brazil. J. Geophys.
Res., 104(D22), 27473�27490.
Reid, J.S., et al., 2003: Analysis of measurements of Saharan dust by airborne and
ground-based remote sensing methods during the Puerto Rico Dust Experiment
(PRIDE). J. Geophys. Res., 108(D19), 8586, doi:10.1029/2002JD002493.
Reimann, S., et al., 2005: Low methyl chloroform emissions inferred from long-term
atmospheric measurements. Nature, 433, 506�508, doi:10.1038/nature03220.
Reinsel, G.C., et al., 2005: Trend analysis of total ozone data for turnaround and
dynamical contributions. J. Geophys. Res., 110, D16306, doi:10.1029/2004JD004662.
Remer, L.A., and Y.J. Kaufman, 2006: Aerosol direct radiative effect at the top of
the atmosphere over cloud free oceans derived from four years of MODIS data.
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 237�253.
Remer, L.A., et al., 2002: Validation of MODIS aerosol retrieval over ocean.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 29(12), doi:10.1029/2001GL013204.
Remer,�L.A., et al., 2005: The MODIS aerosol algorithm, products, and validation.
J. Atmos. Sci., 62, 947�973.
Ren, J., et al., 2004: Glacier variations and climate warming and drying in the
central Himalayas. Chin. Sci. Bull., 49(1), 65�69.
Ren, X., et al., 2003: OH and HO2 chemistry in the urban atmosphere of New York
City. Atmos. Environ., 37, 3639�3651.
Renssen, H., and J. Vandenberghe, 2003: Investigation of the relationship between
permafrost distribution in NW Europe and extensive winter sea-ice cover in the
North Atlantic Ocean during the cold phases of the last glaciation. Quat. Sci.
Rev., 22, 209�223.
Renssen, H., et al., 2005: Simulating the Holocene climate evolution at northern
high latitudes using a coupled atmosphere-sea ice-ocean-vegetation model. Clim.
Dyn., 24(1), 23�43.
Renssen, H., H. Goosse, and T. Fichefet, 2002: Modeling the effect of freshwater
pulses on the early Holocene climate: the influence of high frequency climate
variability. Paleoceanography, 17, 1020, doi:10.1029/2001PA000649.
Renssen, H., V. Brovkin, T. Fichefet, and H. Goosse, 2003: Holocene climate
instability during the termination of the African humid period. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 30, 1184, ?doi:10.1029/2002GL016636.
Renwick, J.A., 1998: ENSO-related variability in the frequency of South Pacific
blocking. Mon. Weather Rev., 126, 3117�3123.
Renwick, J.A., 2002: Southern Hemisphere circulation and relations with sea ice
and sea surface temperature. J. Clim., 15, 3058�3068.
Revelle, R., and H.E. Suess, 1957: Carbon dioxide exchange between atmosphere and
ocean and the question of an increase of atmospheric CO2 during the past decades.
Tellus, 9, 18�27.
Reverdin, G., D. Cayan, and Y. Kushnir, 1997: Decadal variability of hydrography
in the upper northern North Atlantic in 1948-1990. J. Geophys. Res., 102(C4),
8505�8531.
Reynolds, R.W., and T.M. Smith, 1994: Improved global sea surface temperature
analyses using optimum interpolation. J. Clim., 7, 929�948.
Rial, J.A., 2004: Abrupt climate change: chaos and order at orbital and millennial
scales. Global Planet. Change, 41, 95�109.
Rice, A.H., et al., 2004: Carbon balance and vegetation dynamics in an old-growth
Amazonian Forest. Ecol. Appl., 14(4), S55�S71.
Richards, J.F, 1990: Land transformation. In: The Earth as Transformed by Human
Action [Turner, B.L. II, et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, New York, NY,
pp. 163�178.
Richey, J.E., 2004: Pathways of atmospheric CO2 through fluvial systems. In: The
Global Carbon Cycle: Integrating Humans, Climate, and the Natural World [Field,
C., and M. Raupach (eds)]. SCOPE 62, Island Press, Washington, DC, pp. 329�340.
Richter, A., and J.P. Burrows, 2002: Tropospheric NO2 from GOME measurements. Adv.
Space Res., 29, 1673�1683.
Richter, A., et al., 2004: Satellite measurements of NO2 from international
shipping emissions. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, doi:10.1029/2004GL020822.
Richter, A., et al., 2005: Increase in tropospheric nitrogen dioxide over China
observed from space. Nature, 437, 129�132.
Ridgwell, A.J., A.J. Watson, M.A. Maslin, and J.O. Kaplan, 2003: Implications of
coral reef buildup for the controls on atmospheric CO2 since the Last Glacial
Maximum Paleoceanography, 18(4), doi:10.1029/2003PA000893.
Ridgwell, A.J., S.J. Marshall, and K. Gregson, 1999: Consumption of atmospheric
methane by soils: A process-based model. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 13, 59�70.
Ridley, J.K., P. Huybrechts, J.M. Gregory, and J.A. Lowe, 2005: Elimination of the
Greenland ice sheet in a high CO2 climate. J. Clim., 18, 3409�3427.
Riebesell, U., D.A. Wolf-Gladrow, and V. Smetacek, 1993: Carbon dioxide limitation
of marine phytoplankton growth rates. Nature, 361, 249�251.
Riebesell, U., et al., 2000: Reduced calcification of marine plankton in response
to increased atmospheric CO2. Nature, 407, 364�367.
Rignot, E., 1998: Fast recession of a West Antarctic glacier. Science, 281,
549�551.
Rignot, E., 2001: Evidence for a rapid retreat and mass loss of Thwaites Glacier,
West Antarctica. J. Glaciol., 47, 213�222.
Rignot, E., A. Rivera, and G. Casassa, 2003: Contribution of the Patagonia
Icefields of South America to sea level rise. Science, 302, 434�437.
Rignot, E., and P. Kanagaratnam, 2006: Changes in the velocity structure of the
Greenland Ice Sheet. Science, 311, 986�990.
Rignot, E., and R.H. Thomas, 2002: Mass balance of polar ice sheets. Science,
297(5586), 1502�1506.
Rignot, E., and S.S. Jacobs, 2002: Rapid bottom melting widespread near Antarctic
ice sheet grounding lines. Science, 296, 2020�2023.
Rignot, E., et al., 2002: Acceleration of Pine Island and Thwaites Glaciers, West
Antarctica. Ann. Glaciol., 34, 189�194.
Rignot, E., et al., 2004: Accelerated ice discharge from the Antarctic Peninsula
following the collapse of Larsen B ice shelf. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31(18), L18401,
doi:10.1029/2004GL020697.
Rignot, E., et al., 2005: Recent ice loss from the Fleming and other glaciers,
Wordie Bay, West Antarctic Peninsula. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32(7), 1�4.
Rigor, I.G., J.M. Wallace, and R.L. Colony, 2002: Response of sea ice to the
Arctic Oscillation. J. Clim., 15, 2648�2668.
Rigozo, N.R., E. Echer, L.E.A. Vieira, and D.J.R. Nordemann, 2001: Reconstruction
of Wolf sunspot numbers on the basis of spectral characteristics and estimates of
associated radio flux and solar wind parameters for the last millennium. Sol.
Phys., 203, 179�191.
Rimbu, N., et al., 2004: Holocene climate variability as derived from alkenone sea
surface temperature and coupled ocean-atmosphere model experiments. Clim. Dyn.,
23, 215�227.
Rind, D., and M.A. Chandler, 1991: Increased ocean heat transports and warmer
climate. J. Geophys. Res., 96, 7437�7461.
Rind, D., et al., 2004: The relative importance of solar and anthropogenic forcing
of climate change between the Maunder Minimum and the present. J. Clim., 17(5),
906�929.
Rind, D., J. Lerner, and C. McLinden, 2001: Changes of tracer distributions in the
doubled CO2 climate. J. Geophys. Res., 106, 28061�28079.
Rind, D., J. Perlwitz, and P. Lonergan, 2005a: AO/NAO response to climate change.
Part I: The respective influences of stratospheric and tropospheric climate
changes. J. Geophys. Res., 110, D12107, doi:10.1029/2004JD005103.
Rind, D., J. Perlwitz, and P. Lonergan, 2005b: AO/NAO response to climate change.
Part II: The relative importance of low and high latitude temperature changes. J.
Geophys. Res., 110, D12108, doi:10.1029/2004JD005686.
Rind, D., R.J. Healy, C. Parkinson, and D. Martinson, 1995: The role of sea ice in
2�CO2 climate model sensitivity. 1. The total influence of sea ice thickness and
extent. J. Clim., 8, 449�463.
Rind, D.G., et al., 2001: Effects of glacial meltwater in the GISS Coupled
Atmosphere-Ocean model: Part II. A bipolar seesaw in deep water production. J.
Geophys. Res., 106, 27355�27365.
Ringer, M.A., and R.P. Allan, 2004: Evaluating climate model simulations of
tropical clouds. Tellus, 56A, 308�327.
Ringer, M.A., et al., 2006: The physical properties of the atmosphere in the new
Hadley Centre Global Environmental Model (HadGEM1). Part II: Aspects of
variability and regional climate. J. Clim., 19, 1302�1326.
Rinke, A., and K. Dethloff, 2000: On the sensitivity of a regional Arctic climate
model to initial and boundary conditions. Clim. Res., 14(2), 101�113.
Rinke, A., et al., 2003: A case study of the anomalous Arctic sea ice conditions
during 1990: Insights from coupled and uncoupled regional climate model
simulations. J. Geophys. Res., 108, 4275, doi:10.1029/2002JD003146.
Rinke, A., et al., 2006: Evaluation of an ensemble of Arctic regional climate
models: Spatial patterns and height profiles. Clim. Dyn., 26(5), 459�472,
doi:10.1007/s00382-005-0095-3.
Risebrobakken, B., et al., 2003: A high resolution study of Holocene paleoclimatic
and paleoceanographic changes in the Nordic Seas. Paleoceanography, 18, 1�14.
Risebrobakken, B., T.M. Dokken, and E. Jansen, 2005: Extent and variability of the
meridional Atlantic circulation in the eastern Nordic seas during marine isotope
stage 5 and its influence on the inception of the last glacial. In: The Nordic
Seas: An Integrated Perspective [Drange, H., et al. (eds.)]. Geophysical
Monographs Vol. 158, American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, pp. 323�340.
Rissler, J., et al., 2004: Physical properties of the sub-micrometer aerosol over
the Amazon rain forest during the wet-to-dry season transition � Comparison of
modeled and measured CCN concentrations. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 4, 2119�2143.
RIVM (Rijks Instituut voor Volksgezondheid en Milieu), 2002: The IMAGE 2.2
Implementation of the SRES Scenarios: A Comprehensive Analysis of Emissions,
Climate Change and Impacts in the 21st Century. CD-ROM,
http://www.rivm.nl/bibliotheek/rapporten/481508018.html.
Rixen, M., et al., 2005: The Western Mediterranean Deep Water: A new proxy for
global climate change. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L12608, doi:10.1029/2005GL022702.
Roads, J., et al., 2003: International Research Institute/Applied Research Centers
(IRI/ARCs) regional model intercomparison over South America. J. Geophys. Res.,
108(D14), 4425, doi:10.1029/2002jd003201.
Roberts, D.L., and A. Jones, 2004: Climate sensitivity to black carbon aerosol
from fossil fuel combustion. J. Geophys. Res., 109, D16202,
doi:10.1029/2004JD004676.
Roberts, J.M., A.J. Wheeler, and A. Freiwald, 2006: Reefs of the deep: The biology
and geology of cold-water coral ecosystems. Science, 312, 543�547.
Roberts, M., et al., 2004: Impact of an eddy-permitting ocean resolution on
control and climate change simulations with a global coupled GCM. J. Clim., 17,
3�20.
Roberts, M.J., 2004: The Ocean Component of HadGEM1. GMR Report Annex IV.D.3, Met
Office, Exeter, UK.
Robertson, A., et al., 2001: Hypothesized climate forcing time series for the last
500 years. J. Geophys. Res., 106(D14), 14783�14803.
Robertson, A.W., 2001: Influence of ocean-atmosphere interaction on the Arctic
Oscillation in two general circulation models. J. Clim., 14, 3240�3254.
Robertson, A.W., J.D. Farrara, and C.R. Mechoso, 2003: Simulations of the
atmospheric response to South Atlantic sea surface temperature anomalies. J.
Clim., 16, 2540�2551.
Robertson, R., M. Visbek, A. Gordon, and E. Fahrbach, 2002: Long term temperature
trends in the deep waters of the Weddell. Deep-Sea Res., 49, 4791�4802.
Robinson, D.A., and A. Frei, 2000: Seasonal variability of northern hemisphere
snow extent using visible satellite data. Professional Geogr., 51, 307�314.
Robinson, D.A., K.F. Dewey, and R.R. Heim Jr., 1993: Global snow cover monitoring:
an update. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 74, 1689�1696.
Robles-Gonzalez, C., J.P. Veefkind, and G. de Leeuw, 2000: Mean aerosol optical
depth over Europe in August 1997 derived from ATSR-2 data. Geophys. Res. Lett.
27(7), 955�959.
Robock, A., 1982: The Russian surface temperature data set. J. Appl. Meteorol.,
21, 1781�1785.
Robock, A., 2000: Volcanic eruptions and climate. Rev. Geophys., 38(2), 191�219.
Robock, A., 2005: Cooling following large volcanic eruptions corrected for the
effect of diffuse radiation on tree rings. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L06702,
doi:10.1029/2004GL022116.
Robock, A., and M.P. Free, 1995: Ice cores as an index of global volcanism from
1850 to the present. J. Geophys. Res., 100(D6), 11549�11567.
Robock, A., and Y. Liu, 1994: The volcanic signal in Goddard Institute for Space
Studies three-dimensional model simulations. J. Clim., 7, 44�55.
Robock, A., et al., 2000: The global soil moisture data bank. Bull. Am. Meteorol.
Soc., 81, 1281�1299.
Robock, A., M. Mu, K. Vinnikov, and D. Robinson, 2003: Land surface conditions
over Eurasia and Indian summer monsoon rainfall. J. Geophys. Res., 108(D4), 4131,
doi: 10.1029/2002JD002286.
Robson, J.I., et al., 2006: Revised IR spectrum, radiative efficiency and global
warming potential of nitrogen trifluoride. Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L10817,
doi:10.1029/2006GL026210.
Robson, J.I., et al., 2006: Revised IR spectrum, radiative efficiency and global
warming potential of nitrogen trifluoride. Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L10817,
doi:10.1029/2006GL026210.
Roche, D., D. Paillard, and E. Cortijo, 2004: Constraints on the duration and
freshwater release of Heinrich event 4 through isotope modelling. Nature, 432,
379�382.
Rockel, B., and K. Woth, 2007: Future changes in near surface wind speed extremes
over Europe from an ensemble of RCM simulations. Clim. Change, doi:
10.1007/s10584-006-9227-y.
Rockmann, T., J. Grooss, and R. Muller, 2004: The impact of anthropogenic chlorine
emissions, stratospheric ozone change and chemical feedbacks on stratospheric
water. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 4, 693�699.
Rockmann, T., J. Grooss, and R. Muller, 2004: The impact of anthropogenic chlorine
emissions, stratospheric ozone change and chemical feedbacks on stratospheric
water. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 4, 693�699.
Rodbell, D.T., et al., 1999: An ~15,000-year record of El Ni�o-driven alluviation
in southwestern Ecuador. Science, 283, 516�520.
Roderick, M.L., G.D. Farquhar, S.L. Berry, and I.R. Noble, 2001: On the direct
effect of clouds and atmospheric particles on the productivity and structure of
vegetation. Oecologia, 129, 21�30.
Rodwell, M.J., D.P. Rowell, and C.K. Folland, 1999: Oceanic forcing of the
wintertime North Atlantic oscillation and European climate. Nature, 398, 320�323.
Roeckner, E., et al., 1996: The Atmospheric General Circulation Model ECHAM4:
Model Description and Simulation of Present-Day Climate. MPI Report No. 218, Max-
Planck-Institut f�r Meteorologie, Hamburg, Germany, 90 pp.
Roeckner, E., et al., 1999: Transient climate change simulations with a coupled
atmosphere-ocean GCM including the tropospheric sulphur cycle. J. Clim., 12,
3004�3032.
Roeckner, E., et al., 2003: The Atmospheric General Circulation Model ECHAM5. Part
I: Model Description. MPI Report 349, Max Planck Institute for Meteorology,
Hamburg, Germany, 127 pp.
Roeckner, E., et al., 2006: Impact of carbonaceous aerosol emissions on regional
climate change. Clim. Dyn., 27, 553�571.
Roeckner, E., L. Bengtsson, and J. Feichter, 1999: Transient climate change
simulations with a coupled atmosphere-ocean GCM including the tropospheric sulfur
cycle. J. Clim., 12, 3004�3032.
Roeckner, E., U. Schlese, J. Biercamp, and P. Loewe, 1987: Cloud optical depth
feedbacks and climate modelling. Nature, 329, 138�140.
Roemmich, et al., 2007: Decadal spin-up of the South Pacific Subtropical Gyre. J.
Phys. Oceanogr., 37, 162-173.
Roesch, A., 2006: Evaluation of surface albedo and snow cover in AR4 coupled
climate models. J. Geophys. Res., 111, D15111, doi:10.1029/2005JD006473.
Roether, W., et al., 1996: Recent changes in eastern Mediterranean deep waters.
Science, 271(5247), 333�335.
Rohling, E.J., and H. Palike, 2005: Centennial-scale climate cooling with a sudden
cold event around 8,200 years ago. Nature, 434, 975�979.
Rohling, E.J., and H.L. Bryden, 1992: Man-induced salinity and temperature
increases in western Mediterranean deep-water. J. Geophys. Res., 97(C7),
11191�11198.
Rojas, M., and A. Seth, 2003: Simulation and sensitivity in a nested modeling
system for South America. Part II: GCM boundary forcing. J. Clim., 16, 2454�2471.
Romanovsky, V.E., et al., 2002: Permafrost temperature records: Indicator of
climate change. Eos, 83(50), 589, 593�594.
Ronski, S., and G. Budeus, 2005: Time series of winter convection in the Greenland
Sea. J. Geophys. Res., 110, C04015, doi:10.1029/2004JC002318.
Rooth, C., 1982: Hydrology and ocean circulation. Prog. Oceanogr., 11, 131�149.
Rosati, A., K. Miyakoda, and R. Gudgel, 1997: The impact of ocean initial
conditions on ENSO forecasting with a coupled model. Mon. Weather Rev., 125(5),
754�772.
Rosell-Mele, A., et al., 2004: Sea surface temperature anomalies in the oceans at
the LGM estimated from the alkenone-UK�37 index: comparison with GCMs. Geophys.
Res. Lett., 31, L03208, doi:10.1029/2003GL018151.
Rosenfeld, D., 1999: TRMM observed first direct evidence of smoke from forest
fires inhibiting rainfall. Geophys. Res. Lett., 26(20), doi:10.1029/1999GL006066.
Rosenfeld, D., 2000: Suppression of rain and snow by urban and industrial air
pollution. Science, 287, 1793�1796.
Rosenfeld, D., and G. Feingold, 2003: Explanation of discrepancies among satellite
observations of the aerosol indirect effects. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30(14), 1776,
doi:10.1029/2003GL017684.
Rosenfeld, D., and W.L. Woodley, 2000: Deep convective clouds with sustained
supercooled liquid water down to �37.5 �C. Nature, 405, 440�442.
Rosenfeld, D., R. Lahav, A. Khain, and M. Pinsky, 2002: The role of sea spray in
cleansing air pollution over the ocean via cloud processes. Science, 297,
1667�1670.
Rosenfeld, D., Y. Rudich, and R. Lahav, 2001: Desert dust suppressing
precipitation: a possible desertification feedback loop. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.
U.S.A., 98, 5975�5980.
Rosenfield, J.E., A.R. Douglass, and D.B. Considine, 2002: The impact of
increasing carbon dioxide on ozone recovery. J. Geophys. Res., 107(D6), 4049,
doi:10.1029/2001JD000824.
Rosenlof, K.H., et al., 2001. Stratospheric water vapor increase over the past
half-century. Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 1195�1198.
Rosenthal, Y., and A.J. Broccoli, 2004: In search of Paleo-ENSO. Science, 304,
219�221.
Ross, K.E., et al., 2003: Spatial and seasonal variations in CCN distribution and
the aerosol-CCN relationship over southern Africa. J. Geophys. Res., 108(D13),
8481, doi:10.1029/2002JD002384.
Ross, R.J., W.P. Elliott, D.J. Seidel, and participating AMIP-II modelling groups,
2002: Lower tropospheric humidity-temperature relationships in radiosonde
observations and atmospheric general circulation models. J. Hydrometeorol., 3,
26�38.
Rossow, W.B., and R.A. Schiffer, 1991: ISCCP cloud data products. Bull. Am.
Meteorol. Soc., 72, 2�20.
Rostami, K., W.R. Peltier, and A. Mangini, 2000: Quaternary marine terraces, sea-
level changes and uplift history of Patagonia, Argentina. Comparisons with
predictions of ICE-4G (VM2) model of the global process of glacial isostatic
adjustment. Quat. Sci. Rev., 19, 1495�1525.
Rothrock, D.A., J. Zhang, and Y. Yu., 2003: The arctic ice thickness anomaly of
the 1990s: A consistent view from observations and models. J. Geophys. Res.,
108(C3), 3083, doi:10.1029/2001JC001208.
Rothrock, D.A., Y. Yu, and G.A. Maykut, 1999: Thinning of the Arctic sea-ice
cover. Geophys. Res. Lett., 26, 3469�3472.
Rotman, D.A., et al., 2004: IMPACT, the LLNL 3-D global atmospheric chemical
transport model for the combined troposphere and stratosphere: Model description
and analysis of ozone and other trace gases. J. Geophys. Res., 109, D04303,
doi:10.1029/2002JD003155.
Rotstayn, L.D., 1997: A physically based scheme for the treatment of stratiform
clouds and precipitation in large-scale models. I: Description and evaluation of
the microphysical processes. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 123, 1227�1282.
Rotstayn, L.D., and J.E. Penner, 2001: Indirect aerosol forcing, quasi forcing,
and climate response. J. Clim., 14, 2960�2975.
Rotstayn, L.D., and U. Lohmann, 2002: Tropical rainfall trends and the indirect
aerosol effect. J. Clim., 15, 2103�2116.
Rotstayn, L.D., and Y. Liu, 2003: Sensitivity of the first indirect aerosol effect
to an increase of the cloud droplet spectral dispersion with droplet number
concentration. J. Clim., 16, 3476�3481.
Rotstayn, L.D., and Y. Liu, 2005: A smaller global estimate of the second indirect
aerosol effect. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L05708, doi:10.1029/2004GL021922.
Rotstayn, L.D., B.F. Ryan, and J. Katzfey, 2000: A scheme for calculation of the
liquid fraction in mixed-phase clouds in large scale models. Mon. Weather Rev.,
128, 1070�1088.
Rotstayn, L.D., B.F. Ryan, and J.E. Penner, 2000: Precipitation changes in a GCM
resulting from the indirect effects of anthropogenic aerosols. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 27, 3045�3048.
Rottman, G., 2005: The SORCE Mission. Solar Phys., 230, 7�25.
Rougier, J.C., 2007: Probabilistic inference for future climate using an ensemble
of climate model evaluations. Clim. Change, 81, 247�264.
Rowell, D.P., 1996: Reply to comments by Y.C. Sud and W.K.-M. Lau. Q. J. R.
Meteorol. Soc., 122, 1007�1013.
Rowell, D.P., 2003: The Impact of Mediterranean SSTs on the Sahelian rainfall
season. J. Clim., 16, 849�862.
Rowell, D.P., 2005: A scenario of European climate change for the late 21st
century: seasonal means and interannual variability. Clim. Dyn., 25, 837�849.
Rowell, D.P., and R.G. Jones, 2006: Causes and uncertainty of future summer drying
over Europe. Clim. Dyn., 27, 281�299.
Rowell, D.P., C.K. Folland, K. Maskell, and N.M. Ward, 1995: Variability of summer
rainfall over Tropical North Africa (1906-92): Observations and modelling. Q. J.
R. Meteorol. Soc., 121, 669�704.
Roy, S.B., G.C. Hurtt, C.P. Weaver, and S.W. Pacala, 2003: Impact of historical
land cover change on the July climate of the United States. J. Geophys. Res.,
108(D24), 4793, doi:10.1029/2003JD003565.
Roy, T., P. Rayner, R. Matear, and R. Francey, 2003: Southern hemisphere ocean CO2
uptake: reconciling atmospheric and oceanic estimates. Tellus, 55B(2), 701�710.
Royal Society, 2005: Ocean Acidification Due to Increasing Atmospheric Carbon
Dioxide. Policy document 12/05, June 2005, The Royal Society, London, 60 pp.,
http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/document.asp?tip=0&id=3249.
Royer, D., 2003: Estimating latest Cretaceous and Tertiary atmospheric CO2 from
stomatal indices. In: Causes and Consequences of Globally Warm Climates in the
Early Paleogene [Wing, S.L., P.D. Gingerich, B. Schmitz, and E. Thomas (eds.)].
Special Paper Vol. 369, Geological Society of America, Boulder, CO, pp. 79�93.
Royer, D.L., 2006: CO2-forced climate thresholds during the Phanerozoic. Geochim.
Cosmochim. Acta, 70(23), 5665�5675.
Royer, D.L., et al., 2001: Paleobotanical evidence for near present-day levels of
atmospheric CO2 during part of the tertiary. Science, 292(5525), 2310�2313.
Rozanov, E.V., et al., 2002: Climate/chemistry effect of the Pinatubo volcanic
eruption simulated by the UIUC stratosphere/troposphere GCM with interactive
photochemistry. J. Geophys. Res., 107, 4594, doi:10.1029/2001JD000974.
Rozanov, E.V., et al., 2004: Atmospheric response to the observed increase of
solar UV radiation from solar minimum to solar maximum simulated by the University
of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign climate-chemistry model. J. Geophys. Res., 109,
D01110, doi:10.1029/2003JD003796.
Ruddiman, W.F. (ed.), 1997: Tectonic Uplift and Climate Change. Plenum Press, New
York, 535 pp.
Ruddiman, W.F., 2003: Orbital insolation, ice volume and greenhouse gases. Quat.
Sci. Rev., 15�17, 1597�1629.
Ruddiman, W.F., and J.S. Thomson, 2001: The case for human causes of increased
atmospheric CH4. Quat. Sci. Rev., 20(18), 1769�1777.
Ruddiman, W.F., S.J. Vavrus, and J.E. Kutzbach, 2005: A test of the overdue-
glaciation hypothesis. Quat. Sci. Rev., 24, 1�10.
Rumford, B., Count, 1800: Essay VII. The propagation of heat in fluids. In:
Essays, Political, Economical, and Philosophical, A New Edition. T. Cadell, Jr.,
and W. Davies. London, pp. 197�386. Also in: Collected Works of Count Rumford, 1,
The Nature of Heat [Brown, S.C. (ed.)]. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA
(1968), pp. 117�285.
Rummukainen, M., et al., 2003: Regional climate scenarios for use in Nordic water
resources studies. Nord Hydrol., 34(5), 399�412.
Rummukainen, M., et al., 2004: The Swedish Regional Climate Modelling Programme,
SWECLIM: a review. Ambio, 33, 176�182.
Ruosteenoja, K, T.R. Carter, K. Jylh�, and H. Tuomenvirta, 2003: Future Climate in
World Regions: And Intercomparison of Model-Based Projections for the New IPCC
Emissions Scenarios. Finnish Environment Institute, Helsinki, 83 pp.
Ruosteenoja, K., H. Tuomenvirta, and K. Jylh�, 2007: GCM-based regional
temperature and precipitation change estimates for Europe under four SRES
scenarios applying a super-ensemble pattern-scaling method. Clim. Change, doi:
10.1007/s10584-006-9222-3.
Rupa Kumar, K., and R.G. Ashrit, 2001: Regional aspects of global climate change
simulations: Validation and assessment of climate response over Indian monsoon
region to transient increase of greenhouse gases and sulfate aerosols. Mausam,
Special Issue on Climate Change,52, 229�244.
Rupa Kumar, K., et al., 2002: Climate change in India: Observations and model
projections, In: Climate Change and India: Issues, Concerns and Opportunities
[Shukla, P.R., et al., (eds.)]. Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. Ltd., New Delhi,
pp. 24�75.
Rupa Kumar, K., et al., 2003:Future climate scenarios. In: Climate Change and
India: Vulnerability Assessment and Adaptation [Shukla, P.R., et al. (eds.)].
Universities Press, Hyderabad, pp. 69�127.
Rupa Kumar, K., et al., 2006: High-resolution climate change scenarios for India
for the 21st century. Curr. Sci.India., 90, 334�345.
Rupolo, V., S. Marullo, and D. Iudicone, 2003: Eastern Mediterranean transient
studied with Lagrangian diagnostics applied to a Mediterranean OGCM forced by
satellite SST and ECMWF wind stress for the years 1988-1993. J. Geophys. Res.,
108(C9), 8121.
Russell, G.L., 2005: 4x3 Atmosphere-Ocean Model Documentation.
http://aom.giss.nasa.gov/doc4x3.html.
Russell, G.L., and D. Rind, 1999: Response to CO2 transient increase in the GISS
model: regional coolings in a warming climate. J. Clim., 12, 531�539.
Russell, G.L., J.R. Miller, and D. Rind, 1995: A coupled atmosphere-ocean model
for transient climate change studies. Atmos.-Ocean, 33, 683�730.
Russell, G.L., V. Gornitz, and J.R. Miller, 2000: Regional sea-level changes
projected by the NASA/GISS atmosphere-ocean model. Clim. Dyn., 16, 789�797.
Russell, J.L., and J.M. Wallace, 2004: Annual carbon dioxide drawdown and the
Northern Annular Mode. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 18(1), GB1012,
doi:10.1029/2003GB002044.
Russell, J.L., R.J. Stouffer, and K.W. Dixon, 2006: Intercomparison of the
Southern Ocean circulations in IPCC coupled model control simulations. J. Clim.,
19, 4560�4575.
Russell, J.M., T.C. Johnson, and M.R. Talbot, 2003: A 725 yr cycle in the climate
of central Africa during the late Holocene. Geology, 31(8), 677�680.
Russell, P.B., and J. Heintzenberg, 2000: An overview of the ACE-2 clear sky
column closure experiment (CLEARCOLUMN). Tellus, 52B, 463�483, doi:10.1034/j.1600-
0889.2000.00013.x.
Russell, P.B., P.V. Hobbs, and L.L. Stowe, 1999: Aerosol properties and radiative
effects in the United States East Coast haze plume: An overview of the
Tropospheric Aerosol Radiative Forcing Observational Experiment (TARFOX). J.
Geophys. Res., 104(D2), 2213�2222.
Rustad, L.E., et al., 2001: A meta-analysis of the response of soil respiration,
net nitrogen mineralization, and above ground plant growth to experimental
ecosystem warming. Oecologia, 126, 543�562.
Rutberg, R.L., S.R. Hemming, and S.L. Goldstein, 2000: Reduced North Atlantic deep
water flux to the glacial Southern Ocean inferred from neodymium isotope ratios.
Nature, 405, 935�938.
Rutherford, S., and M.E. Mann, 2004: Correction to �Optimal surface temperature
reconstructions using terrestrial borehole data� by Mann et al. J. Geophys. Res.,
109, D11107, doi:10.1029/2003JD004163.
Rutherford, S., et al., 2005: Proxy-based Northern Hemisphere surface temperature
reconstructions: Sensitivity to method, predictor network, target season, and
target domain. J. Clim., 18(13), 2308�2329.
Rutherford, S., M.E. Mann, T.L. Delworth, and R.J. Stouffer, 2003: Climate field
reconstruction under stationary and nonstationary forcing. J. Clim., 16(3),
462�479.
Ruzmaikin, A., and J. Feynman, 2002: Solar influence on a major mode of
atmospheric variability. J. Geophys. Res., 107(D14), doi:10.1029/2001JD001239.
Rybski, D., A. Bunde, S. Havlin, and H. von Storch, 2006: Long-term persistence in
climate and the detection problem. Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L06718,
doi:10.1029/2005GL025591.
Rypdal, K., et al., 2005: Tropospheric ozone and aerosols in climate agreements:
scientific and political challenges. Environ. Sci. Policy, 8, 29�43.
Ryskin, G., 2003: Methane-driven oceanic eruptions and mass extinctions. Geology,
31(9), 741�744.
R�is�nen, J., 2001: CO2-induced climate change in CMIP2 experiments:
Quantification of agreement and role of internal variability. J. Clim., 14,
2088�2104.
R�is�nen, J., 2001: Hiilidioksidin lis��ntymisen vaikutus Pohjois-Euroopan
ilmastoon globaaleissa ilmastomalleissa (The impact of increasing carbon dioxide
on the climate of northern Europe in global climate models). Terra, 113, 139�151.
R�is�nen, J., 2002: CO2-induced changes in interannual temperature and
precipitation variability in 19 CMIP2 experiments. J. Clim., 15, 2395�2411.
R�is�nen, J., 2003: CO2-induced changes in angular momentum in CMIP2 experiments.
J. Clim., 16, 132�143.
R�is�nen, J., 2005: CO2-induced impact of increasing CO2 on monthly-to-annual
precipitation extremes: analysis of the CMIP2 experiments. Clim. Dyn., 24,
309�323.
R�is�nen, J., 2005a: Impact of increasing CO2 on monthly-to-annual precipitation
extremes: Analysis of the CMIP2 experiments. Clim. Dyn., 24, 309�323.
R�is�nen, J., 2005b: Probability distributions of CO2-induced global warming as
inferred directly from multimodel ensemble simulations. Geophysica, 41, 19�30.
R�is�nen, J., and R. Joelsson, 2001: Changes in average and extreme precipitation
in two regional climate model experiments. Tellus, 53A, 547�566.
R�is�nen, J., and T.N. Palmer, 2001: A probability and decision-model analysis of
a multimodel ensemble of climate change simulations. J. Clim., 14, 3212�3226.
R�is�nen, J., andH. Alexandersson, 2003: A probabilistic view on recent and near
future climate change in Sweden. Tellus, 55A, 113�125.
R�is�nen, J., et al., 2003: GCM Driven Simulations of Recent and Future Climate
with the Rossby Centre Coupled Atmosphere � Baltic Sea Regional Climate Model
RCAO. Reports Meteorology and Climatology 101, Swedish Meteorological and
Hydrological Institute, Norrk�ping, Sweden, 61 pp.
R�is�nen, J., etal., 2004: European climate in the late 21st century: regional
simulations with two driving global models and two forcing scenarios. Clim. Dyn.,
22, 13�31.
Sabine, C.L., et al., 1999: Anthropogenic CO2 inventory of the Indian Ocean.
Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 13, 179�198.
Sabine, C.L., et al., 2004a: The oceanic sink for anthropogenic CO2. Science,
305(5682), 367�371.
Sabine, C.L., et al., 2004b: Current status and past trends of the global carbon
cycle. In: The Global Carbon Cycle: Integrating Humans, Climate and the Natural
World [Field, C., and M. Raupach (eds.)]. SCOPE 62, Island Press, Washington, DC,
pp. 17�44.
Sabine, C.L., et al., 2004b: The oceanic sink for anthropogenic CO2. Science,
305(5682), 367�371.
Sabine, C.L., R.A. Feely, Y.W. Watanabe, and M. Lamb, 2004a: Temporal evolution of
the North Pacific CO2 uptake rate. J. Oceanogr., 60(1), 5�15.
Sabine, C.L., R.M. Key, R.A. Feely, and D. Greeley, 2002: Inorganic carbon in the
Indian Ocean: Distribution and dissolution processes. Global Biogeochem. Cycles,
16(4), 1067, doi:10.1029/2002GB001869.
Saenko, O.A., A.J. Weaver, and J.M. Gregory, 2003: On the link between the two
modes of the ocean thermohaline circulation and the formation of global-scale
water masses. J. Clim., 16, 2797�2801.
Saenko, O.A., and W.J. Merryfield, 2005: On the effect of topographically-enhanced
mixing on the global ocean circulation. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 35, 826�834.
Saenko, O.A., G.M. Flato, and A.J. Weaver, 2002: Improved representation of sea-
ice processes in climate models. Atmos.-Ocean, 40, 21�43.
Saenko, O.A., J.C. Fyfe, and M.H. England, 2005: On the response of the oceanic
wind-driven circulation to atmospheric CO2 increase. Clim. Dyn., 25, 415�426.
Sahagian, D.L., 2000: Global physical effects of anthropogenic hydrological
alterations: sea level and water redistribution. Global Planet. Change, 25, 39�48.
Sahagian, D.L., F.W. Schwartz, and D.K. Jacobs, 1994: Direct anthropogenic
contributions to sea level rise in the twentieth century. Nature, 367, 54�56.
Saito, K., and J. Cohen, 2003: The potential role of snow cover in forcing
interannual variability of the major Northern Hemisphere mode. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 30, 1302, doi:10.1029/2002GL016341.
Saiz-Lopez, A., and J.M.C. Plane, 2004: Novel iodine chemistry in the marine
boundary layer. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L04112, doi:10.1029/2003GL019215.
Saiz-Lopez, A., et al., 2005: Modelling molecular iodine emissions in a coastal
marine environment: the link to new particle formation. Atmos. Chem. Phys.
Discuss., 5, 5405�5439.
Sakamoto, T., et al., 2005: Responses of the Kuroshio and the Kuroshio Extension
to global warming in a high-resolution climate model. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32,
L14617, doi:10.1029/2005GL023384.
Sakamoto, T.T., et al., 2004: Far-reaching effects of the Hawaiian Islands in the
CCSR/NIES/FRCGC high-resolution climate model. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31,
doi:10.1029/2004GL020907.
Sakamoto, T.T., et al., 2005: Responses of the Kuroshio and the Kuroshio Extension
to global warming in a high-resolution climate model. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32,
L14617, doi:10.1029/2005GL023384.
Salas-M�lia, D., 2002: A global coupled sea ice-ocean model. Ocean Modelling, 4,
137�172.
Salath�, E.P., 2005: Downscaling simulations of future global climate with
application to hydrologic modelling. Int. J. Climatol., 25, 419�436.
Salby, M., and P. Callaghan, 2004: Evidence of the solar cycle in the general
circulation of the stratosphere. J. Clim., 17, 34�46.
Saleska, S.R., et al., 2003: Carbon in Amazon forests: Unexpected seasonal fluxes
and disturbance�induced losses. Science, 302(5650), 1554�1557.
Salinger, M.J., J.A. Renwick, and A.B. Mullan, 2001: Interdecadal Pacific
Oscillation and South Pacific climate. Int. J. Climatol., 21, 1705�1721.
Saltzman, B., 1978: A survey of statistical-dynamical models of the terrestrial
climate. Adv. Geophys., 20, 183�295.
Salvucci, G.D., J.A. Saleem, and R. Kaufmann, 2002: Investigating soil moisture
feedbacks on precipitation with tests of Granger causality. Adv. Water Resour.,
25, 1305�1312.
Sanderson, M.G., et al., 2003b: Effect of climate change on isoprene emissions and
surface ozone levels. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30(18), 1936, doi:10.1029/2003GL017642.
Sanderson, M.G., W.J. Collins, R.G. Derwent, and C.E. Johnson, 2003a: Simulation
of global hydrogen levels using a Lagrangian three-dimensional model. J. Atmos.
Chem., 46(1), 15�28.
Santer, B.D., et al., 1995: Towards the detection and attribution of an
anthropogenic effect on climate. Clim. Dyn., 12, 77�100.
Santer, B.D., et al., 1996c: A search for human influences on the thermal
structure of the atmosphere. Nature, 382, 39�46.
Santer, B.D., et al., 1996c: Reply to �Human effect on global climate?� Nature,
384, 522�525.
Santer, B.D., et al., 2000: Interpreting differential temperature trends at the
surface and in the lower troposphere. Science, 287, 1227�1231.
Santer, B.D., et al., 2001: Accounting for the effects of volcanoes and ENSO in
comparisons of modeled and observed temperature trends. J. Geophys. Res., 106,
28033�28059.
Santer, B.D., et al., 2003a: Contributions of anthropogenic and natural forcing to
recent tropopause height changes. Science, 301, 479�483.
Santer, B.D., et al., 2003b: Behavior of tropopause height and atmospheric
temperature in models, reanalyses, and observations: Decadal changes. J. Geophys.
Res., 108(D1), 4002.
Santer, B.D., et al., 2003c: Influence of satellite data uncertainties on the
detection of externally-forced climate change. Science, 300, 1280�1284.
Santer, B.D., et al., 2004: Identification of anthropogenic climate change using a
second-generation reanalysis. J. Geophys. Res., 109, doi:10.1029/2004JD005075.
Santer, B.D., et al., 2005: Amplification of surface temperature trends and
variability in the tropical atmosphere. Science, 309, 1551�1556.
Santer, B.D., J.S. Boyle, and D.E. Parker, 1996a: Human effect on global climate?
Reply. Nature, 384, 524.
Santer, B.D., T.M.L. Wigley, T.P. Barnett, and E. Anyamba, 1996b: Detection of
climate change, and attribution of causes. In: Climate Change 1995: The Science of
Climate Change [Houghton, J.T., et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 407�443.
Santer, B.D., T.W.L. Wigley, M.E. Schlesinger, and J.F.B. Mitchell, 1990:
Developing Climate Scenarios from Equilibrium GCM Results. Report No. 47, Max-
Plank Institute for Meteorology, Hamburg, 29 pp.
Sarkar, S., R.P. Singh, and M. Kafatos, 2004: Further evidences for the weakening
relationship of Indian rainfall and ENSO over India. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31,
L13209, doi:10.1029/2004GL020259.
Sarma, V.V.S.S., T. Ono, and T. Saino, 2002: Increase of total alkalinity due to
shoaling of aragonite saturation horizon in the Pacific and Indian Oceans:
Influence of anthropogenic carbon inputs. Geophys. Res. Lett., 29(20), 1971,
doi:10.1029/2002GL015135.
Sarmiento, J.L., and E.T. Sundquist, 1992: Revised budget for the oceanic uptake
of anthropogenic carbon dioxide. Nature, 356, 589�593.
Sarmiento, J.L., and N. Gruber, 2006: Ocean Biogeochemical Dynamics. Princeton
University Press, Princeton, NJ, 503 pp.
Sarmiento, J.L., C. Le Qu�r�, and S.W. Pacala, 1995: Limiting future atmospheric
carbon dioxide. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 9(1), 121�137.
Sarmiento, J.L., et al., 2004: Response of ocean ecosystems to climate warming.
Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 18(3), GB3003, doi:10.1029/2003GB002134.
Sarnthein, M., et al., 2003b: Overview of the Glacial Atlantic Ocean Mapping
(GLAMAP 2000). Paleoceanography, 18, 1030, doi:10.1029/2002PA000769.
Sarnthein, M., U. Pflaumann, and M. Weinelt, 2003a: Past extent of sea ice in the
northern North Atlantic inferred from foraminiferal paleotemperature estimates.
Paleoceanography, 18, doi:10.1029/2002PA000771.
Sasaki, H., et al., 2006b: Preliminary results from the coupled atmosphere-ocean
regional climate model developed at Meteorological Research Institute. J.
Meteorol. Soc. Japan, 84, 389�403.
Sasaki, H., K. Kurihara, and I. Takayabu, 2006a: Comparison of climate
reproducibilities between a super-high-resolution atmosphere general circulation
model and a Meteorological Institute regional climate model. Scientific Online
Letters on the Atmosphere, 1, 81�84.
Sass, R.L., J.A. Andrews, A.J. Ding, and F.M. Fisher, 2002: Spatial and temporal
variability in methane emissions from rice paddies: implications for assessing
regional methane budgets. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, 64(1�2), 3�7.
Sathyendranath, S., et al., 1991: Biological control of surface temperature in the
Arabian Sea. Nature, 349, 54�56.
Sato, M., et al., 2003: Global atmospheric black carbon inferred from AERONET.
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 100, 6319�6324.
Sato, M., J.E. Hansen, M.P. McCormick, and J.B. Pollack, 1993: Stratospheric
aerosol optical depths, 1850-1990. J. Geophys. Res., 98, 22987�22994.
Sato, N., et al., 1989: Effects of implementing the simple biosphere model in a
general circulation model. J. Atmos. Sci., 46, 2757�2782.
Sato, Y., et al., 2006: Response of North Pacific ocean circulation in a Kuroshio-
resolving ocean model to an Arctic Oscillation (AO)-like change in Northern
Hemisphere atmospheric circulation due to greenhouse-gas forcing. J. Meteorol.
Soc. Japan, 84, 295�309.
Saueressig, G., et al., 2001: Carbon 13 and D kinetic isotope effects in the
reaction of CH4 with O(1D) and OH: New laboratory measurements and their
implications for the isotopic composition of stratospheric methane. J. Geophys.
Res., 106, 23127�23138.
Sausen, R., and U. Schumann, 2000: Estimates of the climate response to aircraft
CO2 and NO(x) emissions scenarios. Clim. Change, 44, 27�58.
Sausen, R., et al., 2002: Climate response to inhomogeneously distributed forcing
agents. In: Non-CO2 Greenhouse Gases: Scientific Understanding, Control Options
and Policy Aspects [van Ham, J., A.P.M. Baede, R. Guicherit, and J.G.F.M.
Williams-Jacobse (eds.)]. Millpress, Rotterdam, Netherlands, pp. 377�381.
Sausen, R., et al., 2005: Aviation radiative forcing in 2000: An update on IPCC
(1999). Meteorol. Z., 14, 1�7.
Sausen, R., K. Barthel, and K. Hasselmann, 1988: Coupled ocean-atmosphere models
with flux correction. Clim. Dyn., 2, 145�163.
Sausen, R., K. Gierens, M. Ponater, and U. Schumann, 1998: A diagnostic study of
the global distribution of contrails part I: Present day climate. Theor. Appl.
Climatol., 61, 127�141.
Scaife, A., J.R. Knight, G.K. Vallis, and C.K. Folland, 2005: A stratospheric
influence on the winter NAO and North Atlantic surface climate. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 32, L18715, ?doi:10.1029/2005GL023226.
Scaife, A.A., et al., 2000: Realistic quasi-biennial oscillations in a simulation
of the global climate. Geophys. Res. Lett., 27, 3481�3484.
Scaife, A.A., J.R. Knight, G.K. Vallis, and C.K. Folland, 2005: A stratospheric
influence on the winter NAO and North Atlantic surface climate. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 32, L18715, doi:10.1029/2005GL023226.
Scambos, T., C. Hulbe, and M. Fahnestock, 2003: Climate-induced ice shelf
disintegration in the Antarctic Peninsula. In: Antarctic Peninsula Climate
Variability: Historical and Paleoenvironmental Perspectives [Domack, E., et al.
(eds.)]. Antarctic Research Series 79, American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC,
pp. 79�92.
Scambos, T., C. Hulbe, M. Fahnestock, and J. Bohlander, 2000: The link between
climate warming and break-up of ice shelves in the Antarctic Peninsula. J.
Glaciol., 46, 516�530.
Scambos, T., J. Bohlander, C. Shuman, and P. Skvarca, 2004: Glacier acceleration
and thinning after ice shelf collapse in the Larsen B embayment, Antarctica.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L18401, doi:10.1029/2004GL020670.
Scambos, T.A., C. Hulbe, M.A. Fahnestock, and J. Bohlander, 2000: The link between
climate warming and break-up of ice shelves in the Antarctic Peninsula. J.
Glaciol., 46, 516�530.
Scanlon, B.R., et al., 2005: Ecological controls on water-cycle response to
climate variability in deserts. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 102, 6033�6038.
Schaaf, C.B., et al., 2002: First operational BRDF, albedo nadir reflectance
products from MODIS. Remote Sens. Environ., 83, 135�148.
Schaap, M., et al., 2004: Secondary inorganic aerosol simulations for Europe with
special attention to nitrate. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 4, 857�874.
Schaeffer, M., F.M. Selten, J.D. Opsteegh, and H. Goosse, 2002: Intrinsic limits
to predictability of abrupt regional climate change in IPCC SRES scenarios.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 29, 1767.
Schaeffer, M., F.M. Selten, J.D. Opsteegh, and H. Goosse, 2004: The influence of
ocean convection patterns on high-latitude climate projections. J. Clim., 17,
4316�4329.
Schatten, K.H., and J.A. Orosz, 1990: Solar constant secular changes. Sol. Phys.,
125, 179�184.
Schauer, U., E. Fahrbach, and S. �sterhus, 2004: Arctic warming through the Fram
Strait - Oceanic heat transport from three years of measurements. J. Geophys.
Res., 109, C06026, doi:10.1029/2003JC001823.
Scheehle, E.A., W.N. Irving, and D. Kruger, 2002: Global anthropogenic methane
emission. In: Non-CO2 Greenhouse Gases [Van Ham, J., A.P. Baede, R. Guicherit, and
J.Williams-Jacobse (eds)]. Millpress, Rotterdam, pp. 257�262.
Schellnhuber, H.J., et al. (eds.), 2004: Earth System Analysis for Sustainability.
MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 352 pp.
Scherer, R.P., et al., 1998: Pleistocene collapse of the West Antarctic ice sheet.
Science, 281(5373), 82�85.
Scherrer, S.C., C. Appenzeller, and M. Laternser, 2004: Trends in Swiss alpine
snow days � the role of local and large scale climate variability. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 31, L13215, doi:10.1029/2004GL020255.
Scherrer, S.C., C. Appenzeller, M. A. Linger and C. Sch�r, 2005: European
temperature distribution changes in observations and climate change scenarios.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, doi:10.1029/2005GL024108.
Schiller, A., U. Mikolajewicz, and R. Voss, 1997: The stability of the North
Atlantic thermohaline circulation in a coupled ocean-atmosphere general
circulation model. Clim. Dyn., 13, 325�347.
Schimel, D.S., et al., 2001: Recent patterns and mechanisms of carbon exchange by
terrestrial ecosystems. Nature, 414, 169�172.
Schlesinger, M.E., and J.F.B. Mitchell, 1987: Climate model simulations of the
equilibrium climatic response to increased carbon-dioxide. Rev. Geophys., 25,
760�798.
Schlesinger, M.E., and N. Ramankutty, 1992: Implications for global warming of
intercycle solar irradiance variations. Nature, 360, 330�333.
Schlesinger, M.E., and N. Ramankutty, 1994: An oscillation in the global climate
system of period 65-70 years. Nature, 367, 723�726.
Schmidli, J., C. Frei, and P.L. Vidale, 2006: Downscaling from GCM precipitation:
A benchmark for dynamical and statistical downscaling. Int. J. Climatol., 26,
679�689.
Schmidt, G.A., C.M. Bitz, U. Mikolajewicz, and L.B. Tremblay, 2004: Ice-ocean
boundary conditions for coupled models. Ocean Modelling, 7, 59�74.
Schmidt, G.A., et al., 2006: Present day atmospheric simulations using GISS
ModelE: Comparison to in-situ, satellite and reanalysis data. J. Clim., 19,
153�192, http://www.giss.nasa.gov/tools/modelE/.
Schmitt, C., Ch. Kottmeier, S. Wassermann, and M. Drinkwater, 2004: Atlas of
Antarctic Sea Ice Drift. University of Karlsruhe, Karlsruhe,
http://imkhp7.physik.uni-karlsruhe.de/~eisatlas/eisatlas_start.html.
Schmittner, A., and T.F. Stocker, 1999: The stability of the thermohaline
circulation in global warming experiments. J. Clim., 12, 1117�1133.
Schmittner, A., C. Appenzeller, and T.F. Stocker, 2000: Enhanced Atlantic
freshwater export during El Ni�o. Geophys. Res. Lett., 27, 1163�1166.
Schmittner, A., M. Latif, and B. Schneider, 2005: Model projections of the North
Atlantic thermohaline circulation for the 21st century assessed by observations.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L23710, doi:10.1029/2005GL024368.
Schnaiter, M., et al., 2003: UV-VIS-NIR spectral optical properties of soot and
soot-containing aerosols. J. Aerosol Sci., 34(10), 1421�1444.
Schneeberger, C., et al., 2000: St�rglacieren in doubling CO2 climate. Clim. Dyn.,
17, 825�834.
Schneeberger, C., H. Blatter, A. Abe-Ouchi, and M. Wild, 2003: Modelling changes
in the mass balance of glaciers of the northern hemisphere for a transient 2�CO2
scenario. J. Hydrol., 282, 145�163.
Schneider von Deimling, T., A. Ganopolski, H. Held, and S. Rahmstorf, 2006: How
cold was the Last Glacial Maximum? Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, doi:
10.1029/2006GL026484.
Schneider von Deimling, T., H. Held, A. Ganopolski, and S. Rahmstorf, 2006:
Climate sensitivity estimated from ensemble simulations of glacial climate. Clim.
Dyn., 27, 149�163.
Schneider, D.P., E.J. Steig, and J.C. Comiso, 2004: Recent climate variability in
Antarctica from satellite-derived temperature data. J. Clim., 17, 1569�1583.
Schneider, E.K., 2001: Causes of differences between the equatorial Pacific as
simulated by two coupled GCM�s. J. Clim., 15, 2301�2320.
Schneider, N., and B.D. Cornuelle, 2005: The forcing of the Pacific Decadal
Oscillation. J. Clim., 18(21), 4355�4373.
Schneider, S.H., 2004: Abrupt non-linear climate change, irreversibility and
surprise. Global Environ. Change, 14, 245�258.
Schneider, T., 2004: The tropopause and the thermal stratification in the
extratropics of a dry atmosphere. J. Atmos. Sci., 61, 1317�1340.
Schneider, T., and I.M. Held, 2001: Discriminants of twentieth-century changes in
Earth surface temperatures. J. Clim., 14, 249�254.
Schnur, R., and K. Hasselmann, 2005: Optimal filtering for Bayesian detection of
climate change. Clim. Dyn., 24, 45�55.
Schoeberl, M., A. Douglass, Z. Zhu, and S. Pawson, 2003: A comparison of the lower
stratospheric age spectra derived from a general circulation model and two data
assimilation systems. J. Geophys. Res., 108, L4113, doi:10.1029/2002JD002652.
Schoeberl, M.R., A.R. Douglass, Z. Zhu, and S. Pawson, 2003: A comparison of the
lower stratospheric age-spectra derived from a general circulation model and two
data assimilation systems. J. Geophys. Res., 108(D3), doi:10.1029/2002JD002652.
Schoenefeldt, R., and F. Schott, 2006: Decadal variability of the Indian Ocean
cross-equatorial exchange in SODA. Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L08602,
doi:10.1029/2006GL025891.
Scholes, M., and M.O. Andreae, 2000: Biogenic and pyrogenic emissions from Africa
and their impact on the global atmosphere. Ambio, 29, 23�29.
Scholze, M., W. Knorr, and M. Heimann, 2003: Modelling terrestrial vegetation
dynamics and carbon cycling for an abrupt climate change event. The Holocene, 13,
327�333.
Schott, F.A., et al., 2004: Circulation and deep-water export at the western exit
of the subpolar North Atlantic. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 34, 817�843.
Schubert, M., et al., 1998: North Atlantic cyclones in CO2-induced warm climate
simulations: frequency, intensity, and tracks. Clim. Dyn., 14, 827�838.
Schubert, S., et al., 1992: Monthly Means of Selected Climate Variables for
1985�1989. NASA Technical Memorandum, Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD,
376 pp. Available from the NASA Technical Report Server, Accession Number:
92N29653; Document ID: 19920020410; Report Number: NAS 1.15104565, NASA-TM-104565,
REPT-92B00088.
Schubert, S.D., et al., 2004: Causes of long-term drought in the US Great Plains.
J. Clim., 17(3), 485�503.
Schultz, M.G., T. Diehl, G.P. Brasseur, and W. Zittel, 2003: Air pollution and
climate-forcing impacts of a global hydrogen economy. Science, 302, 624�627.
Schulz, M., A. Paul, and A. Timmermann, 2004: Glacial-interglacial contrast in
climate variability at centennial-to-millennial timescales: observations and
conceptual model. Quat. Sci. Rev., 23, 2219�2230.
Schulz, M., et al., 2006: Radiative forcing by aerosols as derived from the
AeroCom present-day and pre-industrial simulations. Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss.,
6, 5095�5136.
Schulz, M., S. Kinne, C. Textor, and S. Guibert, 2004: AeroCom Aerosol Model
Intercomparison. http://nansen.ipsl.jussieu.fr/AEROCOM/.
Schulz, M., S. Kinne, C. Textor, and S. Guibert, 2004: AeroCom Aerosol Model
Intercomparison. http://nansen.ipsl.jussieu.fr/AEROCOM/.
Schulz, M., Y. Balkanski, F. Dulac, and W. Guelle, 1998: Role of aerosol size
distribution and source location in a three-dimensional simulation of a Saharan
dust episode tested against satellite-derived optical thickness. J. Geophys Res,
103, 10579�10592.
Schumann, U., 2005: Formation, properties, and climatic effects of contrails.
Comptes Rendus Physique, 6, 549�565.
Schuster, G.L., O. Dubovik, B.N. Holben, and E.E. Clothiaux, 2005: Inferring black
carbon content and specific absorption from Aerosol Robotic Network (AERONET)
aerosol retrievals. J. Geophys. Res., 110, D10S17, doi:10.1029/2004JD004548.
Schwabe, S.H., 1844: Sonnen-Beobachtungen im Jahre 1843. Astronomische
Nachrichten, 21, 233.
Schwander, J., et al., 1993: The age of the air in the firn and the ice at Summit,
Greenland. J. Geophys. Res., 98(D2), 2831�2838.
Schwartz, S.E., 1993: Does fossil fuel combustion lead to global warming? Energy
Int. J., 18, 1229�1248.
Schwartz, S.E., 2004: Uncertainty requirements in radiative forcing of climate
change. J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc., 54, 1351�1359.
Schwartz, S.E., and M.O. Andreae, 1996: Uncertainty in climate change caused by
aerosols. Science, 272, 1121�1122.
Schwartz, S.E., D.W. Harshvardhan, and C.M. Benkovitz, 2002: Influence of
anthropogenic aerosol on cloud optical depth and albedo shown by satellite
measurements and chemical transport modeling. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 99,
1784�1789.
Schweckendiek, U., and J. Willebrand, 2005: Mechanisms for the overturning
response in global warming simulations. J. Clim., 18, 4925�4936.
Schwikowski, M., A. D�scher, H.W. G�ggeler, and U. Schotterer, 1999: Anthropogenic
versus natural sources of atmospheric sulphate from an Alpine ice core. Tellus,
51B, 938�951.
Sch�r, C., and G. Jendritzky, 2004: Hot news for summer 2003. Nature, 432,
559�560.
Sch�r, C., et al., 2004: The role of increasing temperature variability in
European summer heatwaves. Nature, 427, 332�336.
Sciandra, A., et al., 2003: Response of the coccolithophorid Emiliana huxleyi to
elevated partial pressure of CO2 under nitrogen limitation. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser.,
261, 111�122.
Scinocca, J.F., and N.A. McFarlane, 2004: The variability of modelled tropical
precipitation. J. Atmos. Sci., 61, 1993�2015.
Scott, D., G. McBoyle, and B. Mills, 2003: Climate change and the skiing industry
in southern Ontario (Canada): exploring the importance of snowmaking as a
technical adaptation. Clim. Res., 23, 171�181.
Seager, R., et al., 2001: Wind-driven shifts in the latitude of the Kuroshio-
Oyashio Extension and generation of SST anomalies on decadal timescales. J. Clim.,
14(22), 4249�4265.
Seager, R., et al., 2005: Modeling of tropical forcing of persistent droughts and
pluvials over western North America: 1856-2000. J. Clim., 18(19), 4065�4088.
Seem, R., 2004: Forecasting plant disease in a changing climate: a question of
scale. Can.JPlant Pathol., 26(3), 274�283.
Seidel, D.J., and J.R. Lanzante, 2004: An assessment of three alternatives to
linear trends for characterizing global atmospheric temperature changes. J.
Geophys. Res., 109, D14108, doi:10.1029/2003JD004414.
Seidel, D.J., R.J. Ross, J.K. Angell, and G.C. Reid, 2001: Climatological
characteristics of the tropical tropopause as revealed by radiosondes. J. Geophys.
Res., 106, 7857�7878.
Seidov, D., E.J. Barron, and B.J. Haupt, 2001: Meltwater and the global ocean
conveyor: Northern versus southern connections. Global Planet. Change, 30,
253�266.
Seidov, D., R.J. Stouffer, and B.J. Haupt, 2005: Is there a simple bi-polar ocean
seesaw?�Global Planet. Change, 49, 19�27.
Seifert, A., and K.D. Beheng, 2006: A two-moment cloud microphysics
parameterization for mixed-phase clouds. Part II: Deep convective storms.
Meteorol. Atmos. Phys., 92, doi:10.1007/s00703-005-0113-3.
Seiler, W., and R. Conrad, 1987: Contribution of tropical ecosystems to the global
budget of trace gases, especially CH4, H2, CO, and N2O. In: The Geophysiology of
Amazonia: Vegetation and Climate Interactions [Dickinson, R.E. (ed.)]. John Wiley,
New York, pp. 33�62.
Sekiguchi, M., et al., 2003: A study of the direct and indirect effects of
aerosols using global satellite data sets of aerosol and cloud parameters. J.
Geophys. Res., 108, 4699, doi:10.1029/2002JD003359.
Sekine, Y., 1988: Anomalous southward intrusion of the Oyashio east of Japan.1.
Influence of the seasonal and interannual variations in the wind stress over the
North Pacific. J. Geophys. Res., 93(C3), 2247�2255.
Sekine, Y., 1999: On variations in the subarctic circulation in the North Pacific.
Prog. Oceanogr., 43(2�4), 193�203.
Sellers, P.J., et al., 1996: Comparison of radiative and physiological effects of
doubled atmospheric CO2 on climate. Science, 271, 1402�1406.
Sellers, P.J., Y. Mintz, Y.C. Sud, and A. Dalcher, 1986: A simple biosphere model
(SiB) for use within general circulation models. J. Atmos. Sci., 43, 505�531.
Sellers, W.D., 1969: A climate model based on the energy balance of the Earth-
atmosphere system. J. Appl. Meteorol., 8, 392�400.
Selten, F.M., and G. Branstator, 2004: Preferred regime transition routes and
evidence for an unstable periodic orbit in a baroclinic model. J. Atmos. Sci., 61,
2267�2268.
Selten, F.M., G.W. Branstator, H.A. Dijkstra, and M. Kliphuis, 2004: Tropical
origins for recent and future Northern Hemisphere climate change. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 31, L21205, doi:10.1029/2004GL020739.
Semenov, V.A., and L. Bengtsson, 2002: Secular trends in daily precipitation
characteristics: Greenhouse gas simulation with a coupled AOGCM. Clim. Dyn., 19,
123�140.
Semmler, T., and D. Jacob, 2004: Modeling extreme precipitation events � a climate
change simulation for Europe. Global Planet. Change, 44, 119�127.
Semmler, T., D. Jacob, K.H. Schluenzen, and R. Podzun, 2005: The water and energy
budget of the Arctic atmosphere. J. Clim., 18, 2515�2530, doi:10.1175/JCLI3414.1.
Semtner, A.J., 1976: A model for the thermodynamic growth of sea ice in numerical
investigations of climate. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 6, 379�389.
Seneviratne, S.I., J.S. Pal, E.A.B. Eltahir, and C. Sch�r, 2002: Summer dryness in
a warmer climate: A process study with a regional climate model. Clim. Dyn., 20,
69�85.
Senior, C.A., and J.F.B. Mitchell, 1993: Carbon dioxide and climate: The impact of
cloud parameterization. J. Clim., 6, 393�418.
Senior, C.A., and J.F.B. Mitchell, 2000: The time dependence of climate
sensitivity. Geophys. Res. Lett., 27, 2685�2689.
Senjyu, T., et al., 2002: Renewal of the bottom water after the winter 2000-2001
may spin-up the thermohaline circulation in the Japan Sea. Geophys. Res. Lett.,
29(7), 1149, doi:10.1029/2001GL014093.
Seppa, H., and H.J.B. Birks, 2001: July mean temperature and annual precipitation
trends during Holocene in the Fennoscandian tree-line area: pollen-based climate
reconstructions. The Holocene, 11, 527�539.
Serreze, M.C., and C.M. Hurst, 2000: Representation of mean Arctic precipitation
from NCEP-NCAR and ERA reanalyses. J. Clim., 13, 182�201.
Serreze, M.C., and J. Francis, 2006: The Arctic amplification debate. Clim.
Change, 76, 241�264, doi:10.1007/s10584-005-9017-y.
Seth, A., and M. Rojas, 2003: Simulation and sensitivity in a nested modeling
system for South America. Part I: Reanalyses boundary forcing. J. Clim., 16,
2437�2453.
Severijns, C.A., and W. Hazeleger, 2005: Optimising parameters in an atmospheric
general circulation model. J. Clim., 18, 3527�3535.
Severinghaus, J.P., and E.J. Brook, 1999: Abrupt climate change at the end of the
last glacial period inferred from trapped air in polar ice. Science, 286(5441),
930�934.
Severinghaus, J.P., and E.J. Brook, 1999: Abrupt climate change at the end of the
last glacial period inferred from trapped air in polar ice. Science, 286, 930�934.
Sexton, D.M.H., 2001: The effect of stratospheric ozone depletion on the phase of
the Antarctic Oscillation. Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 3697�3700.
Sexton, D.M.H., D.P. Rowell, C.K. Folland, and D.J. Karoly, 2001: Detection of
anthropogenic climate change using an atmospheric GCM. Clim. Dyn., 17, 669�685.
Sexton, D.M.H., H. Grubb, K.P. Shine, and C.K. Folland, 2003: Design and analysis
of climate model experiments for the efficient estimation of anthropogenic
signals. J. Clim., 16, 1320�1336.
Shackleton, N., 1967: Oxygen isotope analyses and Pleistocene temperatures
reassessed. Nature, 215, 15�17.
Shackleton, N.J., 1977: Carbon-13 in Uvigerina: Tropical rainforest history and
the equatorial Pacific carbonate dissolution cycles. In: The Fate of Fossil Fuel
CO2 in the Ocean [Andersen, N., and A. Malahoff (eds.)]. Plenum, New York, pp.
401�428.
Shackleton, N.J., 2000: The 100,000-year ice-age cycle identified and found to lag
temperature, carbon dioxide, and orbital eccentricity. Science, 289, 1897�1902.
Shackleton, N.J., J.C. Hall, and D. Pate, 1995: Pliocene stable isotope
stratigraphy of ODP Site 846. In: Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program,
Scientific Results. Vol. 138. Ocean Drilling Program, College Station, TX, pp.
337�356.
Shackleton, N.J., M.A. Hall, and A. Boersma, 1984: Oxygen and carbon isotope data
from Leg-74 foraminifers. In: Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project,
Vol. 74. Ocean Drilling Program, College Station, TX, pp. 599�612.
Shackleton, N.J., M.A. Hall, and E. Vincent, 2000: Phase relationships between
millennial-scale events 64,000�24,000 years ago. Paleoceanography, 15, 565�569.
Shaffrey, L., and R. Sutton, 2004: The interannual variability of energy
transports within and over the Atlantic Ocean in a coupled climate model. J.
Clim., 17, 1433�1448.
Shantz, N.C., W.R. Leaitch, and P. Caffrey, 2003: Effect of organics of low
solubility on the growth rate of cloud droplets. J. Geophys. Res., 108(D5),
doi:10.1029/2002JD002540.
Sharkhuu, N., 2003: Recent changes in the permafrost of Mongolia. In: Proceedings
of the 8th International Conference on Permafrost, 21-25 July 2003, Zurich,
Switzerland [Phillips, M., S.M. Springman, and L.U. Arenson (eds.)]. A.A. Balkema,
Lisse, the Netherlands, pp. 1029�1034.
Sharon, T.M., et al., 2006: Aerosol and cloud microphysical characteristics of
rifts and gradients in maritime stratocumulus clouds. J. Atmos. Sci., 63(3),
983�997.
Shepherd, A., D. Wingham, and E. Rignot, 2004: Warm ocean is eroding West
Antarctic ice sheet. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L23402, doi:10.1029/2004GL021106.
Shepherd, A., D. Wingham, T. Payne, and P. Skvarca, 2003: Larsen Ice Shelf has
progressively thinned. Science, 302, 856�859.
Shepherd, A., D.J. Wingham, and J.A.D. Mansley, 2002: Inland thinning of the
Amundsen Sea sector, West Antarctica. Geophys. Res. Lett., 29(10), 1364.
Shepherd, A., D.J. Wingham, and J.A.D. Mansley, 2002: Inland thinning of the
Amundsen Sea sector, West Antarctica. Geophys. Res. Lett., 29, 1364.
Shepherd, A., D.J. Wingham, J.A.D. Mansley, and H.F.J. Corr, 2001: Inland thinning
of Pine Island Glacier, West Antarctica. Science, 291, 862�864.
Sherwood, S., 2002: A microphysical connection among biomass burning, cumulus
clouds, and stratospheric moisture. Science, 295, 1272�1275.
Sherwood, S., J. Lanzante, and C. Meyer, 2005: Radiosonde daytime biases and late-
20th century warming. Science, 309, 1156�1159.
Shi, G.Y., et al., 2005: Sensitivity experiments on the effects of optical
properties of dust aerosols on their radiative forcing under clear sky condition.
J. Meteorol. Soc. Japan, 83A, 333�346.
Shibata, K., et al., 1999: A simulation of troposphere, stratosphere and
mesosphere with an MRI/JMA98 GCM. Papers in Meteorology and Geophysics, 50, 15�53.
Shim, C., et al., 2005: Constraining global isoprene emissions with Global Ozone
Monitoring Experiment (GOME) formaldehyde column measurements. J. Geophys. Res.,
110, D24301, doi:10.1029/2004JD005629.
Shin, S.I., et al., 2003: A simulation of the Last Glacial Maximum climate using
the NCAR CSM. Clim. Dyn., 20, 127�151.
Shin, S.I., et al., 2006: Understanding the mid-Holocene climate. J. Clim.,
19(12), 2801�2818.
Shindell, D.T., 2001: Climate and ozone response to increased stratospheric water
vapor. Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 1551�1554.
Shindell, D.T., and G. Faluvegi, 2002: An exploration of ozone changes and their
radiative forcing prior to the chlorofluorocarbon era. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 2,
363�374.
Shindell, D.T., and G.A. Schmidt, 2004: Southern hemisphere climate response to
ozone changes and greenhouse gas increases. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L18209,
doi:10.1029/2004GL020724.
Shindell, D.T., B.P. Walter, and G. Faluvegi, 2004: Impacts of climate change on
methane emissions from wetlands. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L21202,
doi:10.1029/2004GL021009.
Shindell, D.T., et al., 2001: Chemistry-climate interactions in the Goddard
Institute for Space Studies general circulation model 1. Tropospheric chemistry
model description and evaluation. J. Geophys. Res., 106(D8),
doi:10.1029/2000JD900704.
Shindell, D.T., et al., 2001b: Solar forcing of regional climate change during the
Maunder Minimum. Science, 294(5549), 2149�2152.
Shindell, D.T., G. Faluvegi, and N. Bell, 2003a: Preindustrial-to-present day
radiative forcing by tropospheric ozone from improved simulations with the GISS
chemistry-climate GCM. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 3, 1675�1702.
Shindell, D.T., G. Faluvegi, N. Bell, and G. Schmidt, 2005: An emissions-based
view of climate forcing by methane and tropospheric ozone. Geophys. Res. Lett.,
32, L04803, doi:10.1029/2004GL021900.
Shindell, D.T., G.A. Schmidt, M.E. Mann, and G. Faluvegi, 2004: Dynamic winter
climate response to large tropical volcanic eruptions since 1600. J. Geophys.
Res., 109(D5), D05104, ?doi:10.1029/2003JD004151.
Shindell, D.T., G.A. Schmidt, R.L. Miller, and D. Rind, 2001a: Northern
Hemispheric climate response to greenhouse gas, ozone, solar and volcanic forcing.
J. Geophys. Res., 106, 7193�7210.
Shindell, D.T., G.A. Schmidt, R.L. Miller, and M.E. Mann, 2003: Volcanic and solar
forcing of climate change during the preindustrial era. J. Clim., 16(24),
4094�4107.
Shindell, D.T., R.L. Miller, G.A. Schmidt, and L. Pandolfo, 1999: Simulation of
recent northern winter climate trends by greenhouse-gas forcing. Nature, 399,
452�455.
Shine, K.P, et al., 2005c: Perfluorodecalin: global warming potential and first
detection in the atmosphere. Atmos. Environ., 39, 1759�1763.
Shine, K.P., 2005: Comment on �Contrails, cirrus, trends, and climate�. J. Clim.,
18, 2781�2782.
Shine, K.P., J. Cook, E.J. Highwood, and M.M. Joshi, 2003: An alternative to
radiative forcing for estimating the relative importance of climate change
mechanisms. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30, 2047.
Shine, K.P., J.S. Fuglestvedt, K. Hailemariam, and N. Stuber, 2005b: Alternatives
to the global warming potential for comparing climate impacts of emissions of
greenhouse gases. Clim. Change, 68, 281�302.
Shine, K.P., T.K. Berntsen, J.S. Fuglestvedt, and R. Sausen, 2005a: Scientific
issues in the design of metrics for inclusion of oxides of nitrogen in global
climate agreements. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 102, 15768�15773.
Shiogama, H., et al., 2006: Influence of volcanic activity and changes in solar
irradiance on surface air temperatures in the early twentieth century. Geophys.
Res. Lett., 33, L09702, doi:10.1029/2005GL025622.
Shiogama, H., M. Watanabe, M. Kimoto, and T. Nozawa, 2005: Anthropogenic and
natural forcing impacts on the Pacific Decadal Oscillation during the second half
of the 20th century. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L21714, doi:10.1029/2005GL023871.
Shkolnik, I.M., V.P. Meleshko, and V.M. Kattsov, 2006: Climate change in the
21stcentury over the Western Russia: a simulation with the MGO Regional Climate
Model. RussMeteorolHydrol., 3, 5�17.
Shukla, J., et al., 2006: Climate model fidelity and projections of climate
change. Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L07702, doi:10.1029/2005GL025579.
Shulmeister, J., and B.G. Lees, 1995: Pollen evidence from tropical Australia for
the onset of an ENSO-dominated climate at c. 4000 BP. The Holocene, 5, 10�18.
Shuman, B., W. Thompson, P. Bartlein, and J.W. Williams, 2002: The anatomy of a
climatic oscillation: vegetation change in eastern North America during the
Younger Dryas chronozone. Quat. Sci. Rev., 21(16�17), 1777�1791.
Shvidenko, A.Z., and S. Nilsson, 2003: A synthesis of the impact of Russian
forests on the global carbon budget for 1961-1998. Tellus, 55B, 391�415.
Shy, T.L., and J.E. Walsh, 1996: North Pole ice thickness and association with ice
motion history. Geophys. Res. Lett., 23(21), 2975�2978.
Sicart, J.E., P. Wagnon, and P. Ribstein, 2005: Atmospheric controls of the heat
balance of Zongo Glacier (16�S, Bolivia). J. Geophys. Res., 110, D12106,
doi:10.1029/2004JD005732.
Siddall, M., et al., 2003: Sea-level fluctuations during the last glacial cycle.
Nature, 423, 853�858.
Siegenthaler, U., and H. Oeschger, 1984: Transient temperature changes due to
increasing CO2 using simple models. Ann. Glaciol., 5, 153�159.
Siegenthaler, U., et al., 2005a: Stable carbon cycle-climate relationship during
the late Pleistocene. Science, 310(5752), 1313�1317.
Siegenthaler, U., et al., 2005b: Supporting evidence from the EPICA Dronning Maud
Land ice core for atmospheric CO2 changes during the past millennium. Tellus,
57B(1), 51�57.
Sievering, H., et al., 1992: Removal of sulphur from the marine boundary layer by
ozone oxidation in sea-salt aerosols. Nature, 360, 571�573.
Sievering, H., et al., 2000: Forest canopy uptake of atmospheric nitrogen
deposition at eastern U.S. conifer sites: Carbon storage implications. Global
Biogeochem. Cycles, 14(4), doi:10.1029/1999GB001250.
Sigman, D.M., and E.A. Boyle, 2000: Glacial/interglacial variations in atmospheric
carbon dioxide. Nature, 407, 859�869.
Sigmond, M., P.C. Siegmund, E. Manzini, and H. Kelder, 2004: A simulation of the
separate climate effects of middle-atmosphere and tropospheric CO2 doubling. J.
Clim., 17, 2352�2367.
Sillman, S., and P.J. Samson, 1995: Impact of temperature on oxidant
photochemistry in urban, polluted rural, and remote environments. J. Geophys.
Res., 100(D6), 11497�11508, doi:10.1029/94JD02146.
Silva Dias, M.A.F., et al., 2002: Clouds and rain processes in a biosphere
atmosphere interaction context. J. Geophys. Res., 107(D20), 8072,
doi:10.1029/2001JD000335.
Simmonds, P.G., et al., 2000: Continuous high-frequency observations of hydrogen
at the Mace Head baseline atmospheric monitoring station over the 1994-1998
period. J. Geophys. Res., 105(D10), 12105�12121, doi:10.1029/2000JD900007.
Simmonds, P.G., R. Derwent, A. Manning, and G. Spain, 2004: Significant growth in
surface ozone at Mace Head, Ireland ,1987-2003. Atmos. Environ., 38, 4769�4778.
Simmons, A.J., and J.K. Gibson, 2000: The ERA-40 Project Plan. ERA-40 Project
Report Series, Vol. 1, European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts,
Reading, UK, 62 pp.
Simmons, A.J., et al., 2004: Comparison of trends and low-frequency variability in
CRU, ERA-40, and NCEP/ NCAR analyses of surface air temperature. J. Geophys. Res.,
109, D24115, doi:10.1029/2004JD005306.
Simmons, A.J., et al., 2005: ECMWF analyses and forecasts of stratospheric winter
polar vortex breakup: September 2002 in the southern hemisphere and related
events. J. Atmos. Sci., 62, 668�689.
Simpson, I.J., D.R. Blake, F.S. Rowland, and T.Y. Chen, 2002: Implications of the
recent fluctuations in the growth rate of tropospheric methane. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 29(10), doi:10.1029/2001GL014521.
Sinclair, M.R., 1996: A climatology of anticyclones and blocking for the Southern
Hemisphere. Mon. Weather Rev., 124, 245�263.
Sinclair, M.R., 2002: Extratropical transition of southwest Pacific tropical
cyclones. Part I: Climatology and mean structure changes. Mon. Weather Rev., 130,
590�609.
Singh, H.B., et al., 2004: Analysis of the atmospheric distribution, sources, and
sinks of oxygenated volatile organic chemicals based on measurements over the
Pacific during TRACE-P. J. Geophys. Res., 109, D15S07, doi:10.1029/2003JD003883.
Sinha, A., 1995: Relative influence of lapse rate and water vapour on the
greenhouse effect. J. Geophys. Res., 100(D3), 5095�5103, doi:10.1029/94JD03248.
Sitch, S., et al., 2003: Evaluation of ecosystem dynamics, plant geography and
terrestrial carbon cycling in the LPJ dynamic global vegetation model. Global
Change Biol., 9, 161�185.
Sitch, S., et al., 2005: Impacts of future land cover changes on atmospheric CO2
and climate. GlobBalBiogeochem. Cycles, 19(2), GB2013,
doi:10.1029/2004GB002311.Small, E., F. Giorgi, and L.C. Sloan, 1999: Regional
climate model simulation of precipitation in central Asia: Mean and interannual
variability. J. Geophys. Res., 104, 6563�6582.
Sivan, D., et al., 2004: Ancient coastal wells of Caesarea Maritima, Israel, an
indicator for sea level changes during the last 2000 years. Earth Planet. Sci.
Lett., 222, 315�330.
Six, D., L. Reynaud, and A. Letr�guilly, 2001: Bilans de masse des glaciers alpins
et scandinaves, leurs relations avec l oscillation du climat de l Atlantique nord.
C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris, Sciences de la Terre et des plan�tes/Earth and Planetary
Sciences, 333, 693�698.
Six, K.D., and E. Maier-Reimer, 1996: Effects of plankton dynamics on seasonal
carbon fluxes in an ocean general circulation model. Global Biogeochem. Cycles,
10, 559�583.
Slater, A.G., et al., 2001: The representation of snow in land-surface schemes:
Results from PILPS 2(d). J. Hydrometeorol., 2, 7�25.
Slingo, J., 1987: The development and verification of a cloud prediction scheme
for the ECMWF model. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 113, 899�927.
Slingo, J., et al., 2003: Scale interactions on diurnal to seasonal timescales and
their relevance to model systematic errors. Ann. Geophys., 46, 139�155.
Slingo, J.M., et al., 1996: Intraseasonal oscillations in 15 atmospheric general
circulation models: Results from an AMIP Diagnostic Subproject. Clim. Dyn., 12,
325�357.
Slingo, J.M., P.M. Inness, and K.R. Sperber, 2005: Modelling the Madden Julian
Oscillation. In: Intraseasonal Variability of the Atmosphere-Ocean Climate System
[Lau, W.K.-M., and D.E. Waliser (eds.)]. Praxis Publishing.
Sloan, L.C., T.J. Crowley, and D. Pollard, 1996: Modeling of middle Pliocene
climate with the NCAR GENESIS general circulation model. Mar. Micropaleontol., 27,
51�61.
Sluijs, A., et al., 2006: Subtropical Arctic Ocean temperatures during the
Palaeocene/Eocene thermal maximum. Nature, 441, 610�613.
Smerdon, J.E., et al., 2004: Air-ground temperature coupling and subsurface
propagation of annual temperature signals. J. Geophys. Res., 109(D21), D21107,
doi:10.1029/2004JD005056.
Smerdon, J.E., et al., 2006: Daily, seasonal and annual relationships between air
and subsurface temperatures. J. Geophys. Res., 111, D07101,
doi:10.1029/2004JD005578.
Smethie, W.M., and R.A. Fine, 2001: Rates of North Atlantic Deep Water formation
calculated from chlorofluorocarbon inventories. Deep-Sea Res. I, 48, 189�215.
Smith, C.A., J.D. Haigh, and R. Toumi, 2001: Radiative forcing due to trends in
stratospheric water vapour. Geophys. Res. Lett., 28(1), 179�182.
Smith, J.A., et al., 2005: Early local last glacial maximum in the tropical Andes.
Science, 308, 678�681.
Smith, K.A., and F. Conen, 2004: Impacts of land management on fluxes of trace
greenhouse gases. Soil Use Management, 20, 255�263.
Smith, L.A., 2002: What might we learn from climate forecasts? Proc. Natl. Acad.
Sci. U.S.A., 99, 2487�2492.
Smith, L.C., 2000: Trends in Russian Arctic river-ice formation and breakup, 1917-
1994. Phys. Geogr., 21, 46�56.
Smith, L.C., Y. Sheng, G.M. MacDonald, and L.D. Hinzman, 2005: Disappearing Arctic
lakes. Science, 308, 1429.
Smith, N.V., S.S. Saatchi, and T. Randerson, 2004: Trends in high latitude soil
freeze and thaw cycles from 1988 to 2002. J. Geophys. Res., 109, D12101,
doi:10.1029/2003JD004472.
Smith, P., D.S. Powlson, M.J. Glendining, and J.U. Smith, 1997: Potential for
carbon sequestration in European soils: preliminary estimates for five scenarios
using results from long-term experiments. Global Change Biol., 3, 67�79.
Smith, R.D., and P.R. Gent, 2002: Reference Manual for the Parallel Ocean Program
(POP), Ocean Component of the Community Climate System Model (CCSM2.0 and 3.0).
Technical Report LA-UR-02-2484, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM,
http://www.ccsm.ucar.edu/models/ccsm3.0/pop/.
Smith, R.L., T.M.L. Wigley, and B.D. Santer, 2003: A bivariate time series
approach to anthropogenic trend detection in hemispheric mean temperatures. J.
Clim., 16, 1228�1240.
Smith, R.N.B., 1990: A scheme for predicting layer clouds and their water content
in a general circulation model. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 116, 435�460.
Smith, S.J., and T.M.L. Wigley, 2000: Global warming potentials: 2. Accuracy.
Clim. Change, 44, 459�469.
Smith, S.J., E. Conception, R. Andres, and J. Lurz, 2004: Historical Sulphur
Dioxide Emissions 1850-2000: Methods and Results. Research Report No. PNNL-14537,
Joint Global Change Research Institute, College Park, MD, 16 pp.
Smith, S.L., M.M. Burgess, and A.E. Taylor, 2003: High Arctic permafrost
observatory at Alert, Nunavut � analysis of a 23 year data set. In: Proceedings of
the 8th International Conference on Permafrost, 21-25 July 2003, Zurich,
Switzerland [Phillips, M., S.M. Springman, and L.U. Arenson (eds.)]. A.A. Balkema,
Lisse, the Netherlands, pp. 1073�1078.
Smith, S.L., M.M. Burgess, D. Riseborough, and F.M. Nixon, 2005: Recent trends
from Canadian permafrost thermal monitoring network sites. Permafrost and
Periglacial Processes, 16, 19�30.
Smith, S.V., and J.T. Hollibaugh, 1993: Coastal metabolism and the oceanic organic
carbon balance. Rev. Geophys., 31(1), 75�89.
Smith, T.M., and R.W. Reynolds, 2003: Extended reconstructions of global sea
surface temperatures based on COADS Data (1854-1997). J. Clim., 16, 1495�1510.
Smith, W.L. Jr., et al., 2005: EOS terra aerosol and radiative flux validation: an
overview of the Chesapeake Lighthouse and Aircraft Measurements for Satellites
(CLAMS) experiment. J. Atmos. Sci., 62(4), 903�918, doi:10.1175/JAS3398.1.
Smyth, T.J., T. Tyrrell, and B. Tarrant, 2004: Time series coccolithophore
activity in the Barents Sea, from twenty years of satellite imagery. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 31, L11302, doi:10.1029/2004GL019735.
Snover, A.K., and P.D. Quay, 2000: Hydrogen and carbon kinetic effects during soil
uptake of atmospheric methane. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 14, 25�39.
Snyder, M.A., L.C. Sloan, N.S. Diffenbaugh, and J.L. Bell, 2003: Future climate
change and upwelling in the California Current. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30(15), 1823,
doi:10.1029/2003GL017647.
Snyder, P.K., C. Delire, and J.A. Foley, 2004: Evaluating the influence of
different vegetation biomes on the global climate. Clim. Dyn., 23, 279�302,
doi:10.1007/s00382-004-0430-0.
Soden, B.J., 1997: Variations in the tropical greenhouse effect during El Ni�o. J.
Clim., 10(5), 1050�1055.
Soden, B.J., 2000: The sensitivity of the tropical hydrological cycle to ENSO. J.
Clim., 13, 538�549.
Soden, B.J., 2004: The impact of tropical convection and cirrus on upper
tropospheric humidity: A Lagrangian analysis of satellite measurements. Geophys.
Res. Lett., 31, L20104, doi:10.1029/2004GL020980.
Soden, B.J., A.J. Broccoli, and R.S. Hemler, 2004: On the use of cloud forcing to
estimate cloud feedback. J. Clim., 17, 3661�3665.
Soden, B.J., and I.M. Held, 2006: An assessment of climate feedbacks in coupled
ocean-atmosphere models. J. Clim., 19, 3354�3360.
Soden, B.J., et al., 2005: The radiative signature of upper tropospheric
moistening. Science, 310(5749), 841�844.
Soden, B.J., R.T. Wetherald, G.L. Stenchikov, and A. Robock, 2002: Global cooling
after the eruption of Mount Pinatubo: A test of climate feedback by water vapour.
Science, 296, 727�730.
Sofia, S., and L.H. Li, 2001: Solar variability and climate. J. Geophys. Res.,
106(A7), 12969�12974.
Sohn, B.-J., and J. Schmetz, 2004: Water vapor-induced OLR variations associated
with high cloud changes over the tropics: a study from Meteosat-5 observations. J.
Clim., 17, 1987�1996.
Sokolov, A., 2006: Does model sensitivity to changes in CO2 provide a measure of
sensitivity to the forcing of different nature. J. Clim., 19, 3294�3306.
Sokolov, A., and P. Stone, 1998: A flexible climate model for use in integrated
assessments. Clim. Dyn., 14, 291�303.
Sokolov, A., C.E. Forest, and P.H. Stone, 2003: Comparing oceanic heat uptake in
AOGCM transient climate change experiments. J. Clim., 16, 1573�1582.
Sokolov, A.P., et al., 2005: The MIT Integrated Global System Model (IGSM),
Version 2: Model Description And Baseline Evaluation. Report No. 124, Joint
Program on the Science and Policy of Global Change, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Cambridge, MA,
http://web.mit.edu/globalchange/www/MITJPSPGC_Rpt124.pdf.
Sokratov, S.A., and R.G. Barry, 2002: Intraseasonal variation in the
thermoinsulation effect of snow cover on soil temperatures and energy balance. J.
Geophys. Res., 107(D19), 4374, doi:10.1029/2001JD000489.
Solanki, S.K., and M. Fligge, 1999: A reconstruction of total solar irradiance
since 1700. Geophys. Res. Lett., 26(16), 2465�2468.
Solanki, S.K., and N.S. Krivova, 2003: Can solar variability explain global
warming since 1970? J. Geophys. Res., 108, 1200, doi:10.1029/2002JA009753.
Solanki, S.K., et al., 2004: Unusual activity of the Sun during recent decades
compared to the previous 11,000 years. Nature, 431, 1084�1087.
Solecki, W.D., and C. Oliveri, 2004: Downscaling climate change scenarios in an
urban land use change model. J. Environ. Manage., 72, 105�115.
Solomina, O., R. Barry, and M. Bodnya, 2004: The retreat of Tien Shan glaciers
(Kyrgyzstan) since the Little Ice Age estimated from aerial photographs,
lichonometric and historical data. Geografiska Annaler, 86A(2), 205�215.
Solomon, S., et al., 1996: The role of aerosol variations in anthropogenic ozone
depletion at northern midlatitudes. J. Geophys. Res., 101(D3), 6713�6727.
Solomon, S., et al., 2005: On the distribution and variability of ozone in the
tropical upper troposphere: Implications for tropical deep convection and
chemical-dynamical coupling. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L23813,
doi:10.1029/2005GL024323.
Solow, A.R., and L.J. Moore, 2002: Testing for trend in North Atlantic hurricane
activity, 1900-98. J. Clim., 15, 3111�3114.
Somerville, R.C.J., 2000: Using single-column models to improve cloud-radiation
parameterizations. In: General Circulation Model Development: Past, Present and
Future [Randall, D.A. (ed.)]. Academic Press, San Diego and London, pp. 641�657.
Somot, S., 2005: Mod�lisation Climatique du Bassin M�diterran�en: Variabilit� et
Sc�narios de Changement Climatique. PhD Thesis, Universit� Paul Sabatier,
Toulouse, France, 333 pp.
Song, Y., and W.A. Robinson, 2004: Dynamical mechanisms for stratospheric
influences on the troposphere. J. Atmos. Sci., 61, 1711�1725.
Soon, W., and S. Baliunas, 2003: Proxy climatic and environmental changes of the
past 1000 years. Clim. Res., 23(2), 89�110.
Soufflet, V., D. Tanre, A. Royer, and N.T. O�Neill, 1997: Remote sensing of
aerosols over boreal forest and lake water from AVHRR data. Remote Sens. Environ.,
60, 22�34.
Spagnoli, B., et al., 2002: Detecting climate change at a regional scale: the case
of France. Geophys. Res. Lett., 29, doi:10.1029/2001GL014619.
Spahni, R., et al., 2003: The attenuation of fast atmospheric CH4 variations
recorded in polar ice cores. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30(11),
doi:10.1029/2003GL017093.
Spahni, R., et al., 2005: Atmospheric methane and nitrous oxide of the late
Pleistocene from Antarctic ice cores. Science, 310, 1317�1321.
Spelman, M.J., and S. Manabe, 1984: Influence of oceanic heat transport upon the
sensitivity of a model climate. J. Geophys. Res., 89, 571�586.
Sperber, K.R., S. Gualdi, S. Legutke, and V. Gayler, 2005: The Madden-Julian
Oscillation in ECHAM4 coupled and uncoupled GCMs. Clim. Dyn., 25,
doi:10.1007/s00382-005-0026-3.
Spinhirne, J.D., et al., 2005: Cloud and aerosol measurements from GLAS: overview
and initial results. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L22S03, doi:10.1029/2005GL023507.
Sprintall, J., et al., 2004: INSTANT: A new international array to measure the
Indonesian Throughflow. EOS, 85(39), 369.
Spruit, H., 2000: Theory of solar irradiance variations. Space Sci. Rev., 94,
113�126.
S�nchez, E., C. Gallardo, M.A. Gaertner, A. Arribas and M. Castro, 2004: Future
climate extreme events in the Mediterranean simulated by a regional climate model:
first approach. Global Planet.Change, 44, 163-180.
Stager, J.C., and P.A. Mayewski, 1997: Abrupt early to Mid-Holocene climatic
transition registered at the equator and the poles. Science, 276, 1834�1836.
Stager, J.C., B.F. Cumming, and L.D. Meeker, 2003: A 10,000-year high-resolution
diatom record from Pilkington Bay, Lake Victoria, East Africa. Quat. Res., 59(2),
172�181.
Stager, J.C., et al., 2005: Solar variability and the levels of Lake Victoria,
East Africa, during the last millennium. J. Paleolimnol., 33(2), 243�251.
Stahle, D.W., and M.K. Cleaveland, 1992: Reconstruction and analysis of spring
rainfall over southeastern U.S. for the past 1000 years. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc.,
73, 1947�1961.
Stahle, D.W., et al., 1998: Experimental dendroclimatic reconstruction of the
Southern Oscillation. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 79(10), 2137�2152.
Stainforth, D.A., et al., 2005: Uncertainty in predictions of the climate response
to rising levels of greenhouse gases. Nature, 433, 403�406.
Stammer, D., et al., 2003: Volume, heat and freshwater transports of the global
ocean circulation 1993-2000. J. Geophys. Res., 108(C1), doi:10.1029/2001JC001115.
Stanhill, G., 2001: The growth of climate change science: A scientometric study.
Clim. Change, 48, 515�524.
Stanhill, G., and S. Cohen, 2001: Global dimming, a review of the evidence for a
widespread and significant reduction in global radiation with a discussion of its
probable causes and possible agricultural consequences. Agric. Forest Meteorol.,
107, 255�278.
Staniforth, A., 1997: Regional modeling: A theoretical discussion. Meteorol.
Atmos. Phys., 63, 15�29.
Stark, S., R.A. Wood, and H.T. Banks, 2006: Re-evaluating the causes of observed
changes in Indian Ocean water masses. J. Clim., 19(16), 4075�4086.
Stauffer, B., G. Fischer, A. Neftel, and H. Oeschger, 1985: Increase of
atmospheric methane recorded in Antarctic ice core. Science, 229(4720), 1386�1388.
Steele, L.P., et al., 1992: Slowing down of the accumulation of atmospheric
methane during the 1980s. Nature, 358, 313�316.
Steele, L.P., et al., 1996: Atmospheric methane, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide,
hydrogen, and nitrous oxide from Cape Grim air samples analysed by gas
chromatography. In: Baseline Atmospheric Program Australia, 1994-95 [Francey,
R.J., A.L. Dick, and N. Derek (eds.)]. Bureau of Meteorology and CSIRO Division of
Atmospheric Research, Melbourne, Australia, pp. 107�110.
Steele, M., and T. Boyd, 1998: Retreat of the cold halocline layer in the Arctic
Ocean. J. Geophys. Res., 103(C5), 10419�10435.
Steffen, K., et al., 1992: The estimation of geophysical parameters using passive
microwave algorithms. In: Microwave Remote Sensing of Sea Ice [Carsey, F.D.
(ed.)]. Geophysical Monograph 68, American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, pp
201�231.
Stein, O., 2000: The variability of Atlantic-European blocking as derived from
long SLP time series. Tellus, 52A, 225�236.
Steinbrecht, W., H. Claude, and P. Winkler, 2004a: Enhanced upper stratospheric
ozone: sign of recovery or solar cycle effect? J. Geophys. Res., 109, D020308,
doi:10.1029/2003JD004284.
Steinbrecht, W., H. Claude, and P. Winkler, 2004b: Reply to comment by D. M.
Cunnold et al. on �Enhanced upper stratospheric ozone: Sign of recovery or solar
cycle effect?�. J. Geophys. Res., 109, D14306, doi:10.1029/2004JD004948.
Steiner, N., etal., 2004: Comparing modelled streamfunction, heat and freshwater
content in the Arctic Ocean. Ocean Model., 6(3�4), 265�284.
Stenchikov, G., et al., 2004: Arctic Oscillation response to the 1991 Pinatubo
eruption in the SKYHI GCM with a realistic quasi-biennial oscillation. J. Geophys.
Res., 109, D03112, doi:10.1029/2003JD003699.
Stenchikov, G., et al., 2006: Arctic Oscillation response to volcanic eruptions in
the IPCC AR4 climate models. J. Geophys. Res., 111, D07107,
doi:10.1029/2005JD006286.
Stenchikov, G.L., et al., 1998: Radioactive forcing from the 1991 Mount Pinatubo
volcanic eruption. J. Geophys. Res., 103(D12), 13837�13857.
Stenchikov, G.L., et al., 2002: Arctic Oscillation response to the 1991 Mount
Pinatubo eruption: Effects of volcanic aerosols and ozone depletion. J. Geophys.
Res., 107, 4803.
Stendel, M., and J.H. Christensen, 2002: Impact of global warming on permafrost
conditions in a coupled GCM. Geophys. Res. Lett., 29, 1632.
Stendel, M., I.A. Mogensen, and J.H. Christensen, 2006: Influence of various
forcings on global climate in historical times using a coupled atmosphere�ocean
general circulation model. Clim. Dyn., 26, 1�15.
Stenni, B., et al., 2001: An oceanic cold reversal during the last deglaciation.
Science, 293, 2074�2077.
Stephens, C., et al., 2002: World ocean database 2001, Volume 3: Temporal
distribution of conductivity-temperature-depth profiles. In: NOAA Atlas NESDIS 44
[Levitus, S. (ed.)]. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, pp. 47, CD-
ROMs.
Stephens, C., S. Levitus, J. Antonov, and T. Boyer, 2001: On the Pacific Ocean
regime shift. Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 3721�3724.
Stephens, G.L., 2005: Cloud feedbacks in the climate system: a critical review. J.
Clim., 18, 237�273.
Stephens, G.L., N.B. Wood, and L.A. Pakula, 2004: On the radiative effects of dust
on tropical convection. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L23112, doi:10.1029/2004GL021342.
Stephenson, D.B., A. Hannachi, and A. O�Neill, 2004: On the existence of multiple
climate regimes. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 130, 583�605.
Stephenson, D.B., and V. Pavan, 2003: The North Atlantic Oscillation in coupled
climate models: a CMIP1 evaluation. Clim. Dyn., 20, 381�399.
Stephenson, D.B., et al., 2006: North Atlantic Oscillation response to transient
greenhouse gas forcing and the impact on European winter climate: A CMIP2 multi-
model assessment. Clim. Dyn., 27, 401�420.
Stephenson, D.B., H. Douville, and K. Rupa Kumar, 2001: Searching for a
fingerprint of global warming in the Asian summer monsoon. Mausam, 52, 213�220.
Stephenson, D.B., H. Wanner, S. Br�nnimann, and J. Luterbacher, 2003: The history
of scientific research on the North Atlantic Oscillation. In: The North Atlantic
Oscillation: Climatic Significance and Environmental Impact [Hurrell, J.W., et al.
(eds.)]. Geophysical Monograph 134, American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC,
doi:10.1029/134GM02.
Sterl, A., and W. Hazeleger, 2003: Coupled variability and air-sea interaction in
the South Atlantic Ocean. J. Clim., 21, 559�571.
Stern, D.I., 2005: Global sulfur emissions from 1850 to 2000. Chemosphere, 58,
163�175.
Stevens, B., et al., 2005: Pockets of open cells and drizzle in marine
stratocumulus. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 86, 51�57.
Stevenson, D.S., et al., 2000: Future estimates of tropospheric ozone radiative
forcing and methane turnover - the impact of climate change. Geophys. Res. Lett.,
27, 2073�2076.
Stevenson, D.S., et al., 2004: Radiative forcing from aircraft NOx emissions:
mechanisms and seasonal dependence. J. Geophys. Res., 109, D17307,
doi:10.1029/2004JD004759.
Stevenson, D.S., et al., 2005: Impacts of climate change and variability on
tropospheric ozone and its precursors. Faraday Discuss., 130,
doi:10.1039/b417412g.
Stevenson, D.S., et al., 2006: Multi-model ensemble simulations of present-day and
near-future tropospheric ozone. J. Geophys. Res., 111, D08301,
doi:10.1029/2005JD006338.
Stewart, I.T., D.R. Cayan, and M.D. Dettinger, 2005: Changes towards earlier
streamflow timing across western North America. J. Clim., 18, 1136�1155.
Stieglitz, M., S.J. Dery, V.E. Romanovsky, and T.E. Osterkamp, 2003: The role of
snow cover in the warming of arctic permafrost. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30(13), 1721,
doi:10.1029/2003GL017337.
Stier, P., et al., 2005: The aerosol-climate model ECHAM5-HAM. Atmos. Chem. Phys.,
5, 1125�1156.
Stier, P., et al., 2006a: Impact of nonabsorbing anthropogenic aerosols on clear-
sky atmospheric absorption. J. Geophys. Res., 111, D18201,
doi:10.1029/2006JD007147.
Stier, P., et al., 2006a: The evolution of the global aerosol system in a
transient climate simulation from 1860 to 2100. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 3059�3076.
Stier, P., et al., 2006b: Emission-induced nonlinearities in the global aerosol
system: results from the ECHAM5-HAM aerosol-climate model. J. Clim., 19,
3845�3862.
Stineman, R.W., 1980: A consistently well-behaved method of interpolation.
Creative Computing, July 1980, 54�57.
Stirling C.H., T.M. Esat, K. Lambeck, and M.T. McCulloch, 1998: Timing and
duration of the last interglacial: evidence for a restricted interval of
widespread coral reef growth. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 160, 745�762.
Stocker, T.F., 1998: The seesaw effect. Science, 282, 61�62.
Stocker, T.F., 2000: Past and future reorganisations in the climate system. Quat.
Sci. Rev., 19, 301�319.
Stocker, T.F., and A. Schmittner, 1997: Influence of CO2 emission rates on the
stability of the thermohaline circulation. Nature, 388, 862�865.
Stocker, T.F., and C.C. Raible, 2005: Climate change - Water cycle shifts gear.
Nature, 434, 830�833.
Stocker, T.F., and E. Monnin, 2003: Past rates of carbon dioxide changes and their
relevance for future climate. Pages News, 11(1), 6�8.
Stocker, T.F., and R. Knutti, 2003: Do simplified climate models have any useful
skill? CLIVAR Exchanges, 8, 7�10.
Stocker, T.F., and S.J. Johnsen, 2003: A minimum thermodynamic model for the
bipolar seesaw. Paleoceanography, 18(4), doi:10.1029/2003PA000920.
Stocker, T.F., D.G. Wright, and L.A. Mysak, 1992a: A zonally averaged, coupled
ocean-atmosphere model for paleoclimate studies. J. Clim., 5, 773�797.
Stocker, T.F., D.G. Wright, and W.S. Broecker, 1992b: The influence of high-
latitude surface forcing on the global thermohaline circulation. Paleoceanogr., 7,
529�541.
Stocker, T.F., et al., 2001: Physical climate processes and feedbacks. In: Climate
Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Third
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Houghton,
J.T., et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and
New York, NY, USA, pp. 419�470.
Stocks, B.J., et al., 1998: Climate change and forest fire potential in Russian
and Canadian boreal forests. Clim. Change, 38, 1�13.
Stommel, H., 1961: Thermohaline convection with two stable regimes of flow.
Tellus, 13, 224�230.
Stone, D.A., A.J. Weaver, and R.J. Stouffer, 2001: Projection of climate change
onto modes of atmospheric variability. J. Clim., 14, 3551�3565.
Stone, D.A., and A.J. Weaver, 2002: Daily minimum and maximum temperature trends
in a climate model. Geophys. Res. Lett., 29, doi:10.1029/2001GL014556.
Stone, D.A., and A.J. Weaver, 2003: Factors contributing to diurnal temperature
trends in twentieth and twenty-first century simulations of the CCCma coupled
model. Clim. Dyn., 20, 435�445.
Stone, D.A., and J.C. Fyfe, 2005: The effect of ocean mixing parametrisation on
the enhanced CO2 response of the Southern Hemisphere midlatitude jet. Geophys.
Res. Lett., 32, L06811, doi:10.1029/2004GL022007.
Stone, D.A., and M.R. Allen, 2005a: The end-to-end attribution problem: From
emissions to impacts. Clim. Change, 71, 303�318.
Stone, D.A., and M.R. Allen, 2005b: Attribution of global surface warming without
dynamical models. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L18711, doi:10.1029/2005GL023682.
Stone, D.A., M.R. Allen, and P.A. Stott, 2007a: A multi-model update on the
detection and attribution of global surface warming. J. Clim., 20, 517-530.
Stone, D.A., M.R. Allen, F. Selten, and M. Kilphuis, 2007b: The detection and
attribution of climate change using an ensemble of opportunity. J. Clim., 20, 504-
516.
Stone, J.O., et al., 2003: Holocene deglaciation of Marie Byrd Land, West
Antarctica. Science, 299, 99�102.
Stone, R.S., 1997: Variations in western Arctic temperatures in response to cloud
radiative and synoptic-scale influences. J. Geophys. Res., 102, 21769�21776.
Stone, R.S., E.G. Dutton, J.M. Harris, and D. Longnecker, 2002: Earlier spring
snowmelt in northern Alaska as an indicator of climate change. J. Geophys. Res.,
107(D10), doi:10.1029/2000JD000286.
Stordal, F., et al., 2005: Is there a trend in cirrus cloud cover due to aircraft
traffic? Atmos. Chem. Phys., 5, 2155�2162.
Storelvmo T., et al., 2006: Predicting cloud droplet number concentration in
Community Atmosphere Model (CAM)-Oslo, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D24208,
doi:10.1029/2005JD006300?.
Stothers, R., 2001a: Major optical depth perturbations to the stratosphere from
volcanic eruptions: Stellar extinction period, 1961-1978. J. Geophys. Res.,
106(D3), 2993�3003.
Stothers, R., 2001b: A chronology of annual mean radii of stratospheric aerosol
from volcanic eruptions during the twentieth century as derived from ground-based
spectral extinction measurements. J. Geophys. Res., 106(D23), 32043�32049.
Stott P.A., G.S. Jones, and J.F.B. Mitchell, 2003: Do models underestimate the
solar contribution to recent climate change? J. Clim., 16, 4079�4093.
Stott, L., et al., 2004: Decline in surface temperature and salinity in the
western tropical Pacific Ocean in Holocene epoch. Nature, 431, 56�59.
Stott, P.A., 2003: Attribution of regional-scale temperature changes to
anthropogenic and natural causes. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30,
doi:10.1029/2003GL017324.
Stott, P.A., and J.A. Kettleborough, 2002: Origins and estimates of uncertainty in
predictions of twenty-first century temperature rise. Nature, 416, 723�726.
Stott, P.A., and S.F.B. Tett, 1998: Scale-dependent detection of climate change.
J. Clim., 11, 3282�3294.
Stott, P.A., D.A. Stone, and M.R. Allen, 2004: Human contribution to the European
heatwave of 2003. Nature, 432, 610�614.
Stott, P.A., et al., 2000: External control of 20th century temperature by natural
and anthropogenic forcings. Science, 290, 2133�2137.
Stott, P.A., et al., 2001: Attribution of twentieth century temperature change to
natural and anthropogenic causes. Clim. Dyn., 17, 1�21.
Stott, P.A., et al., 2006b: Observational constraints on past attributable warming
and predictions of future global warming. J. Clim., 19, 3055�3069.
Stott, P.A., et al., 2006b: Transient climate simulations with the HadGEM1 model:
causes of past warming and future climate change. J. Clim., 19, 2763�2782.
Stott, P.A., G.S. Jones, and J.F.B. Mitchell, 2003b: Do models underestimate the
solar contribution to recent climate change? J. Clim., 16, 4079�4093.
Stott, P.A., J.A. Kettleborough, and M.R. Allen, 2006a: Uncertainty in predictions
of continental scale temperature rise. Geophys. Res. Lett., 33,
doi:10.1029/GL024423.
Stott, P.A., M.R. Allen, and G.S. Jones, 2003a: Estimating signal amplitudes in
optimal fingerprinting, Part II: Application to general circulation models. Clim.
Dyn., 21, doi:10.1007/s00382-003-0314-8.
Stouffer, R.J., 2004: Time scales of climate response. J. Clim., 17(1), 209�217.
Stouffer, R.J., A.J. Weaver, and M. Eby, 2004: A method for obtaining pre-
twentieth century initial conditions for use in climate change studies. Clim.
Dyn., 23, 327�339.
Stouffer, R.J., and K.W. Dixon, 1998: Initialization of Coupled Models for Use in
Climate Studies: A Review. Research Activities in Atmospheric and Oceanic
Modelling, Report No. 27, WMO/TD-No. 865, World Meteorological Organization,
Geneva, Switzerland, I.1�I.8.
Stouffer, R.J., and S. Manabe, 1999: Response of a coupled ocean-atmosphere model
to increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide: sensitivity to the rate of increase. J.
Clim., 12, 2224�2237.
Stouffer, R.J., and S. Manabe, 2003: Equilibrium response of thermohaline
circulation to large changes in atmospheric CO2 concentration. Clim. Dyn., 20,
759�773.
Stouffer, R.J., et al., 2006: Investigating the causes of the response of the
thermohaline circulation to past and future climate changes. J. Clim., 19,
1365�1387.
Stouffer, R.J., et al., 2006a: GFDL�s CM2 global coupled climate models. Part IV:
Idealized climate response. J. Clim., 19, 723�740.
Stouffer, R.J., et al., 2006b: Investigating the causes of the response of the
thermohaline circulation to past and future climate changes. J. Clim., 19,
1365�1387.
Stouffer, R.J., G.C. Hegerl, and S.F.B. Tett, 2000: A comparison of surface air
temperature variability in three 1000-year coupled ocean-atmosphere model
integrations. J. Clim., 13, 513�547.
Stouffer, R.J., S. Manabe, and K.Y. Vinnikov, 1994: Model assessment of the role
of natural variability in recent global warming. Nature, 367, 634�636.
Stowasser, M., and K. Hamilton, 2006: Relationship between shortwave cloud
radiative forcing and local meteorological variables compared in observations and
several global climate models. J. Clim., 19, 4344�4359.
Stowasser, M., K. Hamilton, and G.J. Boer, 2006: Local and global climate
feedbacks in models with differing climate sensitivity. J. Clim., 19, 193�209.
Stowe, L., et al., 1988: Nimbus-7 global cloud climatology. Part I: Algorithms and
validation. J. Clim., 1, 445�470.
Stramma, L., et al., 2004: Deep water changes at the western boundary of the
subpolar North Atlantic during 1996 to 2001. Deep-Sea Res., 51A, 1033�1056.
Stramma, L., J. Fischer, P. Brandt, and F. Schott, 2003: Circulation, variability
and near-equatorial meridional flow in the central tropical Atlantic. In:
Interhemispheric Water Exchange in the Atlantic Ocean [Goni, G., and P. Malanotte-
Rizzoli (eds.)]. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 1�22.
Stratton, R.A., and V.D. Pope, 2004: Modelling the climatology of storm tracks -
Sensitivity to resolution. In: The Second Phase of the Atmospheric Model
Intercomparison Project (AMIP2) [Gleckler, P. (ed.)]. Proceedings of the WCRP/WGNE
Workshop, Toulouse, pp. 207-210.
Streets, D.G., et al., 2001: Black carbon emissions in China. Atmos. Environ., 35,
4281�4296.
Streets, D.G., et al., 2003: An inventory of gaseous and primary aerosol emissions
in Asia in the year 2000. J. Geophys. Res., 108(D21), 8809,
doi:10.1029/2002JD003093.
Strugnell, N.C., W. Lucht, and C. Schaaf, 2001: A global albedo data set derived
from AVHRR data for use in climate simulations. Geophys. Res. Lett., 28(1),
191�194.
Stubenrauch, C.J., and U. Schumann, 2005: Impact of air traffic on cirrus
coverage. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L14813, doi:10.1029/2005GL022707.
Stuber, N., M. Ponater, and R. Sausen, 2001a: Is the climate sensitivity to ozone
perturbations enhanced by stratospheric water vapor feedback? Geophys. Res. Lett.,
28(15), 2887�2890.
Stuber, N., M. Ponater, and R. Sausen, 2005: Why radiative forcing might fail as a
predictor of climate change. Clim. Dyn., 24, 497�510.
Stuber, N., R. Sausen, and M. Ponater, 2001b: Stratosphere adjusted radiative
forcing calculations in a comprehensive climate model. Theor. Appl. Climatol., 68,
125�135.
Sturm, M., T. Douglas, C. Racine, and G. Liston, 2005: Changing snow and shrub
conditions affect albedo with global implications. J. Geophys. Res., 110, G01004,
doi:10.1029/2005JG000013.
Su, Z., and Shi, Y., 2002: Response of monsoonal temperate glaciers to global
warming since the Littel Ice Age. Quat. Int., 97�98, 123�131.
Sud, Y.C., and G.K. Walker, 1999: Microphysics of clouds with the relaxed Arakawa-
Schubert Cumulus Scheme (McRAS). Part I: Design and evaluation with GATE Phase III
data. J. Atmos. Sci., 56, 3196�3220.
Sudo, K., M. Takahashi, and H. Akimoto, 2002a: CHASER: A global chemical model of
the troposphere 2. Model results and evaluation. J. Geophys. Res., 107, 4586,
doi:10.1029/2001JD001114.
Sudo, K., M. Takahashi, and H. Akimoto, 2003: Future changes in stratosphere-
troposphere exchange and their impacts on future tropospheric ozone simulations.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 30, 2256.
Sudo, K., M. Takahashi, J. Kurokawa, and H. Akimoto, 2002b: CHASER: A global
chemical model of the troposphere 1. Model description. J. Geophys. Res., 107,
4339, doi:10.1029/2001JD001113.
Sugi, M., A. Noda, and N. Sato, 2002: Influence of the global warming on tropical
cyclone climatology: An experiment with the JMA Global Model. J. Meteorol. Soc.
Japan, 80, 249�272.
Sugi, M., and J. Yoshimura, 2004: A mechanism of tropical precipitation change due
to CO2 increase. J. Clim., 17, 238�243.
Sun, B., and R.S. Bradley, 2002: Solar influences on cosmic rays and cloud
formation: a re-assessment. J. Geophys. Res., 107(D14), doi:10.1029/2001JD000560.
Sun, D.-Z., and I.M. Held, 1996: A comparison of modeled and observed
relationships between interannual variations of water vapor and temperature. J.
Clim., 9, 665�675.
Sun, D.-Z., C. Covey, and R.S. Lindzen, 2001: Vertical correlations of water vapor
in GCMs. Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 259�262.
Sun, S., and J. Hansen, 2003: Climate simulations for 1951-2050 with a coupled
atmosphere-ocean model. J. Clim., 16, 2807�2826.
Sun, Y., S. Solomon, A. Dai, and R. Portmann, 2006: How often does it rain? J.
Clim., 19, 916�934.
Sundqvist, H., 1978: A parametrization scheme for non-convective condensation
including prediction of cloud water content. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 104,
677�690.
Sundqvist, H., E. Berge, and J.E. Kristj�nsson, 1989: Condensation and cloud
parametrization studies with a mesoscale numerical weather prediction model. Mon.
Weather Rev., 117, 1641�1657.
Suntharalingam, P., et al., 2005: Influence of reduced carbon emissions and
oxidation on the distribution of atmospheric CO2: Implications for inversion
analyses. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 19, GB4003, doi:10.1029/2005GB002466.
Suppiah, R., P.H. Whetton, and I.G. Watterson, 2004: Climate Change in Victoria:
Assessment of Climate Change for Victoria: 2001-2002. Undertaken for Victorian
Department of Sustainability and Environment. CSIRO Atmospheric Research,
Aspendale, Vic., 33 pp.
Susskind, J., D. Reuter, and M.T. Chahine, 1987: Clouds fields retrieved from
HIRS/MSU data. J. Geophys. Res., 92, 4035�4050.
Sutton, R., and M. Allen, 1997: Decadal predictability of North Atlantic sea
surface temperature and climate. Nature, 388, 563�567.
Sutton, R.T., and D.L.R. Hodson, 2005: Atlantic Ocean forcing of North American
and European summer climate. Science, 309(5731), 115�118.
Suzuki, K., et al., 2004: A study of the aerosol effect on a cloud field with
simultaneous use of GCM modeling and satellite observation. J. Atmos. Sci., 61,
179�194.
Suzuki, T., et al., 2005: Projection of future sea level and its variability in a
high-resolution climate model: Ocean processes and Greenland and Antarctic ice-
melt contributions. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L19706, doi:10.1029/2005GL023677.
Svalgaard, L., E.W. Cliver, and P. Le Sager, 2004: IHV: A new long-term
geomagnetic index. Adv. Space Res., 34, 436�439.
Svendsen, J.I., and J. Mangerud, 1997: Holocene glacial and climatic variations on
Spitsbergen, Svalbard. The Holocene, 7, 45�57.
Svensen, H., et al., 2004: Release of methane from a volcanic basin as a mechanism
for initial Eocene global warming. Nature, 429, 542�545.
Swap, R.J., et al., 2002: The Southern African Regional Science Initiative (SAFARI
2000): overview of the dry season field campaign. S. Afr. J. Sci., 98, 125�130.
Swap, R.J., et al., 2003: Africa burning: a thematic analysis of the Southern
African Regional Science Initiative (SAFARI 2000). J. Geophys. Res., 108(D13),
8465, doi:10.1029/2003JD003747.
Sy, A., et al., 1997: Surprisingly rapid spreading of newly formed intermediate
waters across the North Atlantic Ocean. Nature, 386(6626), 675�679.
system - a global model study. Biogeosciences, 3, 29�51.
S�nchez Go�i, M.F., et al., 2002: Synchroneity between marine and terrestrial
responses to millennial scale climatic variability during the last glacial period
in the Mediterranean region. Clim. Dyn., 19, 95�105.
Tabazadeh, A., et al., 2002: Arctic �ozone hole� in cold volcanic stratosphere.
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 99, 2609�2612.
Tadross M.A., C. Jack, and B. Hewitson, 2005b: On RCM-based projections of change
in southern African summer climate. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L23713,
doi:10.1029/2005GL024460.
Tadross, M.A., B.C.Hewitson, and M.T. Usman, 2005a: The interannual variability of
the onset of the maize growing season over South Africa and Zimbabwe. J. Clim.,
18(16), 3356�3372.
Tadross, M.A., et al., 2006: MM5 simulations of interannual change and the diurnal
cycle of southern African regional climate. Theor. Appl. Climatol, 86, 63�80.
Tajika, E., 1998: Climate change during the last 150 million years: reconstruction
from a carbon cycle. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 160(3�4), 695�707.
Takahashi, M., 1996: Simulation of the stratospheric quasi-biennial oscillation
using a general circulation model. Geophys. Res. Lett., 23, 661�664.
Takahashi, M., 1999: The first realistic simulation of the stratospheric quasi-
biennial oscillation in a general circulation model. Geophys. Res. Lett., 26,
1307�1310.
Takahashi, T., et al., 2002: Global sea-air CO2 flux based on climatological
surface ocean pCO2, and seasonal biological and temperature effects. Deep-Sea Res.
II, 49(9�10), 1601�1622.
Takahashi, T., S.C. Sutherland, R.A. Feely, and R. Wanninkhof, 2006: Decadal
change of the surface water pCO2 in the North Pacific: A synthesis of 35 years of
observations. J. Geophys. Res., 111, C07S05, doi:10.1029/2005JC003074.
Takemura, T., et al., 2000: Global three-dimensional simulation of aerosol optical
thickness distribution of various origins. J. Geophys. Res., 105(D14),
17853�17874.
Takemura, T., et al., 2002: Single scattering albedo and radiative forcing of
various aerosol species with a global three-dimensional model. J. Clim., 15,
333�352.
Takemura, T., et al., 2005: Simulation of climate response to aerosol direct and
indirect effects with aerosol transport-radiation model. J. Geophys. Res., 110,
D02202, doi:10.1029/2004JD005029.
Takemura, T., T. Nakajima, T. Nozawa, and K. Aoki, 2001: Simulation of future
aerosol distribution, radiative forcing, and long-range transport in East Asia. J.
Meteorol. Soc. Japan, 79, 1139�1155.
Talley, L.D., 1996: North Atlantic circulation and variability, reviewed for the
CNLS conference. Physica D, 98(2�4), 625�646.
Talley, L.D., 2003: Shallow, intermediate, and deep overturning components of the
global heat budget. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 33, 530�560.
Talley, L.D., and M.S. McCartney, 1982: Distribution and circulation of Labrador
Sea-water. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 12(11), 1189�1205.
Talley, L.D., et al., 2003b: Deep convection and brine rejection in the Japan Sea.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 30(4), 1159, doi:10.1029/2002GL0165451.
Talley, L.D., J.L. Reid, and P.E. Robbins, 2003a: Data-based meridional
overturning streamfunctions for the global ocean. J. Clim., 16, 3213�3226.
Tan, W.W., M.A. Geller, S. Pawson, and A. da Silva, 2004: A case study of
excessive subtropical transport in the stratosphere of a data assimilation system.
J. Geophys. Res., 109, D11102, doi:10.1029/2003JD004057.
Tanaka, H.L., N. Ishizaki, and N. Nohara, 2005: Intercomparison of the intensities
and trends of Hadley, Walker and Monsoon Circulations in the global warming
predictions. Scientific Online Letters on the Atmosphere, 1, 77�80.
Tang, I.N., 1997: Thermodynamic and optical properties of mixed-salt aerosols of
atmospheric importance. J. Geophys. Res., 102(D2), 1883�1893.
Tang, I.N., K.H. Fung, D.G. Imre, and H.R. Munkelwitz, 1995: Phase transformation
and metastability of hygroscopic microparticles. Aerosol Sci. Tech., 23, 443.
Tang, Y.M., and M.J. Roberts, 2005: The impact of a bottom boundary layer scheme
on the North Atlantic Ocean in a global coupled climate model. J. Phys. Oceanogr.,
35(2), 202�217.
Tanr�, D., et al., 2003: Measurement and modeling of the Saharan dust radiative
impact: overview of the SaHAran Dust Experiment (SHADE). J. Geophys. Res.,
108(D18), doi:10.1029/2002JD003273.
Tanr�, D., Y.J. Kaufman, M. Herman, and S. Mattoo, 1997: Remote sensing of aerosol
properties over oceans using the MODIS/EOS spectral radiances. J. Geophys. Res.,
102(D14), 16971�16988.
Tans, P.P., and T.J. Conway, 2005: Monthly atmospheric CO2 mixing ratios from the
NOAA CMDL Carbon Cycle Cooperative Global Air Sampling Network, 1968-2002. In:
Trends: A Compendium of Data on Global Change. Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis
Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, Oak Ridge, TN.
Tarasick, D.W., et al., 2005: Changes in the vertical distribution of ozone over
Canada from ozonesondes: 1980-2001. J. Geophys. Res., 110, D02304,
doi:10.1029/2004JD004643.
Tarasov, L., and W.R. Peltier, 2003: Greenland glacial history, borehole
constraints, and Eemian extent. J. Geophys. Res., 108, 2143,
doi:10.1029/2001JB001731.
Tarasov, L., and W.R. Peltier, 2005: Arctic freshwater forcing of the Younger
Dryas cold reversal. Nature, 435(7042), 662�665.
Taylor, A.E., et al., 2006: Canadian arctic permafrost observatories: detecting
contemporary climate change through inversion of subsurface temperature time-
series. J. Geophys. Res., 111, B02411, doi:10.1029/2004JB003208.
Taylor, C.M., et al., 2002: The influence of land use change on climate in the
Sahel. J. Clim., 15, 3615�3629.
Taylor, K.E., 2001: Summarizing multiple aspects of model performance in a single
diagram. J. Geophys. Res., 106, 7183�7192.
Taylor, K.E., et al., 2000: Analysis of forcing, response, and feedbacks in a
paleoclimate modeling experiment. In: Proceedings of the Third Paleoclimate
Modelling Intercomparison Project (PMIP) Workshop, 4-8 Oct. 1999, ? La Huardi�re,
Canada[Braconnot, P. (ed.)]. WCRP-111, WMO/TD-No. 1007, World Meteorological
Organization, Geneva, pp. 43�49.
Taylor, M., and E. Alfero, 2005: Climate of Central America and the Caribbean. In:
The Encyclopedia of World Climatology [Oliver, J. (ed.)]. Encyclopedia of Earth
Sciences Series, Springer Press, 854 pp.
Taylor, M., D. Enfield, and A. Chen, 2002: The influence of the tropical Atlantic
vs. the tropical Pacific on Caribbean rainfall. J. Geophys. Res., 107 (C9), 3127,
doi:10.1029/2001JC001097.
Tebaldi, C., K. Hayhoe, J.M. Arblaster, and G.E. Meehl, 2006: Going to the
extremes: an intercomparison of model-simulated historical and future changes in
extreme events. Clim. Change, 79, 185�211.
Tebaldi, C., L.O. Mearns, D. Nychka, and R.L. Smith, 2004: Regional probabilities
of precipitation change: A Bayesian analysis of multimodel simulations. Geophys.
Res. Lett., 31, L24213, doi:10.1029/2004GL021276.
Tebaldi, C., R.W. Smith, D. Nychka, and L.O. Mearns, 2005: Quantifying uncertainty
in projections of regional climate change: A Bayesian approach to the analysis of
multi-model ensembles. J. Clim., 18, 1524�1540.
Tegen, I., A.A. Lacis, and I. Fung, 1996: The influence on climate forcing of
mineral aerosols from disturbed soils. Nature, 380, 419�421.
Tegen, I., and I. Fung, 1995: Contribution to the atmospheric mineral aerosol load
from land surface modification. J. Geophys. Res., 100, 18707�18726.
Tegen, I., et al., 2002. Impact of vegetation and preferential source areas on
global dust aerosol: results from a model study. J. Geophys. Res., 107(D21), 4576,
doi:10.1029/2001JD000963.
Tegen, I., M. Werner, S.P. Harrison, and K.E. Kohfeld, 2004a: Reply to comment by
N. M. Mahowald et al. on �Relative importance of climate and land use in
determining present and future global soil dust emission�. Geophys. Res. Lett.,
31, L24106, doi:10.1029/2004GL021560.
Tegen, I., M. Werner, S.P. Harrison, and K.E. Kohfeld, 2004b: Relative importance
of climate and land use in determining present and future global soil dust
emission�. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L05105, doi:10.1029/2003GL019216.
Tegen, I., M. Werner, S.P. Harrison, and K.E. Kohfeld, 2005: Reply to comment by
N. M. Mahowald et al. on �Relative importance of climate and land use in
determining present and future global soil dust emission�. Geophys. Res. Lett.,
32, doi:10.1029/2004GL021560.
Teisserenc de Bort, L.P., 1902: Variations de la temp�rature de l�air libre dans
la zona comprise entre 8km et 13km d�altitude. Comptes Rendus de l�Acad. Sci.
Paris, 134, 987�989.
Tennant, W., 2003: An assessment of intraseasonal variability from 13-yr GCM
simulations. Mon. Weather Rev., 131(9), 1975�1991.
Terray, L., et al., 2004: Simulation of late twenty-first century changes in
wintertime atmospheric circulation over Europe de to anthropogenic causes. J.
Clim., 17, 4630�4635.
Terray, L., S. Valcke, and A. Piacentini, 1998: OASIS 2.2 Guide and Reference
Manual. ?Technical Report TR/CMGC/98-05, Centre Europeen de Recherche et de
Formation Avanc�e en Calcul Scientifique, Toulouse, France.
Tett, S.F.B., et al., 1999: Causes of twentieth-century temperature change near
the Earth�s surface. Nature, 399, 569�572.
Tett, S.F.B., et al., 2002: Estimation of natural and anthropogenic contributions
to twentieth century temperature change. J. Geophys. Res., 107(D16), 4306,
doi:10.1029/2000JD000028.
Tett, S.F.B., et al., 2007: The impact of natural and anthropogenic forcings on
climate and hydrology since 1550. Clim. Dyn., 28, 3�34, doi:10.1007/s00382-006-
0165-1.
Textor, C., et al., 2005: Analysis and quantification of the diversities of
aerosol life cycles within AEROCOM. Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss., 5, 8331�8420.
Textor, C., et al., 2006: AeroCom: The status quo of global aerosol modelling.
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 1777�1813.
Thomas, E., 2003: Extinction and food at the sea floor: a high-resolution benthic
foraminiferal record across the Initial Eocene Thermal Maximum, Southern Ocean
Site 690. In: Causes and Consequences of Globally Warm Climates of the Paleogene
[Wing, S., Gingerich, P., Schmitz, B., and Thomas, E., (eds.)]. Special Paper Vol.
369, Geological Society of America, Boulder, CO, pp. 319�332.
Thomas, R., 2004: Force-perturbation analysis of recent thinning and acceleration
of Jakobshavn Isbrae, Greenland. J. Glaciol., 50, 57�66.
Thomas, R., et al., 2001: Mass balance of higher-elevation parts of the Greenland
ice sheet. J. Geophys. Res., 106D, 33707�33716.
Thomas, R., et al., 2003: Investigation of surface melting and dynamic thinning on
Jakobshavn Isbrae, Greenland. J. Glaciol., 49, 231�239.
Thomas, R., et al., 2004: Accelerated sea level rise from West Antarctica.
Science, 306, 255�258.
Thomas, R., et al., 2005: Force-perturbation analysis of Pine Island Glacier,
Antarctica, suggests cause for recent acceleration. Ann. Glaciol., 39, 133�138.
Thomas, R., et al., 2006: Progressive increase in ice loss from Greenland.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L10503, doi: 10.1029/2006GL026075.
Thomas, R.H., 1979: The dynamics of marine ice sheets. J. Glaciol., 24, 167�177.
Thomason, L., and T. Peter, 2006: Assessment of Stratospheric Aerosol Properties
(ASAP): Report on the Assessment Kick-Off Workshop, Paris, France, 4-6 November
2001. SPARC Report No. 4, WCRP-124, WMO/TD No. 1295,
http://www.aero.jussieu.fr/~sparc/News18/18_Thomason.html.
Thompson, A.M., et al., 1996: Where did tropospheric ozone over southern Africa
and the tropical Atlantic come from in October 1992? Insights from TOMS, GTE TRACE
A, and SAFARI 1992. J. Geophys. Res., 101(D19), doi:10.1029/96JD01463.
Thompson, A.M., et al., 2000: A tropical Atlantic paradox: shipboard and satellite
views of a tropospheric ozone maximum and wave-one in January�February 1999.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 27(20), doi:10.1029/1999GL011273.
Thompson, A.M., et al., 2001: Tropical tropospheric ozone and biomass burning.
Science, 291, 2128�2132.
Thompson, C.J., and D.S. Battisti, 2001: A linear stochastic dynamical model of
ENSO. Part II: Analysis. J. Clim., 14, 445�466.
Thompson, D.W., and S. Solomon, 2002: Interpretation of recent Southern Hemisphere
climate change. Science, 296, 895�899.
Thompson, D.W.J., and J.M. Wallace, 1998: The Arctic Oscillation signature in the
wintertime geopotential height and temperature fields. Geophys. Res. Lett., 25,
1297�1300.
Thompson, D.W.J., and J.M. Wallace, 2000: Annular modes in the extratropical
circulation. Part I: Month-to-month variability. J. Clim., 13, 1000�1016.
Thompson, D.W.J., and S. Solomon, 2002: Interpretation of recent Southern
Hemisphere climate change. Science, 296, 895�899.
Thompson, D.W.J., J.M. Wallace, and G.C. Hegerl, 2000: Annular modes in the
extratropical circulation: Part II, Trends. J. Clim., 13, 1018�1036.
Thompson, D.W.J., M.P. Baldwin, and S. Solomon, 2005: Stratosphere/troposphere
coupling in the Southern Hemisphere. J. Atmos. Sci., 62, 708�715.
Thompson, L.G., 2000: Ice core evidence for climate change in the Tropics:
implications for our future. Quat. Sci. Rev., 19(1�5), 19�35.
Thompson, L.G., 2001: Stable isotopes and their relationship to temperature as
recorded in low latitude ice cores. In: Geological Perspectives of Global Climate
Change [Gerhard, L.C., W.E. Harrison, and B.M. Hanson (eds.)]. Studies in Geology
No. 47, American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Tulsa, OK, pp. 99�119.
Thompson, L.G., et al., 2000: A high-resolution millennial record of the South
Asian Monsoon from Himalayan ice cores. Science, 289(5486), 1916�1919.
Thompson, L.G., et al., 2002: Kilimanjaro ice core records: Evidence of Holocene
climate change in tropical Africa. Science, 298, 589�593.
Thompson, R.S., 1991: Pliocene environments and climates in the Western United
States. Quat. Sci. Rev., 10, 115�132.
Thompson, R.S., and R.F. Fleming, 1996: Middle Pliocene vegetation:
Reconstructions, paleoclimate inferences, and boundary conditions for climate
modeling. Mar. Micropaleontol., 27, 27�49.
Thompson, S.L., et al., 2004: Quantifying the effects of CO2-fertilized vegetation
on future global climate and carbon dynamics. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L23211,
doi:10.1029/2004GL021239.
Thompson, T.M., et al., 2004: Halocarbons and other atmospheric trace species. In:
Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory, Summary Report No. 27 [Schnell,
R.C., A.-M. Buggle, and R.M. Rosson (eds.)]. NOAA CMDL, Boulder, CO, pp. 115�135.
Thorndike, A.S., D.A. Rothrock, G.A. Maykut, and R. Colony, 1975: The thickness
distribution of sea ice. J. Geophys. Res., 80, 4501�4513.
Thorne, P.W., et al., 2002: Assessing the robustness of zonal mean climate change
detection. Geophys. Res. Lett., 29, doi:10.1029/2002GL015717.
Thorne, P.W., et al., 2003: Probable causes of late twentieth century tropospheric
temperature trends. Clim. Dyn., 21, 573�591.
Thorne, P.W., et al., 2005: Revisiting radiosonde upper air temperatures from 1958
to 2002. J. Geophys. Res., 110, D18105, doi:10.1029/2004JD005753.
Thornton, P.E., et al., 2002: Modeling and measuring the effects of disturbance
history and climate on carbon and water budgets in evergreen needleleaf forests.
Agric. For. Meteorol., 113, 185�222.
Thorpe, R.B., et al., 2001: Mechanisms determining the Atlantic thermohaline
circulation response to greenhouse gas forcing in a non-flux-adjusted coupled
climate model. J. Clim., 14, 3102�3116.
Thorpe, R.B., R.A. Wood, and J.F.B. Mitchell, 2004: The sensitivity of the
thermohaline circulation response to preindustrial and anthropogenic greenhouse
gas forcing to the parameterisation of mixing across the Greenland-Scotland ridge.
Ocean Modelling, 7, 259�268.
Thuburn, J., and G.C. Craig, 2000: Stratospheric influence on tropopause height:
The radiative constraint. J. Atmos. Sci., 57, 17�28.
Tian, H., et al., 1998: Effect of interannual climate variability on carbon
storage in Amazonian ecosystems. Nature, 396, 664�667.
Tian, Y., et al., 2004: Comparison of seasonal and spatial variations of leaf area
index and fraction of absorbed photosynthetically active radiation from Moderate
Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) and common land model. J. Geophys.
Res., 109, doi:10.1029/2003JD003777.
Tie, X.X., A. Guenther, and E. Holland, 2003: Biogenic methanol and its impact on
tropospheric oxidants. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30(17), 1881,
doi:10.1029/2003GL017167.
Tie, X.X., G.P. Brasseur, B. Breiglib, and C. Granier, 1994: Two dimensional
simulation of Pinatubo aerosol and its effect on stratospheric chemistry. J.
Geophys. Res., 99(D10), 20545�20562.
Tie, X.X., R.Y. Zhang, G. Brasseur, and W.F. Lei, 2002: Global NOx production by
lightning. J. Atmos. Chem., 43(1), 61�74.
Tiedtke, M., 1993: Representation of clouds in large-scale models. Mon. Weather
Rev., 121, 3040�3061
Tilmes, S., R. M�ller, J.-U. Groo�, and J.M. Russell III, 2004: Ozone loss and
chlorine activation in the Arctic winters 1991�2003 derived with the TRAC method.
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 4, 2181�2213.
Timbal, B., 2004: Southwest Australia past and future rainfall trends. Clim. Res.,
26, 233�249.
Timbal, B., and B.J. McAvaney, 2001: An ?analogue-based method to downscale
surface air temperature: Application for Australia. Clim. Dyn., 17(12), 947�963.
Timbal, B., J.M. Arblaster, and S. Power, 2005: Attribution of late 20th century
rainfall decline in South-West Australia. J. Clim., 19, 2046�2062.
Timmermann, A., 1999: Detecting the nonstationary response of ENSO to greenhouse
warming. J. Atmos. Sci., 56, 2313�2325.
Timmermann, A., and H. Goosse, 2004: Is the wind stress forcing essential for the
meridional overturning circulation? Geophys. Res. Lett., 31(4), L04303,
doi:10.1029/2003GL018777.
Timmermann, A., et al., 1999: Increased El Ni�o frequency in a climate model
forced by future greenhouse warming. Nature, 398, 694�696.
Timmreck, C., and M. Schulz, 2004: Significant dust simulation differences in
nudged and climatological operation mode of the AGCM ECHAM. J. Geophys. Res., 109,
D13202, doi:10.1029/2003JD004381.
Timmreck, C., H.-F. Graf, and B. Steil, 2003: Aerosol chemistry interactions after
the Mt. Pinatubo Eruption. In: Volcanism and the Earth�s Atmosphere [Robock, A.,
and C. Oppenheimer (eds.)]. Geophysical Monograph 139, American Geophysical Union,
Washington, DC, pp. 227�236.
Tinner, W., and A.F. Lotter, 2001: Central European vegetation response to abrupt
climate change at 8.2 ka. Geology, 29, 551�554.
Tjernstr�m, M., et al., 2005: Modeling the Arctic boundary layer: An evaluation of
six ARCMIP regional-scale models with data from the SHEBA project. Bound.-
Lay.Meteorol., 117, 337�381.
Todd, M., and R. Washington, 1999: Circulation anomalies associated with tropical-
temperate troughs in southern Africa and the south west Indian Ocean. Clim. Dyn.,
15(12), 937�951.
Tol, R.S.J., 2002: Estimates of the damage costs of climate change, Part II.
Dynamic estimates. Environ. Resour. Econ., 21, 135�160.
Tol, R.S.J., and A.F. De Vos, 1998: A Bayesian statistical analysis of the
enhanced greenhouse effect. Clim. Change, 38, 87�112.
Tompkins, A., 2002: A prognostic parameterization for the subgrid-scale
variability of water vapor and clouds in large-scale models and its use to
diagnose cloud cover. J. Atmos. Sci., 59, 1917�1942.
Tompkins, A.M., and G.C. Craig, 1999: Sensitivity of tropical convection to sea
surface temperature in the absence of large-scale flow. J. Clim., 12, 462�476.
Tom�, A., and P.M.A. Miranda, 2004: Piecewise linear fitting and trend changing
points of climate parameters. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L02207,
doi:10.1029/2003GL019100.
Toniazzo, T., J.M. Gregory, and P. Huybrechts, 2004: Climatic impact of Greenland
deglaciation and its possible irreversibility. J. Clim., 17, 21�33.
Toracinta, E.R., R.J. Oglesby, and D.H. Bromwich, 2004: Atmospheric response to
modified CLIMAP ocean boundary conditions during the Last Glacial Maximum. J.
Clim., 17, 504�522.
Torres, O., et al., 2002: A long-term record of aerosol optical depth from TOMS:
Observations and comparison to AERONET measurements. J. Atmos. Sci., 59, 398�413.
Tortell, P.D., G.R. DiTullio, D.M. Sigman, and F.M.M. Morel, 2002: CO2 effects on
taxonomic composition and nutrient utilization in an Equatorial Pacific
phytoplankton assemblage. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser., 236, 37�43.
Toumi, R., J.D. Haigh, and K.S. Law, 1996: A tropospheric ozone-lightning climate
feedback. Geophys. Res. Lett., 23(9), doi:10.1029/96GL00944.
Tourpali, K., et al., 2003: Stratospheric and tropospheric response to enhanced
solar UV radiation: A model study. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30(5),
doi:10.1029/2002GL016650.
Toyota, T., et al., 2004: Thickness distribution, texture and stratigraphy, and a
simple probabilistic model for dynamical thickening of sea ice in the southern Sea
of Okhotsk. J. Geophys. Res., 109, C06001, doi:10.1029/2003JC002090.
Traufetter, F., et al., 2004: Spatio-temporal variability in volcanic sulphate
deposition over the past 2 kyr in snow pits and firn cores from Amundsenisen,
Dronning Maud Land, Antarctica. J. Glaciol., 50, 137�146.
Travis, D.J., A.M. Carleton, and R.G. Lauritsen, 2002: Contrails reduce daily
temperature range. Nature, 418, 601�602.
Travis, D.J., A.M. Carleton, and R.G. Lauritsen, 2004: Regional variations in U.S.
diurnal temperature range for the 11-14 September 2001 aircraft groundings:
evidence of jet contrail influence on climate. J. Clim., 17, 1123�1134.
Trenberth, K. (ed.), 1993: Climate System Modeling. ?Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, UK, 818 pp.
Trenberth, K.E., 1990: Recent observed interdecadal climate changes in the
Northern Hemisphere. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 71, 988�993.
Trenberth, K.E., 2005: Uncertainty in hurricanes and global warming. Science, 308,
1753�1754.
Trenberth, K.E., A. Dai, R.M. Rasmussen, and D.B. Parsons, 2003: The changing
character of precipitation. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 84, 1205�1217.
Trenberth, K.E., and B.L. Otto-Bliesner, 2003: Toward integrated reconstruction of
past climates. Science, 300(5619), 589�591.
Trenberth, K.E., and D. Shea, 2006: Atlantic hurricanes and natural variability in
2005. Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L12704, doi:10.1029/2006GL026894.
Trenberth, K.E., and D.J. Shea, 2005: Relationships between precipitation and
surface temperature. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L14703, doi:10.1029/2005GL022760.
Trenberth, K.E., and J.M. Caron, 2001: Estimates of meridional atmosphere and
ocean heat transports. J. Clim., 14, 3433�3443.
Trenberth, K.E., and L. Smith, 2005: The mass of the atmosphere: A constraint on
global analyses. J. Clim., 18, 864�875.
Trenberth, K.E., D.P. Stepaniak, J.W. Hurrel, and M. Fiorino, 2001: Quality of re-
analyses in the tropics. J. Clim., 14, 1499�1510.
Trenberth, K.E., et al., 1998: Progress during TOGA in understanding and modeling
global teleconnection associated with tropical sea surface temperatures. J.
Geophys. Res., 103, 14291�14324.
Trenberth, K.E., J. Fasullo, and L. Smith, 2005: Trends and variability in column-
integrated atmospheric water vapour. Clim. Dyn., 24, 741�758.
Trenberth, K.E., J.M. Caron, and D.P. Stepaniak, 2001: The atmospheric energy
budget and implications for surface fluxes and ocean heat transports. Clim. Dyn.,
17, 259�276.
Triacca, U., 2001: On the use of Granger causality to investigate the human
influence on climate. Theor. Appl. Climatol., 69, 137�138.
Trigo, R.M., and J.P. Palutikof, 2001: Precipitation scenarios over Iberia: a
comparison between direct GCM output and different downscaling techniques. J.
Clim., 14, 4422�4446.
Trigo, R.M., I.F. Trigo, C.C. DaCamra, and T.J. Osborn, 2004: Climate impact of
the European winter blocking episodes from the NCEP/NCAR reanalyses. Clim. Dyn.,
23, 17�28.
Tripati, A.K., and H. Elderfield, 2004: Abrupt hydrographic changes in the
equatorial Pacific and subtropical Atlantic from foraminiferal Mg/Ca indicate
greenhouse origin for the thermal maximum at the Paleocene-Eocene Boundary.
Geochem. Geophys. Geosystems, 5, doi:10.1029/2003GC000631.
Tripoli, G.J., and W.R. Cotton, 1980: A numerical investigation of several factors
contributing to the observed variable intensity of deep convection over South
Florida. J. Appl. Meteorol., 19, 1037�1063.
Tromp, T.K., et al., 2003: Potential environmental impact of a hydrogen economy on
the stratosphere. Science, 300, 1740�1742.
Tselioudis, G., and W.B. Rossow, 1994: Global, multiyear variations of optical
thickness with temperature in low and cirrus clouds. Geophys. Res. Lett., 21,
2211�2214, doi:10.1029/94GL02004.
Tselioudis, G., and W.B. Rossow, 2006: Climate feedback implied by observed
radiation and precipitation changes with midlatitude storm strength and frequency.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L02704, doi:10.1029/2005GL024513.
Tselioudis, G., Y.-C. Zhang, and W.R. Rossow, 2000: Cloud and radiation variations
associated with northern midlatitude low and high sea level pressure regimes. J.
Clim., 13, 312�327.
Tsigaridis, K., and M. Kanakidou, 2003: Global modelling of secondary organic
aerosol in the troposphere: a sensitivity analysis. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 3,
1849�1869.
Tsimplis, M.N., A.G.P. Shaw, R.A. Flather, and D.K. Woolf, 2006: The influence of
the North Atlantic Oscillation on the sea level around the northern European
coasts reconsidered: the thermosteric effects. Phil. Trans. R. Soc.London A,
364(1841), 845�856, doi:10.1098/rsta.2006.1740.
Tsimplis, M.N., and M. Rixen, 2002: Sea level in the Mediterranean Sea: The
contribution of temperature and salinity changes. Geophys. Res. Lett., 29(23),
2136, doi:10.1029/2002GL015870.
Tsushima, Y., A. Abe-Ouchi, and S. Manabe, 2005: Radiative damping of annual
variation in global mean surface temperature: Comparison between observed and
simulated feedback. Clim. Dyn., 24, 591�597.
Tsushima, Y., et al., 2006: Importance of the mixed-phase cloud distribution in
the control climate for assessing the response of clouds to carbon dioxide
increase: a multi-model study. Clim. Dyn., 27, 113�126.
Tsutsui, J., 2002: Implications of anthropogenic climate change for tropical
cyclone activity: A case study with the NCAR CCM2. J. Meteorol. Soc. Japan, 80,
45�65.
Tsutsui, J., et al., 2007: Long-term climate response to stabilized and overshoot
anthropogenic forcings beyond the 21st century. Clim. Dyn., 28, 199�214.
Tsvetsinskaya, E.A., et al., 2002: Relating MODIS-derived surface albedo to soils
and rock types over Northern Africa and the Arabia Peninsula. Geophys. Res. Lett.,
29(9), doi:10.1029/2001GLO14096.
Tucker, W.B. III, et al., 2001: Evidence for the rapid thinning of sea ice in the
western Arctic Ocean at the end of the 1980s. Geophys. Res. Lett., 28(14),
2851�2854.
Tudhope, A.W., et al., 2001: Variability in the El Ni�o-Southern Oscillation
through a glacial-interglacial cycle. Science, 291, 1511�1517.
Tudhope, S., and M. Collins, 2003: Global change � The past and future of El Nino.
Nature, 424(6946), 261�262.
Turner, A.G., P.M. Inness and J.M. Slingo, 2005: The role of the basic state in
monsoon prediction. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 131, 781�804.
Turner, D.P., et al., 1991: Climate change and isoprene emissions from vegetation.
Chemosphere, 23, 37�56.
Turner, J., 2004: The El Ni�o-Southern Oscillation and Antarctica. Int. J.
Climatol., 24, 1�31.
Turner, J., et al., 2005: Antarctic climate change during the last 50 years. Int.
J. Climatol., 25(3), 279�294.
Turner, J., W.M. Connolley, T.A. Lachlan-Cope, and G.J. Marshall, 2006: The
performance of the Hadley Centre climate model (HadCM3) in high southern
latitudes. Int. J. Climatol., 26, 91�112.
Twohy, C.H., et al., 2005: Evaluation of the aerosol indirect effect in marine
stratocumulus clouds: droplet number, size, liquid water path, and radiative
impact. J. Geophys.Res., 110, D08203, doi:10.1029/2004JD005116.
Twomey, S., 1977: Influence of pollution on shortwave albedo of clouds. J. Atmos.
Sci., 34, 1149�1152.
Twomey, S.A., 1977: The influence of pollution on the shortwave albedo of clouds.
J. Atmos. Sci., 34, 1149�1152.
Tyler, S.C., et al., 2000: Experimentally determined kinetic isotope effects in
the reaction of CH4 with Cl: Implications for atmospheric CH4. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 27, 1715�1718.
Tyndall, J., 1861: On the absorption and radiation of heat by gases and vapours,
and on the physical connection, Philos. Mag., 22, 277�302.
Tyrrell, T., P.M. Holligan, and C.D. Mobley, 1999: Optical impacts of oceanic
coccolithophore blooms. J. Geophys. Res., 104(C2), 3223�3241.
Tzedakis, P.C., 2005: Towards an understanding of the response of southern
European vegetation to orbital and suborbital climate variability. Quat. Sci.
Rev., 24, 1585�1599.
Udelhofen, P.M., and R.D. Cess, 2001: Cloud cover variations over the United
States: An influence of cosmic rays or solar variability? Geophys. Res. Lett.,
28(13), 2617�2620.
Ueda, H., A. Iwai, K. Kuwako, and M.E. Hori, 2006: Impact of anthropogenic forcing
on the Asian summer monsoon simulated by 8 GCMs. Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L06703,
doi:10.1029/2005GL025336.
Ulbrich, U., et al., 2006: The Mediterranean climate change under global warming.
In: Mediterranean Climate Variability [Lionello, P.,P. Malanotte, and ]R.
Boscolo(eds.)]]. Elsevier B.V, pp. 399�415.
Umann, B., et al., 2005: Interaction of mineral dust with gas phase nitric acid
and sulfur dioxide during the MINATROC II field campaign: First estimate of the
uptake coefficient gamma(HNO3) from atmospheric data. J. Geophys. Res., 110,
D22306, doi:10.1029/2005JD005906.
UN-ECE/FAO (ed.), 2000: Forest Resources of Europe, CIS, North America, Australia,
Japan and New Zealand. UN-ECE/FAO Contribution to the Global Forest Resources
Assessment 2000, United Nations, New York and Geneva, 445 pp.
Unnikrishnan, A.S., et al., 2006: Sea level changes along the Indian coast:
Observations and projections. CurrSciIndia, 90, 362�368.
Uppala, S.M., et al., 2005: The ERA-40 Reanalysis. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 131,
2961�3012, doi:10.1256/qj.04.176.
Usoskin, I.G., et al., 2004: Latitudinal dependence of low cloud amount on cosmic
ray induced ionization. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L16109, doi:10.1029/2004GL019507.
Valcke, S., E. Guilyardi, and C. Larsson, 2006: PRISM and ENES: A European
approach to Earth system modelling. Concurrency and Computation: Practice and
Experience, 18(2), 247�262.
Valdes, P.J., D.J. Beeling, and C.E. Johnson, 2005: The ice age methane budget.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, doi:10.1029/2004GL021004.
Valentini, R., et al., 2000: Respiration as the main determinant of carbon balance
in European forests. Nature, 404(6780), 861�865.
Vallis,�G.K., E.P. Gerber,�P.J. Kushner, and B.A. Cash, 2004: A mechanism and
simple dynamical model of the North Atlantic Oscillation and Annular Modes. J.
Atmos. Sci., 61, 264�280.
Van Aardenne, J.A., et al., 2001: A 1 x 1 degree resolution dataset of historical
anthropogenic trace gas emissions for the period 1890-1990. Global Biogeochem.
Cycles, 15, 909�928.
van de Berg, W.J., M.R. van den Broeke, C.H. Reijmer, and E. van Meijgaard, 2005:
Characteristics of the Antarctic surface mass balance (1958-2002) using a regional
atmospheric climate model. AnnGlaciol., 41, 97�104.
van de Berg, W.J., M.R. van den Broeke, C.H. Reijmer, and E. van Meijgaard, 2006:
Reassessment of the Antarctic surface mass balance using calibrated output of a
regional atmospheric climate model. J. Geophys. Res., 111, D11104,
doi:10.1029/2005JD006495.
van de Wal, R.S.W., and M. Wild, 2001: Modelling the response of glaciers to
climate change by applying volume-area scaling in combination with a high
resolution GCM. Clim. Dyn., 18, 359�366.
van de Wal, R.S.W., M. Wild, and J. de Wolde, 2001: Short-term volume change of
the Greenland ice sheet in response to doubled CO2 conditions. Tellus, 53B,
94�102.
van den Broeke, M., W.J. van de Berg, and E. van Meijgaard, 2006: Snowfall in
coastal West Antarctica much greater than previously assumed. Geophys. Res. Lett.,
33, L02505, doi:10.1029/2005GL025239.
van den Broeke, M.R., 2000: On the interpretation of Antarctic temperature trends.
J. Clim., 13(21), 3885�3889.
van den Broeke, M.R., and N.P.M. van Lipzig, 2003: Factors controlling the near-
surface wind field in Antarctica. Mon. Weather Rev., 131, 733�743.
van den Broeke, M.R., W.J. van de Berg, and E. van Meijgaard, 2006: Snowfall in
coastal West Antarctica much greater than previously assumed. Geophys. Res. Lett.,
33, L02505, doi:10.1029/2005GL025239.
Van den Dool, H.M., H.J. Krijnen, and C.J.E. Schuurmans, 1978: Average winter
temperatures at de Bilt (the Netherlands): 1634-1977. Clim. Change, 1, 319�330.
Van den Heever, S.C., et al., 2006: Impacts of nucleating aerosol on Florida
storms, Part I: Mesoscale simulations. J. Atmos. Sci., 63, 1752�1775.
van den Hurk, B., et al., 2005: Soil control on runoff response to climate change
in regional climate model simulations. J. Clim., 18, 3536�3551.
van den Hurk, B., et al., 2006: KNMI Climate Change Scenarios 2006 for the
Netherlands. KNMI WR-2006-01, KNMI, The Netherlands, 82 pp.
van der Schrier, G., and J. Barkmeijer, 2005: Bjerknes� hypothesis on the coldness
during AD 1790-1820 revisited. Clim. Dyn., 24(4), 355�371.
van der Veen, C.J., 2002: Polar ice sheets and global sea level: how well can we
predict the future? Global Planet. Change, 32, 165�194.
van der Werf, et al., 2004: Continental-scale partitioning of fire emissions
during the 1997 to 2001 El Nino/La Nina period. Science, 303, 73�76.
van der Werf, G.R., et al., 2004: Continental-scale partitioning of fire emissions
during the 1997 to 2001 El Ni�o/La Ni�a period. Science, 303(5654), 73�76.
van der Werf, G.R., J.T. Randerson, G.J. Collatz, and L. Giglio, 2003: Carbon
emissions from fires in tropical and subtropical ecosystems. Global Change Biol.,
9, 547�562.
Van Dorland, R., F.J. Dentener, and J. Lelieveld, 1997: Radiative forcing due to
tropospheric ozone and sulfate aerosols. J. Geophys. Res., 102(D23), 28079�28100.
van Groenigen, K.J., et al., 2006: Element interactions limit soil carbon storage.
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 103, 6571�6574.
van Kreveld, S., et al., 2000: Potential links between surging ice sheets,
circulation changes, and the Dansgaard-Oeschger cycles in the Irminger Sea, 60-18
kyr. Paleoceanography, 15, 425�442.
van Lipzig, N.M., E. van Meijgaard, and J. Oerlemans, 2002: Temperature
sensitivity of the Antarctic surface mass balance in a regional atmospheric
climate model. J. Clim., 15, 2758�2774.
van Lipzig, N.P.M., E.W. van Meijgaard, and J. Oerlemans, 2002a: The spatial and
temporal variability of the surface mass balance in Antarctica: results from a
regional atmospheric climate model. Int. J. Climatol., 22, 1197�1217.
van Lipzig, N.P.M., E.W. van Meijgaard, and J. Oerlemans, 2002b: Temperature
sensitivity of the Antarctic surface mass balance in a regional atmospheric
climate model. J. Clim., 15, 2758�2774.
van Loon, H., and D.J. Shea, 2000: The global 11-year solar signal in July-August.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 27, 2965�2968.
Van Loon, H., and J. C. Rogers, 1978: The seesaw in winter temperatures between
Greenland and northern Europe. Part 1: General descriptions. Mon. Weather Rev.,
106, 296�310.
Van Loon, H., and K. Labitzke, 2000: The influence of the 11-year solar cycle on
the stratosphere below 30 km: A review. Space Sci. Rev., 94, 259�278.
van Noije, T.P.C., et al., 2006: Multi-model ensemble simulations of tropospheric
NO2 compared with GOME retrievals for the year 2000. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6,
2943�2979.
van Noije, T.P.C., H.J. Eskes, M. Van Weele, and P.F.J. van Velthoven, 2004:
Implications of enhanced Brewer-Dobson circulation in European Centre for Medium-
Range Weather Forecasts reanalysis for the stratosphere-troposphere exchange of
ozone in global chemistry transport models. J. Geophys. Res., 109, D19308,
doi:10.1029/2004JD004586.
van Oldenborgh, G.J., and G. Burgers, 2005: Searching for decadal variations in
ENSO precipitation teleconnections. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L15701,
doi:10.1029/2005GL023110.
van Oldenborgh, G.J., S.Y. Philip, and M. Collins, 2005: El Ni�o in a changing
climate: a multi-model study. Ocean Sci., 1, 81�95.
van Ulden, A., G. Lenderink, B. van den Hurk, and E. van Meijgaard, 2007:
Circulation statistics and climate change in Central Europe: Prudence simulations
and observations. Clim. Change, doi: 10.1007/s10584-006-9212-5.
van Ulden, A.P., and G.J. van Oldenborgh, 2006: Large-scale atmospheric
circulation biases and changes in global climate model simulations and their
importance for climate change in Central Europe. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 863�881.
van Wesemael, B., S. Lettens, C. Roelandt, and J. Van Orshoven, 2005: Modelling
the evolution of regional carbon stocks in Belgian 19 cropland soils. Can. J. Soil
Sci., 85(4), 511�521.
Vannitsem, S., and F. Chom�, 2005: One-way nested regional climate simulations and
domain size. J. Clim., 18, 229�233.
Vargas-Y��ez, M., et al., 2004: Temperature and salinity increase in the eastern
North Atlantic along the 24.5�N in the last ten years. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31,
L06210, doi:10.1029/2003GL019308.
Vaughan, D., et al., 2003: Recent rapid regional climate warming on the Antarctic
Peninsula. Clim. Change, 60, 243�274.
Vaughan, D.G., 2006: Recent trends in melting conditions on the Antarctic
Peninsula and their implications for ice-sheet mass balance and sea level. Arctic,
Antarctic, and Alpine Res., 38, 147�152.
Vaughan, D.G., 2007: West Antarctic Ice Sheet collapse � the fall and rise of a
paradigm. Clim. Change, in press.
Vaughan, D.G., and J.R. Spouge, 2002: Risk estimation of collapse of the West
Antarctic Ice Sheet. Clim. Change, 52, 65�91.
Vaughan, D.G., et al., 2001: Climate change � Devil in the detail. Science,
293(5536), 1777�1779.
Vaughan, D.G., et al., 2001: Devil in the detail. Science, 293, 1777�1779.
Vaughan, D.G., et al., 2003: Recent rapid regional climate warming on the
Antarctic Peninsula. Clim. Change, 60, 243�274.
Vavrus, S., 2004: The impact of cloud feedbacks on Arctic climate under greenhouse
forcing. J. Clim., 17, 603�615.
Vavrus, S., and S.P. Harrison, 2003: The impact of sea-ice dynamics on the Arctic
climate system. Clim. Dyn., 20, 741�757.
Vavrus, S.J., J.E. Walsh, W.L. Chapman, and D. Portis, 2006: The behavior of
extreme cold air outbreaks under greenhouse warming. Int. J. Climatol., 26,
1133�1147.
Vecchi, G.A., et al., 2006: Weakening of tropical Pacific atmospheric circulation
due to anthropogenic forcing. Nature, 44, 73�76.
Veefkind, J.P., G. de Leeuw, and P.A. Durkee, 1998: Retrieval of aerosol optical
depth over land using two-angle view satellite radiometry. Geophys. Res. Lett.
25(16), 3135�3138.
Velders, et al., 2005: Chemical and radiative effects of halocarbons and their
replacement compounds. In: Special Report on Safeguarding the Ozone Layer and the
Global Climate System: Issues Related to Hydrofluorocarbons and Perfluorocarbons
[Metz, B., et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom
and New York, NY, USA, pp. 133�180.
Velders, G.J.M., et al., 2005: Chemical and radiative effects of halocarbons and
their replacement compounds. In: IPCC/TEAP Special Report on Safeguarding the
Ozone Layer and the Global Climate System: Issues related to Hydrofluorocarbons
and Perfluorocarbons. Prepared by Working Group I and III of the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change and the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel [Metz,
B., et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New
York, NY, USA, pp. 133�180.
Velicogna, I., and J. Wahr, 2005: Greenland mass balance from GRACE. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 32, L18505, ?doi:10.1029/2005GL023955.
Velicogna, I., and J. Wahr, 2006: Measurements of time variable gravity show mass
loss in Antarctica. Science, 311(5768), 1754�1756, doi:10.1126/science.1123785.
Vellinga, M., and P. Wu, 2004: Low-latitude freshwater influence on centennial
variability of the thermohaline circulation. J. Clim., 17, 4498�4511.
Vellinga, M., and R.A. Wood, 2002: Global climatic impacts of a collapse of the
Atlantic thermohaline circulation. Clim. Change, 54, 251�267.
Vellinga, M., R.A.Wood, and J.M. Gregory, 2002: Processes governing the recovery
of a perturbed thermohaline circulation in HadCM3. J. Clim., 15, 764�780.
Venegas, S.A., L.A. Mysak, and D.N. Straub, 1998: An interdecadal climate cycle in
the South Atlantic and its links to other ocean basins. J. Geophys. Res.,
103(C11), 24723�24736.
Venegas, S.A., M.R. Drinkwater, and G. Shaffer, 2001: Coupled oscillations in
Antarctic sea ice and atmosphere in the South Pacific sector. Geophys. Res. Lett.,
28,(17), 3301�3304.
Vera, C., et al., 2006: Towards a unified view of the American monsoon systems. J.
Clim., 19, 4977�5000.
Verdugo, P., et al., 2004: The oceanic gel phase: a bridge in the DOM-POM
continuum. Mar. Chem., 92, 67�85.
VernekarA.D., B.P. Kirtman, and M.J. Fennessy, 2003: Low-level jets and their
effects on the South American summer climate as simulated by the NCEP Eta model.
J. Clim., 16, 297�311.
Verschuren, D., 2001: Reconstructing fluctuations of a shallow East African lake
during the past 1800 yrs from sediment stratigraphy in a submerged crater basin.
J. Paleolimnol., 25(3), 297�311.
Verseghy, D.L., N.A. McFarlane, and M. Lazare, 1993: A Canadian land surface
scheme for GCMs: II. Vegetation model and coupled runs. Int. J. Climatol., 13,
347�370.
Veski, S., H. Seppa, and A.E.K. Ojala, 2004: Cold event at 8200 yr BP recorded in
annually laminated lake sediments in eastern Europe. Geology, 32(8), 681�684.
Vestreng, V., M. Adams, and J. Goodwin, 2004: Inventory Review 2004: Emission Data
Reported to CLRTAP and the NEC Directive. EMEP/EEA Joint Review Report, Norwegian
Meteorological Institute, Norway, 120 pp.
Vettoretti, G., and W.R. Peltier, 2003: Post-Eemian glacial inception. Part II:
Elements of a cryospheric moisture pump.�J. Clim., 16(6), 912�927.
Vidal, L., L. Labeyrie, and T.C.E. van Weering, 1998: Benthic d18O records in the
North Atlantic over the last glacial period (60-10 kyr): Evidence for brine
formation. Paleoceanography, 13(3), 245�251.
Vidale, P.L., D. L�thi, R. Wegmann, and C. Sch�r, 2007: European climate
variability in a heterogeneous multi-model ensemble. Clim. Change, doi:
10.1007/s10584-006-9218-z.
Vidale, P.L., et al., 2003: Predictability and uncertainty in a regional climate
model. J. Geophys. Res., 108(D18), 4586, doi:10.1029/2002JD002810.
Vieli, A., and A.J. Payne, 2005: Assessing the ability of numerical ice sheet
models to simulate grounding line migration. J. Geophys. Res., 110, F01003,
doi:10.1029/2004JF000202.
Vignudelli, S., G.P. Gasparini, M. Astraldi, and M.E. Schiano, 1999: A possible
influence of the North Atlantic Oscillation on the circulation of the Western
Mediterranean Sea. Geophys. Res. Lett., 26(5), 623�626.
Villalba, R., et al., 2003: Large-scale temperature changes across the southern
Andes: 20th-century variations in the context of the past 400 years. Clim. Change,
59(1�2), 177�232.
Vincent, C., 2002: Influence of climate change over the 20th century on 4 French
glacier mass balances. J. Geophys. Res., 107, 4375, doi:10.1029/2001JD000832.
Vincent, C., E. Le Meur, D. Six, and M. Funk, 2005: Solving the paradox of the end
of the Little Ice Age in the Alps. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L09706,
doi:10.1029/2005GL022552.
Vincent, C., et al., 2005: Glacier fluctuations in the Alps and in the tropical
Andes. Comptes Rendus Geoscience, 337(1�2), 97�106.
Vincent, D.G., 1994: The South Pacific Convergence Zone (SPCZ): A review. Mon.
Weather Rev., 122, 1949�1970.
Vinje, T., 2001: Anomalies and trends of sea ice extent and atmospheric
circulation in the Nordic Seas during the period 1864-1998. J. Clim., 14, 255�267.
Vinje, T., N. Nordlund, and A. Kvambekk, 1998: Monitoring ice thickness in Fram
Strait. J. Geophys. Res., 103(C5), 10437�10450.
Vinnikov, K.Y., et al., 1999: Global warming and Northern Hemisphere sea ice
extent. Science, 286(5446), 1934�1937.
Vinnikov, K.Y., et al., 2006: Trends at the surface and in the troposphere. J.
Geophys. Res., 111, D03106, doi:10.1029/2005JD006392.
Visbeck, M., J. Marshall, T. Haine, and M. Spall, 1997: Specification of eddy
transfer coefficients in coarse-resolution ocean circulation models. J. Phys.
Oceanogr., 27, 381�402.
Vitousek, P.M., 2004: Nutrient Cycling and Limitations: Hawai�i as a Model
Ecosystem. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 232 pp.
Vitousek, P.M., et al., 1997: Human alteration of the global nitrogen cycle:
sources and consequences. Ecol. Appl., 7, 737�750.
Vitousek, P.M., et al., 1998: Within-system element cycles, input-output budgets,
and nutrient limitations. In: Successes, Limitations, and Frontiers in Ecosystem
Science [Pace, M., and P. Groffman (eds.)]. Springer-Verlag, New York, pp.
432�451.
Vizy, E.K., and K.H. Cook, 2002: Development and application of a mesoscale
climate model for the tropics: Influence of sea surface temperature anomalies on
the West African monsoon. J. Geophys. Res., 107(D3), 4023,
doi:10.1029/2001JD000686.
Voelker, A.H.L., 2002: Global distribution of centennial-scale records for Marine
Isotope Stage (MIS) 3: a database. Quat. Sci. Rev., 21(10), 1185�1212.
Vojtek, M., P. Fasko, and P. St�astny, 2003: Some selected snow climate trends in
Slovakia with respect to altitude. Acta Meteorologica Universitatis Comenianae,
32, 17�27.
Voldoire, A., 2006: Quantifying the impact of future land-use changes against
increases in GHG concentrations. Geophys. Res. Lett.,33,L04701,
doi:10.1029/2005GL024354.
Voldoire, A., and J.-F. Royer, 2004: Tropical deforestation and climate
variability. Clim. Dyn., 22, 857�874, doi:10.1007/s00382-004-0423-z.
Voldoire, A., and J.F. Royer, 2005: Climate sensitivity to tropical land surface
changes with coupled versus prescribed SSTs, Clim. Dyn., 24, 843�862.
Volk, T., and M.I. Hoffert, 1985: Ocean carbon pumps: Analysis of relative
strengths and efficiencies in ocean-driven atmospheric CO2 changes. In: The Carbon
Cycle and Atmospheric CO2: Natural Variations Archean to Present [Sundquist, E.T.,
and W.S. Broecker (eds.)]. Geophysical Monograph Vol. 32, American Geophysical
Union, Washington, DC, pp. 99�110.
Volodin, E.M., 2004: Relation between the global-warming parameter and the heat
balance on the Earth�s surface at increased contents of carbon dioxide. Izv.
Atmos. Ocean. Phys., 40, 269�275.
Volodin, E.M., and N.A. Diansky, 2004: El-Ni�o reproduction in a coupled general
circulation model of atmosphere and ocean. Russ. Meteorol. Hydrol., 12, 5�14.
Volodin, E.M., and V.N. Lykossov, 1998: Parameterization of heat and moisture
processes in the soil-vegetation system: 1. Formulation and simulations based on
local observational data. Izv. Atmos. Ocean. Phys., 34(4), 453�465.
Volodin, E.M., and V.Y. Galin, 1999: Interpretation of winter warming on Northern
Hemisphere continents in 1977-1994. J. Clim., 12, 2947�2955.
von Grafenstein, U., et al., 1998: The cold event 8,200 years ago documented in
oxygen isotope records of precipitation in Europe and Greenland. Clim. Dyn., 14,
73�81.
von Hoyningen-Huene, W., M. Freitag, and J.B. Burrows, 2003: Retrieval of aerosol
optical thickness over land surfaces from top-of-atmosphere radiance. J. Geophys.
Res., 108(D9), 4260, doi:10.1029/2001JD002018.
Von Kuhlmann, R., M.G. Lawrence, P.J. Crutzen, and P.J. Rasch, 2003: A model for
studies of tropospheric ozone and nonmethane hydrocarbons: model description and
ozone results. J. Geophys. Res., 108, 4294, doi:10.1029/2002JD002893.
von Storch, H., and E. Zorita, 2005: Comment on �Hockey sticks, principal
components, and spurious significance� by S. McIntyre and R. McKitrick. Geophys.
Res. Lett., 32(20), doi:10.1029/2005GL022753.
von Storch, H., and F.W. Zwiers, 1999: Statistical Analysis in Climate Research.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 484 pp.
von Storch, H., et al., 2004: Reconstructing past climate from noisy data.
Science, 306(5296), 679�682.
von Storch, H., H. Langenberg, and F. Feser, 2000: A spectral nudging technique
for dynamical downscaling purposes. Mon. Weather Rev., 128, 3664�3673.
von StorchH., and H. Reichardt, 1997: A scenario of storm surge statistics for the
German Bight at the expected time of doubled atmospheric carbon dioxide
concentration. J. Clim., 10, 2653�2662.
Vonder Haar, T.H., and V.E. Suomi, 1971: Measurements of the Earth�s radiation
budget from satellites during a five-year period. Part 1: Extended time and space
means. J. Atmos. Sci., 28, 305�314.
Vonder M�hll, D., J. N�tzli, K. Makowski, and R. Delaloye, 2004: Permafrost in
Switzerland 2000/2001 and 2001/2002. Glaciological Report (Permafrost) No. 2/3,
Glaciological Commission of the Swiss Academy of Sciences, Zurich, 86 pp.
Voss, R., and U. Mikolajewicz, 2001: Long-term climate changes due to increased
CO2 concentration in the coupled atmosphere-ocean general circulation model
ECHAM3/LSG. Clim. Dyn., 17, 45�60.
Voss, R., W. May, and E. Roeckner, 2002: Enhanced resolution modelling study on
anthropogenic climate change: Changes in extremes of the hydrological cycle. Int.
J. Climatol., 22, 755�777.
Vranes, K., A.L. Gordon, and A. Ffield, 2002: The heat transport of the Indonesian
Throughflow and implications for the Indian Ocean heat budget. Deep-Sea Res. I,
49, 1391�1410.
Vuille, M., and Bradley, R.S., 2000: Mean annual temperature trends and their
vertical structure in the tropical Andes. Geophys. Res. Lett., 27, 3885�3888.
Vuille, M., and M. Werner, 2005: Stable isotopes in precipitation recording South
American summer monsoon and ENSO variability: observations and model results.
Clim. Dyn., 25(4), 401�413.
Vuille, M., M. Werner, R.S. Bradley, and F. Keimig, 2005: Stable isotopes in
precipitation in the Asian monsoon region. J. Geophys. Res., 110(D23),
doi:10.1029/2005JD006022.
V�rant, S., 2004: Etude des D�pressions sur l�Europe de l�Ouest�: Climat Actuel et
Changement Climatique. PhD thesis, Universit� Paris VI, Paris, France, 204 pp.
Wadhams, P., 1992: Sea ice thickness distribution in the Greenland Sea and
Eurasian Basin, May 1987. J. Geophys. Res., 97, 5331�5348.
Wadhams, P., and W. Munk, 2004: Ocean freshening, sea level rising, sea ice
melting. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31(11), L11311, doi:10.1029/2004GL020039.
Waelbroeck, C., et al., 2002: Sea-level and deep water temperature changes derived
from benthic foraminifera isotopic records. Quat. Sci. Rev., 21(1�3), 295�305.
Waelbroeck, C., et al., 2005: A global compilation of late Holocene planktonic
foraminiferal d18O: Relationship between surface water temperature and d18O. Quat.
Sci. Rev., 24, 853�858.
Wagnon, P., P. Ribstein, B. Francou, and J.E. Sicart, 2001. Anomalous heat and
mass budget of Glaciar Zongo, Bolivia during the 1997/98 El Ni�o year. J.
Glaciol., 47(156), 21�28.
Wahl, E.R., and C.M. Ammann, 2007: Robustness of the Mann, Bradley, Hughes
reconstruction of Northern Hemisphere surface temperatures: Examination of
criticisms based on the nature and processing of proxy climate evidence. Clim.
Change, in press.
Wahl, E.R., D.M. Ritson and C.M. Ammann, 2006: Comment on �Reconstructing past
climate from noisy data�. Science, 312, 529.
Wakelin, S.L., P.L. Woodworth, R.A. Flather, and J.A. Williams, 2003: Sea-level
dependence on the NAO over the NW European continental shelf. Geophys. Res. Lett.,
30(7), 1403, doi:10.1029/2003GL017041.
Waliser, D.E., K.M. Lau, and J.H. Lim, 1999: The influence of coupled sea surface
temperatures on the Madden�Julian oscillation: A model perturbation experiment. J.
Atmos. Sci., 56, 333�358.
Walker, G.T., 1924: Correlation in seasonal variation of weather. IX Mem. Ind.
Met. Dept., 25, 275�332.
Walker, G.T., 1928: World weather: III. Mem. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 2, 97�106.
Wallace, J.M., and D.S. Gutzler, 1981: Teleconnections in the geopotential height
field during the Northern Hemisphere winter. Mon. Weather Rev., 109, 784�812.
Wallace, J.M., Y. Zhang, and L. Bajuk, 1996: Interpretation of interdecadal trends
in Northern Hemisphere surface air temperature. J. Clim., 9, 249�259.
Walland, D.J., S.B. Power, and A.C. Hirst, 2000: Decadal climate variability
simulated in a coupled general circulation model. Clim. Dyn., 16(2�3), 201�211.
Wallis, I., and I. Beale, 1669: Some observations concerning the baroscope and
thermoscope, made and communicated by Doctor I. Wallis at Oxford, and Dr. I Beale
at Yeovil in Somerset, deliver�d here according to the several dates, when they
were imparted. Dr. Beale in those letters of his dated Decemb.18. Decemb. 29.
1669. and Januar. 3. 1670. Philosophical Transactions (1665-1678), 4, 1113�1120.
Wallmann, K., 2001: Controls on the Cretaceous and Cenozoic evolution of seawater
composition, atmospheric CO2 and climate. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta., 65(18),
3005�3025.
Walser, A., and C. Sch�r, 2004: Convection-resolving precipitation forecasting and
its predictability in Alpine river catchments. J. Hydrol., 288, 57�73Walsh, J.E.,
et al., 2002: Comparison of Arctic climate simulations by uncoupled and coupled
global models. J. Clim., 15, 1429�1446.
Walsh, J., et al., 2005: Cryosphere and hydrology. In: Arctic Climate Impact
Assessment. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge and New York, pp. 183�242.
Walsh, J.E., et al., 2002: Comparison of Arctic climate simulations by uncoupled
and coupled global models. J. Clim., 15, 1429�1446.
Walsh, J.J., 1991: Importance of continental margins in the marine biogeochemical
cycling of carbon and nitrogen. Nature, 350, 53�55.
Walsh, K., 2004: Tropical cyclones and climate change: Unresolved issues. Clim.
Res., 27, 77�84.
Walsh, K., et al., 1999: Climate Change in Queensland Under Enhanced Greenhouse
Conditions: First Annual Report, 1997-1998. CSIRO Atmospheric Research, Melbourne,
84 pp.
Walsh, K.J., 2004: Tropical cyclones and climate change: unresolved issues. Clim.
Res., 27, 77�84.
Walsh, K.J., K.C. Nguyen, and J.L. McGregor, 2004: Fine-resolution regional
climate model simulations of the impact of climate change on tropical cyclones
near Australia. Clim. Dyn., 22(1), 47�56.
Walsh, K.J.E., and B.F. Ryan, 2000: Tropical cyclone intensity increase near
Australia as a result of climate change. J. Clim., 13(16), 3029�3036.
Walsh, K.J.E., and J.J. Katzfey, 2000: The impact of climate change on the
poleward movement of tropical cyclone-like vortices in a regional climate model.
J. Clim., 13(6), 1116�1132.
Walsh, K.J.E., K.C. Nguyen, and J.L. McGregor, 2004: Fine-resolution regional
climate model simulations of the impact of climate change on tropical cyclones
near Australia. Clim. Dyn., 22, 47�56.
Walter, B.P., and M. Heimann, 2001b: Modeling modern methane emission from natural
wetlands, 2. Interannual variations 1982-1993. J. Geophys. Res., 106, 34207�37219.
Walter, B.P., M. Heimann, and E. Matthews, 2001a: Modeling modern methane
emissions from natural wetlands 2. Interannual variations 1982-1993. J. Geophys.
Res., 106(D24), 34207�34220.
Walter, B.P., M. Heimann, and E. Matthews, 2001b: Modeling modern methane
emissions from natural wetlands 1. Model description and results. J. Geophys.
Res., 106(D24), 34189�34206.
Wang, B., et al., 2004: Design of a new dynamical core for global atmospheric
models based on some efficient numerical methods. Science in China, Ser. A, 47
Suppl., 4�21.
Wang, B., I.S. Kang, and J.Y. Lee, 2004: Ensemble simulations of Asian-Australian
monsoon variability by 11 GCMs. J. Clim., 17, 803�818.
Wang, C., 2004: A modeling study on the climate impacts of black carbon aerosols.
J. Geophys. Res., 109, doi:10.1029/2003JD004084.
Wang, C., and R. Prinn, 1999: Impact of emissions, chemistry and climate on
atmospheric carbon monoxide: 100 year predictions from a global chemistry model.
Chemosphere, 1, 73�81.
Wang, G., 2005: Agricultural drought in a future climate: Results from 15 global
climate models participating in the IPCC 4th Assessment. Clim. Dyn., 25, 739�753.
Wang, G., and E. Eltahir, 2000: Modeling the biosphere-atmosphere system: the
impact of the subgrid variability in rainfall interception. J. Clim., 13,
2887�3078.
Wang, G., et al., 2004: Decadal variability of rainfall in the Sahel: results from
the coupled GENESIS-IBIS atmosphere-biosphere model. Clim. Dyn., 22,
doi:10.1007/s00382-004-0411-3.
Wang, G.and E.A.B. Eltahir, 2000: Role of vegetation dynamics in enhancing the
low-frequency variability of the Sahel rainfall. Water ResourRes., 36(4),
1013�1021.
Wang, G.L., and E.A.B. Eltahir, 2000: Ecosystem dynamics and the Sahel drought.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 27, 795�798.
Wang, H.J., et al., 2002: Assessment of SAGE version 6.1 ozone data quality. J.
Geophys. Res., 107(D23), 4691, doi:10.1029/2002JD002418.
Wang, J., H.L. Cole, and D.J. Carlson, 2001: Water vapor variability in the
tropical western Pacific from 20-year radiosonde data. Adv. Atmos. Sci., 18(5),
752�766.
Wang, J.S., et al., 2004: A 3-D model analysis of the slowdown and interannual
variability in the methane growth rate from 1988 to 1997. Global Biogeochem.
Cycles, 18, GB3011, doi:10.1029/3003GB002180.
Wang, J.S., M.B. McElroy, C.M. Spivakovsky, and D.B.A. Jones, 2002: On the
contribution of anthropogenic Cl to the increase in d13C of atmospheric methane.
Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 16, doi:10.1029/2001GB001572.
Wang, L.R., and M. Ikeda, 2004: A Lagrangian description of sea ice dynamics using
the finite element method. Ocean Modelling, 7, 21�38.
Wang, M., et al., 2007: Intrinsic versus forced variation in coupled climate model
simulations over the Arctic during the 20th century. J. Clim., 20, 1084-1098.
Wang, M.H., K.D. Knobelspiesse, and C.R. McClain, 2005: Study of the Sea-Viewing
Wide Field-of-View Sensor (SeaWiFS) aerosol optical property data over ocean in
combination with the ocean color products. J. Geophys. Res., 110, D10S06,
doi:10.1029/2004JD004950.
Wang, S., 2002: Permafrost degradation, desertification and CH4 release. In:
Dynamic Characteristic of Cryosphere in the Central Section of Qinghai-Tibet
Plateau [Yao, T., et al. (eds.)]. Geology Press, Beijing, 234�255 (in Chinese).
Wang, S., and Zhao, X., 1997: Environmental change in patchy permafrost zone in
the south section of Qinghai-Tibet Highway. J. Glaciol. Geocryol., 19, 231�239 (in
Chinese).
Wang, S., R.F. Grant, D.L. Verseghy, and T.A. Black, 2002: Modelling carbon
dynamics of boreal forest ecosystems using the Canadian land surface scheme. Clim.
Change, 55, 451�477.
Wang, S.S., 2005: Dynamics of surface albedo of a boreal forest and its
simulation. Ecol. Model., 183, 477�494.
Wang, S.S., et al., 2002: Modelling carbon dynamics of boreal forest ecosystems
using the Canadian Land Surface Scheme. Clim. Change, 55(4), 451�477.
Wang, W.-C., M.P. Dudek, and X.-Z. Liang, 1992: Inadequacy of effective CO2 as a
proxy in assessing the regional climate change due to other radiatively active
gases. Geophys. Res. Lett., 19, 1375�1378.
Wang, W.-C., M.P. Dudek, X.-Z. Liang, and J.T. Kiehl, 1991: Inadequacy of
effective CO2 as a proxy in simulating the greenhouse effect of other radiatively
active gases. Nature, 350, 573�577.
Wang, W. C., et al., 1976: Greenhouse effects due to man-made perturbations of
trace gases. Science, 194, 685�690.
Wang, W., and M. Schlesinger, 1999: The dependence on convection parameterization
of the tropical intraseasonal oscillation simulated by the UIUC 11-layer
atmospheric GCM. J. Clim., 12, 1423�1457.
Wang, X.L., and V.R. Swail, 2006a: Historical and possible future changes of wave
heights in northern hemisphere ocean. In: Atmosphere-Ocean Interactions [Perrie,
W. (ed.)]. Vol. 2, Wessex Institute of Technology Press, Southampton, pp. 240.
Wang, X.L., and V.R. Swail, 2006b: Climate change signal and uncertainty in
projections of ocean wave heights. Clim. Dyn., 26, 109�126.
Wang, X.L., F.W. Zwiers, and V.R. Swail, 2004: North Atlantic Ocean wave climate
change scenarios for the twenty-first century. J. Clim., 17, 2368�2383.
Wang, X.L.L., V.R. Swai, and F.W. Zwiers, 2006: Climatology and changes of
extratropical cyclone activity: Comparison of ERA-40 with NCEP-NCAR reanalysis for
1958-2001. J. Clim., 19, 3145�3166.
Wang, Y., D.J. Jacob, and J.A. Logan, 1998: Global simulation of tropospheric O3-
NOx-hydrocarbon chemistry, 3. Origin of tropospheric ozone and effects of non-
methane hydrocarbons. J. Geophys. Res., 103(D9), 10757�10768.
Wang, Y.J., et al., 2001: A high-resolution absolute-dated late Pleistocene
monsoon record from Hulu Cave, China. Science, 294, 2345�2348.
Wang, Y.J., et al., 2005: Holocene Asian monsoon: Links to solar changes and North
Atlantic climate. Science, 308, 854�857.
Wang, Y.M., and N.R. Sheeley, 2003: Modeling the sun�s large-scale magnetic field
during the Maunder minimum. Astrophys. J., 591(2), 1248�1256.
Wang, Y.M., J.L. Lean, and N.R. Sheeley, 2005: Modeling the sun�s magnetic field
and irradiance since 1713. Astrophys. J., 625, 522�538.
Wang, Z., and L.A. Mysak, 2002: Simulation of the last glacial inception and rapid
ice sheet growth in the McGill paleoclimate model. Geophys. Res. Lett., 29,
doi:10.1029/2002GL015120.
Wang, Z., et al., 2004: Using MODIS BRDF and albedo data to evaluate global model
land surface albedo. J. Hydrometeorol., 5, 3�14.
Wanner, H., et al., 1995. Wintertime European circulation patterns during the late
maunder minimum cooling period (1675-1704). Theor. Appl. Climatol., 51, 167�175.
Wanninkhof, R., and W.R. McGillis, 1999: A cubic relationship between air-sea CO2
exchange and wind speed. Geophys. Res. Lett., 26(13), 1889�1892.
Waple, A.M., M.E. Mann, and R.S. Bradley, 2002: Long-term patterns of solar
irradiance forcing in model experiments and proxy based surface temperature
reconstructions. Clim. Dyn., 18, 563�578.
Wardle, R., and I. Smith, 2004: Modeled response of the Australian monsoon to
changes in land surface temperatures. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L16205,
doi:10.1029/2004GL020157.
Warneck, P., 1988: Chemistry of the Natural Atmosphere. Academic Press, London,
757 pp.
Warner, C.D., and M.E. McIntyre, 2001: An ultrasimple spectral parameterization
for nonorographic gravity waves. J. Atmos Sci., 58, 1837�1857.
Warner, J., and S.A. Twomey, 1967: The production and cloud nuclei by cane fires
and the effect on cloud droplet concentration. J. Atmos. Sci., 24, 704�706.
Warner, T.T., R.A. Peterson, and R.E. Treadon, 1997: A tutorial on lateral
conditions as a basic and potentially serious limitation to regional numerical
weather prediction. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 78(11), 2599�2617.
Warrach, K., H.T. Mengelkamp, and E. Raschke, 2001: Treatment of frozen soil and
snow cover in the land surface model SEWAB. Theor. Appl. Climatol., 69(1�2),
23�37.
Warren, B.A., 1981: Deep circulation of the World Ocean. In: Evolution of Physical
Oceanography [Warren, B.A., and C. Wunsch (eds.)]. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, pp.
6�41.
Warren, S.G., et al., 1988: Global Distribution of Total Cloud Cover and Cloud
Type Amounts Over the Ocean. DOE/ER-0406, NCAR/FN-317 + STR, National Center for
Atmospheric Research, Boulder, CO.
Warren, S.G., et al., 1999: Snow depth on arctic sea ice. J. Clim., 12, 1814�1829.
Warwick, N.J., et al., 2002: The impact of meteorology on the interannual growth
rate of atmospheric methane. Geophys. Res. Lett., 29(26),
doi:10.1029/2002/GL015282.
Warwick, N.J., S. Bekki, E.G. Nisbet, and J.A. Pyle, 2004: Impact of a hydrogen
economy on the stratosphere and troposphere studied in a 2-D model. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 31, L05107, doi:10.1029/2003GL019224.
Washington, W.M., et al.,�2000: Parallel Climate Model (PCM) control and transient
simulations. Clim. Dyn., 16, 755�774.
Watanabe, O., et al., 2003: Homogeneous climate variability across East Antarctica
over the past three glacial cycles. Nature, 422, 509�512.
Watanabe, S., T. Nagashima, and S. Emori, 2005: Impact of global warming on
gravity wave momentum flux in the lower stratosphere. Scientific Online Letters on
the Atmosphere, 1, 189�192.
Watanabe, Y.W., et al., 2001: Probability of a reduction in the formation rate of
the subsurface water in the North Pacific during the 1980s and 1990s. Geophys.
Res. Lett., 28(17), 3289�3292.
Watanabe, Y.W., H. Ishida, T. Nakano, and N. Nagai, 2005: Spatiotemporal decreases
of nutrients and chlorophyll-a in the surface mixed layer of the western North
Pacific from 1971 to 2000. J. Oceanogr., 61, 1011�1016.
Watterson, I.G., 1996: Non-dimensional measures of climate model performance. Int.
J. Climatol., 16, 379�391.
Watterson, I.G., 2001: Zonal wind vacillation and its interaction with the ocean:
Implications for interannual variability and predictability. J. Geophys. Res.,
106, 23965�23975.
Watterson, I.G., 2003: Effects of a dynamic ocean on simulated climate sensitivity
to greenhouse gases. Clim. Dyn., 21, 197�209.
Watterson, I.G., 2005: Simulated changes due to global warming in the variability
of precipitation, and their interpretation using a gamma-distributed stochastic
model. Adv. Water Res., 28, 1368�1381.
Watterson, I.G., 2006: The intensity of precipitation during extratropical
cyclones in global warming simulations: a link to cyclone intensity?�Tellus, 58A,
82�97.
Watterson, I.G., and M.R. Dix, 2003: Simulated changes due to global warming in
daily precipitation means and extremes and their interpretation using the gamma
distribution. J. Geophys. Res., 108, 4379.
Watterson, I.G., and M.R. Dix, 2005: Effective sensitivity and heat capacity in
the response of climate models to greenhouse gas and aerosol forcings. Q. J. R.
Meteorol. Soc., 131, 259�279.
Weare, B.C., 2004: A comparison of AMIP II model cloud layer properties with ISCCP
D2 estimates. Clim. Dyn., 22, 281�292.
Weart, S., 2003: The Discovery of Global Warming. Harvard University Press,
Cambridge, MA, 240 pp.
Weatherall, R.T., and S. Manabe, 1975: The effects of changing the solar constant
on the climate of a general circulation model. J. Atmos. Sci., 32, 2044�2059.
Weatherhead, E.C., and S. B. Andersen, 2006: The search for signs of recovery of
the ozone layer. Nature, 441, 39�45.
Weatherly,�J., 2004: Sensitivity of Antarctic precipitation to sea ice
concentrations in a general circulation model. J. Clim., 17, 3214�3223.
Weaver, A.J., and C. Hillaire-Marcel, 2004a: Ice growth in the greenhouse: A
seductive paradox but unrealistic scenario. Geoscience Canada, 31, 77�85.
Weaver, A.J., and C. Hillaire-Marcel, 2004b: Global warming and the next ice age.
Science, 304, 400�402.
Weaver, A.J., and E.C. Wiebe, 1999: On the sensitivity of projected oceanic
thermal expansion to the parameterisation of sub-grid scale ocean mixing. Geophys.
Res. Lett., 26, 3461�3464.
Weaver, A.J., et al., 2001: The UVic Earth System Climate Model: Model
description, climatology and application to past, present and future climates.
Atmos.-Ocean, 39, 361�428.
Weaver, A.J., O.A. Saenko, P.U. Clark, and J.X. Mitrovica, 2003: Meltwater pulse
1A from Antarctica as a trigger of the B�lling-Aller�d warm interval. Science,
299, 1709�1713.
Weaver, C.P., S.B. Roy, and R. Avissar, 2002: Sensitivity of simulated mesoscale
atmospheric circulations resulting from landscape heterogeneity to aspects of
model configuration. J. Geophys. Res., 107(D20), 8041, doi:10.1029/2001JD000376.
Webb, M., C. Senior, S. Bony, and J.-J. Morcrette, 2001: Combining ERBE and ISCCP
data to assess clouds in the Hadley Centre ECMWF and LMD atmospheric climate
models. Clim. Dyn., 17, 905�922.
Webb, M.J., et al., 2006: On the contribution of local feedback mechanisms to the
range of climate sensitivity in two GCM ensembles. Clim. Dyn., 27, 17�38.
Webb, R.S., et al., 1997: Influence of ocean heat transport on the climate of the
Last Glacial Maximum. Nature, 385, 695�699.
Weber, J.N., and P.M.J. Woodhead, 1972: Temperature dependence of oxygen-18
concentration in reef coral carbonates. J. Geophys. Res., 77, 463�473.
Weber, S.L., 2005: A timescale analysis of the NH temperature response to volcanic
and solar forcing in the past millennium. Climate of the Past, 1, 9�17.
Weber, S.L., T.J. Crowley, and G. van der Schrier, 2004: Solar irradiance forcing
of centennial climate variability during the Holocene. Clim. Dyn., 22(5), 539�553.
Webster, M., et al., 2003: Uncertainty analysis of climate change and policy
response. Clim. Change, 61, 295�320.
Webster, M.D., et al., 2002: Uncertainty in emissions projections for climate
models. Atmos. Environ., 36, 3659�3670.
Webster, P.J., and R. Lukas, 1992: TOGA-COARE: The coupled ocean-atmosphere
response experiment. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 73, 1377�1416.
Webster, P.J., G.J. Holland, J.A. Curry, and H.-R. Chang, 2005: Changes in
tropical cyclone number, duration, and intensity in a warming environment.
Science, 309(5742), 1844�1846.
Wehner, M.F., 2004: Predicted twenty-first-century changes in seasonal extreme
precipitation events in the Parallel Climate Model. J. Clim., 17, 4281�4290.
Wei,�H., W.J. Gutowski, C.J. Vorosmarty, and B.M. Fekete, 2002: Calibration and
validation of a regional climate model for pan-Arctic hydrologic simulation. J.
Clim., 15, 3222�3236.
Weisheimer, A., and T. Palmer, 2005Changing frequency of occurrence of extreme
seasonal temperatures under global warming. GeophysResLett.32, L20721,
doi:10.1029/2005GL023365.
Weisheimer, A., and T.N. Palmer, 2005: Changing frequency of occurrence of extreme
seasonal-mean temperatures under global warming. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L20721,
doi:10.1029/2005GL023365.
Weisman, M.L., W.S. Skamarock, and J.B. Klemp, 1997: The resolution dependence of
explicitly modeled convective systems. Mon. Weather Rev., 125, 527�548.
Weiss, R.F., 1974: Carbon dioxide in water and seawater: the solubility of a non-
ideal gas. Mar. Chem., 2, 203�215.
Weiss, R.F., 1981: The temporal and spatial distribution of tropospheric nitrous
oxide. J. Geophys. Res., 86, 7185�7195.
Weisse, R., H. von Storch, and F. Feser, 2005: Northeast Atlantic and North Sea
storminess as simulated by a regional climate model 1958-2001 and comparison with
observations. J. Clim., 18, 465�479.
Wells, M.L., and E.D. Goldberg, 1994: The distribution of colloids in the North
Atlantic and Southern Oceans. Limnol. Oceanogr., 39, 286�302.
Welton, E.J., J.R. Campbell, J.D. Spinhirne, and V.S. Scott, 2001: Global
monitoring of clouds and aerosols using a network of micro-pulse lidar systems.
In: Lidar Remote Sensing for Industry and Environmental Monitoring [Singh, U.N.,
T. Itabe, and N. Sugimoto (eds.)]. SPIE, Bellingham, WA, pp. 151�158.
Wennberg, P.O., S. Peacock, J.T. Randerson, and R. Bleck, 2004: Recent changes in
the air-sea gas exchange of methyl chloroform. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L16112,
doi:10.1029/2004GL020476.
Wentz, F.J., and M. Schabel, 2000: Precise climate monitoring using complementary
satellite data sets. Nature, 403, 414�416.
Werner, M., et al., 2002: Seasonal and interannual variability of the mineral dust
cycle under present and glacial climate conditions. J. Geophys. Res., 107(D24),
4744, doi:10.1029/2002JD002365.
Westerling, A.L., H.G. Hidalgo, D.R. Cayan, and T.W. Swetnam, 2006: Warming and
earlier spring increase western U.S. forest wildfire activity. Science, 313,
940�943.
Wetherald, R.T., and S. Manabe, 1975: The effects of changing solar constant on
the climate of a general circulation model. J. Atmos. Sci., 32, 2044�2059.
Wetherald, R.T., and S. Manabe, 2002: Simulation of hydrologic changes associated
with global warming. J. Geophys. Res., 107, 4379.
Wetherald, R.T., R.J. Stouffer, and K.W. Dixon, 2001: Committed warming and its
implications for climate change. Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 1535�1538.
Wetzel, P., et al., 2006. Effects of ocean biology on the penetrative radiation in
a coupled climate model. J. Clim., 19, 3973�3987.
WGMS(ICSI-IAHS), various years-b: Mass Balance Bulletin. World Glacier Monitoring
Service, Zurich, http://www.wgms.ch/mbb.html.
Whetton, P. H., et al. 2002. Climate change in Victoria : high resolution regional
assessment of climate change impacts. Undertaken for the Victorian Department of
Natural Resources and Environment. Dept. of Natural Resources and Environment,
East Melbourne, VIC, 44 pp., http://www.greenhouse.vic.gov.au/climatechange.pdf
Whetton, P.H., A.B. Mullan, and A.B. Pittock, 1996: Climate-change scenarios for
Australia and New Zealand. In: Greenhouse: Coping with Climate Change Bouma, W.J.,
G.I. Pearman, and M.R. Manning (eds.)]. CSIROCollingwood, Vic., pp. 145�168.
Whetton, P.H., and R. Suppiah, 2003: Climate change projections and drought. In:
Science for Drought. Proceedings of the National Drought Forum, Carlton Crest
Hotel, Brisbane Stone, R., and I. Partridge (eds.)]. Queensland Department of
Primary IndustriesBrisbane, Qld., pp. 130�136.
Whetton, P.H., et al., 2000: Climate Averages Based on a Doubled CO2 Simulation.
Victorian Dept. of Natural Resources and Environment, Melbourne43 pp.
Whetton, P.H., et al., 2001: Developing scenarios of climate change for
Southeastern Australia: An example using regional climate model output. Clim.
Res., 16(3), 181�201.
Whetton, P.H., et al., 2005: Australian Climate Change Projections for Impact
Assessment and Policy Application: A Review. CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research
Paper 001, CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric ResearchAspendale, Vic., 34 pp.
White, N.J., J.A. Church, and J.M. Gregory, 2005: Coastal and global averaged sea-
level rise for 1950 to 2000. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32(1), L01601,
doi:10.1029/2004GL021391.
White, W.B., M.D. Dettinger, and D.R. Cayan, 2003: Sources of global warming of
the upper ocean on decadal period scales. J. Geophys. Res., 108, 3248,
doi:10.1029/2002JC001396.
Whitworth, T., 2002: Two modes of bottom water in the Australian-Antarctic Basin.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 29(5), 1973, doi:10.1029/2001GL014282.
Wickland, K., R. Striegl, J. Neff, and T. Sachs, 2006: Effects of permafrost
melting on CO2 and CH4 exchange of a poorly drained black spruce lowland. J.
Geophys. Res., 111, G02011, doi:10.1029/2005JG000099.
Widmann, M., C.S. Bretherton, and E.P. Salath� Jr., 2003: Statistical
precipitation downscaling over the Northwestern United States using numerically
simulated precipitation as a predictor. J. Clim., 16, 799�816.
Wielicki, B.A., et al., 2002: Evidence of large decadal variability in tropical
mean radiative energy budget. Science, 295, 841�844.
Wielicki, B.A., et al., 2005: Changes in Earth�s albedo measured by satellite.
Science, 308, 825.
Wigley, T.M.L., 1984: Carbon dioxide, trace gases and global warming. Climate
Monitor, 13, 133�148.
Wigley, T.M.L., 1989: Climate variability on the 10-100-year time scale:
Observations and possible causes. In: Global Changes of the Past: Papers Arising
from the 1989 OIES Global Change Institute [Bradley, R.S. (ed.)]. University
Corporation for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, CO, pp. 83�101.
Wigley, T.M.L., 2004: Modeling climate change under no-policy and policy emissions
pathways. In: The Benefits of Climate Change Policies: Analytical and Framework
Issues. OECD Publications, Paris, pp. 221�248.
Wigley, T.M.L., 2005: The climate change commitment. Science, 307, 1766�1769.
Wigley, T.M.L., and S.C.B. Raper, 1990: Natural variability of the climate system
and detection of the greenhouse effect. Nature, 344, 324�327.
Wigley, T.M.L., and S.C.B. Raper, 1992: Implications for climate and sea level of
revised IPCC emissions scenarios. Nature, 357, 293�300.
Wigley, T.M.L., and S.C.B. Raper, 2001: Interpretation of high projections for
global-mean warming. Science, 293, 451�454.
Wigley, T.M.L., and S.C.B. Raper, 2003: Future changes in global-mean temperature
and sea level. In: Climate and Sea Level Change: Observations, Projections and
Implications [Warrick, R.A., et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, pp. 111�133.
Wigley, T.M.L., and S.C.B. Raper, 2005: Extended scenarios for glacier melt due to
anthropogenic forcing. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L05704, doi:10.1029/2004GL021238.
Wigley, T.M.L., C.M. Ammann, B.D. Santer, and K.E. Taylor, 2005b: Comment on
�Climate forcing by the volcanic eruption of Mount Pinatubo� by David H. Douglass
and Robert S. Knox. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L20709, doi:10.1029/2005GL023312.
Wigley, T.M.L., C.M. Ammann, B.D. Santer, and S.C.B. Raper, 2005a: Effect of
climate sensitivity on the response to volcanic forcing. J. Geophys. Res., 110,
D09107, doi:10.1029/2004JD005557.
Wigley, T.M.L., et al., 1997b: Implications of Proposed CO2 Emissions Limitations.
IPCC Technical Paper IV, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Geneva, 51 pp.
Wigley, T.M.L., P.D. Jones, and S.C.B. Raper, 1997a: The observed global warming
record: What does it tell us? Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 94, 8314�8320.
Wigley, T.M.L., R. Richels, and J.A. Edmonds, 1996: Economic and environmental
choices in the stabilization of atmospheric CO2 concentrations. Nature, 379,
240�243.
Wijffels, S., and G.A. Meyers, 2004: An intersection of oceanic wave guides:
Variability in the Indonesian Throughflow region. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 34,
1232�1253.
Wilby, R.L., and T.M.L. Wigley, 2002: Future changes in the distribution of daily
precipitation totals across North America. Geophys. Res. Lett., 29, 1135.
Wilby, R.L., C.W. Dawson, and E.M. Barrow, 2002: SDSM � A decision support tool
for the assessment of regional climate change impacts. EnvironModel.Software, 17,
147�159.
Wilby, R.L., et al., 2004: Guidelines for Use of Climate Scenarios Developed from
Statistical Downscaling Methods. IPCC Task Group on Data and Scenario Support for
Impact and Climate Analysis (TGICA), http://ipcc-
ddc.cru.uea.ac.uk/guidelines/StatDown_Guide.pdf.
Wilby, R.L., O.J. Tomlinson, and C.W. Dawson, 2003: Multi-site simulation of
precipitation by conditional resampling. Clim. Res., 23, 183�194.
Wild, M., 2005: Solar radiation budgets in atmospheric model intercomparisons from
a surface perspective. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, doi:10.1029/2005GL022421.
Wild, M., and A. Ohmura, 2000: Changes in mass balance of the polar ice sheets and
sea level from high resolution GCM simulations of global warming. Ann. Glaciol.,
30, 197�203.
Wild, M., C.N. Long, and A. Ohmura, 2006: Evaluation of clear-sky solar fluxes in
GCMs participating in AMIP and IPCC-AR4 from a surface perspective. J. Geophys.
Res., 111, D01104, doi:10.1029/2005JD006118.
Wild, M., et al., 2001: Downward longwave radiation in General Circulation Models.
J. Clim., 14, 3227�3239.
Wild, M., et al., 2005: From dimming to brightening: Decadal changes in solar
radiation at Earth�s surface. Science, 308, 847�850.
Wild, M., P. Calanca, S. Scherrer, and A. Ohmura, 2003: Effects of polar ice
sheets on global sea level in high resolution greenhouse scenarios. J. Geophys.
Res., 108, 4165.
Wild, O., M.J. Prather, and H. Akimoto, 2001: Indirect long-term global radiative
cooling from NOx emissions. Geophys. Res. Lett., 28(9), 1719�1722.
Wild, O., P. Pochanart, and H. Akimoto, 2004: Trans-Eurasian transport of ozone
and its precursors. J. Geophys. Res., 109, D11302, doi:10.1029/2003JD004501.
Willett, H.C., 1950: Temperature trends of the past century. In: Centenary
Proceedings of the Royal Meteorological Society. Royal Meteorological Society,
London. pp. 195�206.
Willey, D.A., et al., 2004: Global oceanic chlorofluorocarbon inventory. Geophys.
Res. Lett., 31, L01303, doi:10.1029/2003GL018816.
Williams, A.A.J., D.J. Karoly, and N. Tapper, 2001: The sensitivity of Australian
fire danger to climate change. Clim. Change, 49, 171�191.
Williams, J.W., et al., 2002: Rapid and widespread vegetation responses to past
climate change in the North Atlantic region. Geology, 30(11), 971�974.
Williams, J.W., T.I. Webb, P.H. Richard, and P. Newby, 2000: Late Quaternary
biomes of Canada and the eastern United States. J. Biogeogr., 27, 585�607.
Williams, K.D., C.A. Senior, and J.F.B. Mitchell, 2001a: Transient climate change
in the Hadley Centre models: the role of physical processes. J. Clim., 14,
2659�2674.
Williams, K.D., et al., 2001b: The response of the climate system to the indirect
effects of anthropogenic sulfate aerosols. Clim. Dyn., 17, 846�856.
Williams, K.D., et al., 2006: Evaluation of a component of the cloud response to
climate change in an intercomparison of climate models. Clim. Dyn., 26, 145�165.
Williams, K.D., M.A. Ringer, and C.A. Senior, 2003: Evaluating the cloud response
to climate change and current climate variability. Clim. Dyn., 20(7�8), 705�721.
Williams, M.J.M., R.C. Warner, and W.F. Budd, 2002: Sensitivity of the Amery ice
shelf, Antarctica, to changes in the climate of the Southern Ocean. J. Clim., 15,
2740�2757.
Williams, P.W., D.N.T. King, J.-X. Zhao, and K.D. Collerson, 2004: Speleotherm
master chronologies : combined Holocene 18O and 13C records from the north Island
of New Zealand and their palaeoenvironmental interpretation. The Holocene, 14,
194�208.
Williamson, D.L., et al., 2005: Moisture and temperature balances at the
Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Southern Great Plains Site in forecasts with the
Community Atmosphere Model (CAM2). J. Geophys. Res., 110, D15S16,
doi:10.1029/2004JD00510.
Willis, J.K., D. Roemmich, and B. Cornuelle, 2004: Interannual variability in
upper ocean heat content, temperature and thermosteric expansion on global scales.
J. Geophys. Res., 109, C12036, doi:10.1029/2003JC002260.
Willson, R.C., and A.V. Mordvinov, 2003: Secular total solar irradiance trend
during solar cycles 21-23. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30(5), 3�6.
Willson, R.C., C.H. Duncan, and J. Geist, 1980: Direct measurements of solar
luminosity variation. Science, 207, 177�179.
Wilson, D.R., and S.P. Ballard, 1999: A microphysically based precipitation scheme
for the UK Meteorological Office Unified Model. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 125,
1607�1636.
Wilson, M.F., and A. Henderson-Sellers, 1985: A global archive of land cover and
soils data for use in general-circulation climate models. J. Climatol., 5,
119�143.
Wing, S.L., et al., 2005: Transient floral change and rapid global warming at the
Paleocene-Eocene boundary. Science, 310(5750), 993�996.
Winsor, P., 2001: Arctic sea ice thickness remained constant during the 1990s.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 28(6), 1039�1041.
Winton, M., 2000: A reformulated three-layer sea ice model. J. Atmos. Ocean.
Technol., 17(4), 525�531.
Winton, M., 2006a: Surface albedo feedback estimates for the AR4 climate models.
J. Clim., 19, 359�365.
Winton, M., 2006b: Amplified Arctic climate change: what does surface albedo
feedback have to do with it? Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L03701,
doi:10.1029/2005GL025244.
Winton, M., R. Hallberg, and A. Gnanadesikan, 1998: Simulation of density-driven
frictional downslope flow in z-coordinate ocean models. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 28,
2163�2174.
Wise, S.W.J., J.R. Breza, D.M. Harwood, and W. Wei, 1991: Paleogene glacial
history of Antarctica. In: Controversies in Modern Geology: Evolution of
Geological Theories in Sedimentology, Earth History and Tectonics [M�ller, D.W.,
J.A. McKenzie, and H. Weissert (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp.
133�171.
Wittenberg, A.T., A. Rosati, N.-C. Lau, and J.J. Ploshay, 2006: GFDL�s CM2 global
coupled climate models, Part 3: Tropical Pacific climate and ENSO. J. Clim., 19,
698�722.
WMO, 1986: Atmospheric Ozone 1985. Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project
Report No.16, World Meteorological Organisation, Geneva, Volume 3.
WMO, 2003: Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 2002. Global Ozone Research
and Monitoring Project Report No. 47, World Meteorological Organization, Geneva,
498 pp.
Wohlfahrt, J., S.P. Harrison, and P. Braconnot, 2004: Synergistic feedbacks
between ocean and vegetation on mid- and high-latitude climates during the mid-
Holocene. Clim. Dyn., 22(2�3), 223�238.
Wolff, J.-O., E. Maier-Reimer, and S. Lebutke, 1997: The Hamburg Ocean Primitive
Equation Model. ?DKRZ Technical Report No. 13, Deutsches KlimaRechenZentrum,
Hamburg, Germany, 100 pp., http://www.mad.zmaw.de/Pingo/reports/ReportNo.13.pdf.
Wong, A.P.S., N.L. Bindoff, and J.A. Church, 1999: Large-scale freshening of
intermediate waters in the Pacific and Indian oceans. Nature, 400(6743), 440�443.
Wong, A.P.S., N.L. Bindoff, and J.A. Church, 2001: Freshwater and heat changes in
the North and South Pacific Oceans between the 1960s and 1985-94. J. Clim., 14(7),
1613�1633.
Wong, J., and Z. Li, 2002: Retrieval of optical depth for heavy smoke aerosol
plumes: uncertainties and sensitivities to the optical properties. J. Atmos. Sci.,
59, 250�261.
Wong, S., et al., 2004: A global climate-chemistry model study of present-day
tropospheric chemistry and radiative forcing from changes in tropospheric O3 since
the preindustrial period. J. Geophys. Res., 109, D11309, doi:10.1029/2003JD003998.
Wong, T., et al., 2006: Reexamination of the observed decadal variability of the
Earth Radiation Budget using altitude-corrected ERBE/ERBS nonscanner WFOV data. J.
Clim., 19, 4028�4040.
Wood, A.W., L.R. Leung, V. Sridhar, and D.P. Lettenmaier, 2004: Hydrologic
implications of dynamical and statistical approaches to downscaling climate model
outputs. Clim. Change, 62, 189�216.
Wood, R.A., A.B. Keen, J.F.B. Mitchell, and J.M. Gregory, 1999: Changing spatial
structure of the thermohaline circulation in response to atmospheric CO2 forcing
in a climate model. Nature, 399, 572�575.
Wood, R.A., M. Vellinga, and R. Thorpe, 2003: Global warming and thermohaline
circulation stability. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London Ser. A, 361, 1961�1975.
Woodhouse, C.A., and J.T. Overpeck, 1998: 2000 years of drought variability in the
central United States. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 79(12), 2693�2714.
Woods, T.N., et al., 1996: Validation of the UARS solar ultraviolet irradiances:
comparison with the ATLAS 1 and 2 measurements. J. Geophys. Res., 101(D6),
9541�9569.
Woodward, S., D.L. Roberts, and R.A. Betts, 2005: A simulation of the effect of
climate change-induced desertification on mineral dust aerosol. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 32, L18810, doi:10.1029/2005GL023482.
Woodworth, P.L., 1990: A search for accelerations in records of European mean sea
level. Int. J. Climatol., 10, 129�143.
Woodworth, P.L., and D.L. Blackman, 2002: Changes in extreme high waters at
Liverpool since 1768. Int. J. Climatol., 22, 697�714.
Woodworth, P.L., and D.L. Blackman, 2004: Evidence for systematic changes in
extreme high waters since the mid-1970s. J. Clim., 17, 1190�1197.
Woodworth, P.L., and R. Player, 2003: The Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level: An
update to the 21st century. J. Coastal Res., 19, 287�295.
Woodworth, P.L., J.M. Gregory, and R.J. Nicholls, 2004: Long term sea level
changes and their impacts. In: The Sea [Robinson, A.R. and K.H. Brink (eds.)].
Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, pp. 715�753.
Woodworth, P.L., M.N. Tsimplis, R.A. Flather, and I. Shennan, 1999: A review of
the trends observed in British Isles mean sea level data measured by tide gauges.
Geophys. J. Int., 136, 651�670.
Woodworth, R., and D.L. Blackman, 2004: Evidence for systematic changes in extreme
high waters since the mid-1970s. J. Clim., 17(6), 1190�1197.
Woolf, D., A. Shaw, and M.N. Tsimplis, 2003: The influence of the North Atlantic
Oscillation on sea level variability in the North Atlantic Region. Global Atmos.
Ocean System, 9(4), 145�167.
Worby, A.P., and J.C. Comiso, 2004: Studies of the Antarctic sea ice edge and ice
extent from satellite and ship observations. Remote Sensing of Environment, 92,
98�111.
Worby, A.P., and S.F. Ackley, 2000: Antarctic research yields circumpolar sea ice
thickness data. Eos, 81(17), 181, 184�185.
Worley, S.J., et al., 2005: ICOADS release 2.1 data and products. Int. J.
Climatol., 25, 823�842.
Woronko, S.F., 1977: Comments on �a non-equilibrium model of hemispheric mean
surface temperature�. J. Atmos. Sci., 34, 1820�1821.
Woth, K., 2005: North Sea storm surge statistics based on projections in a warmer
climate: How important are the driving GCM and the chosen emission scenario?
Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L22708, doi:10.1029/2005GL023762.
Woth, K., R. Weisse, and H. von Storch, 2006: Climate change and North Sea storm
surge extremes: An ensemble study of storm surge extremes expected in a changed
climate projected by four different Regional Climate Models. Ocean Dyn., 56,
3�15,doi:10.1007/s10236-005-0024-3.
Wright, D.G., and T.F. Stocker, 1992: Sensitivities of a zonally averaged global
ocean circulation model. J. Geophys. Res., 97, 12707�12730.
Wright, D.G., and T.F. Stocker, 1993: Younger Dryas experiments. In: Ice in the
Climate System, NATO ASI Series, I12 [Peltier, R. (ed.)]. Springer-Verlag, London,
pp. 395�416.
Wu, L., and B. Wang, 2004: Assessing impacts of global warming on tropical cyclone
tracks. J. Clim., 17, 1686�1698.
Wu, P., R. Wood, and P.A. Stott, 2004: Does the recent freshening trend in the
North Atlantic indicate a weakening thermohaline circulation? Geophys. Res. Lett.,
31, doi:10.1029/2003GL018584.
Wu, P., R. Wood, and P.A. Stott, 2005: Human influence on increasing Arctic river
discharges. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L02703, doi:10.1029/2004GL021570.
Wu, P., R. Wood, P.A. Stott, and G.S. Jones, 2007: Deep North Atlantic freshening
simulated in a coupled model. Progr. Oceanogr., accepted.
Wu, Q., and D.M. Straus, 2004a: On the existence of hemisphere-wide climate
variations. J. Geophys. Res., 109, D06118, doi:10.1029/2003JD004230.
Wu, Q., and D.M. Straus, 2004b: AO, COWL, and observed climate trends. J. Clim.,
17, 2139�2156.
Wu, Q., and Y. Liu, 2003: Ground temperature monitoring and its recent change in
Qinghai�Tibet Plateau. Cold Regions Sci. Technol., 18, 85�92.
Wuebbles, D.J., and K. Hayhoe, 2002: Atmospheric methane and global change. Earth
Sci. Rev., 57, 177�210.
Wunsch, C., 1978: The North Atlantic general circulation west of 50�W determined
by inverse methods. Rev. Geophys. Space Phys., 16, 583�620.
Wunsch, C., 2002: What is the thermohaline circulation? Science, 298, 1179�1180.
Wurzler, S., T.G. Reisin, and Z. Levin, 2000: Modification of mineral dust
particles by cloud processing and subsequent effects on drop size distributions.
J. Geophys. Res., 105(D4), 4501�4512.
Wyant, M.C., et al., 2006: A comparison of low-latitude cloud properties and their
response to climate change in three US AGCMs sorted into regimes using mid-
tropospheric vertical velocity. Clim. Dyn., 27, 261�279.
Wyputta, U., and B.J. McAvaney, 2001: Influence of vegetation changes during the
Last Glacial Maximum using the BMRC atmospheric general circulation model. Clim.
Dyn., 17, 923�932.
Wyrtki, K., 1975: El Ni�o � the dynamic response of the equatorial Pacific Ocean
to atmospheric forcing. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 5, 572�584.
Wyser, K., and C.G. Jones, 2005: Modeled and observed clouds during Surface Heat
Budget of the Arctic Ocean (SHEBA). J. Geophys. Res., 110, D09207,
doi:10.1029/2004JD004751.
Xia, Q.K., H.X. Zhao, and K.D. Collerson, 2001: Early-Mid Holocene climatic
variations in Tasmania, Australia: multi-proxy records in a stalagmite from Lynds
Cave. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 194(1�2), 177�187.
Xiao, Y., et al., 2004: Constraints on Asian and European sources of methane from
CH4-C2H6-Co correlation in Asian outflow. J. Geophys. Res., 109,
doi:10.1029/2003JD004475.
Xie, P., and P.A. Arkin, 1997: Global precipitation: A 17-year monthly analysis
based on gauge observations, satellite estimates, and numerical model outputs.
Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 78, 2539�2558.
Xie, S.-P., W.T. Liu, Q. Liu and M. Nonaka, 2001: Far-reaching effects of the
Hawaiian Islands on the Pacific ocean-atmosphere system. Science, 292, 2057�2060.
Xie, S.P., H. Annamalai, F.A. Schott, and J.P. McCreary, 2002: Structure and
mechanisms of South Indian Ocean climate variability. J. Clim., 15(8), 864�878.
Xiong, J.Q., et al., 1998: Influence of organic films on the hygroscopicity of
ultrafine sulfuric acid aerosol. Environ. Sci. Technol., 32, 3536�3541.
Xoplaki, E., et al., 2005: European spring and autumn temperature variability and
change of extremes over the last half millennium. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L15713,
? doi:10.1029/2005GL023424.
Xu, Y., et al., 2005: Detection of climate change in the 20th century by the NCC
T63. Acta Meteorol. Sin., Special Report on Climate Change, 4, 1�15.
Xu, Y., Y.H. Ding, and Z.C. Zhao, 2003b: Scenario of temperature and precipitation
changes in Northwest China due to effects of human activities in 21st century.
JGlaciol., 25(3), 327�330.
Xu, Y., Y.H. Ding., and L.D. Li, 2003a: Climate change projection in Qinghai-
Xizang Plateau in the future 100 years. Plateau Meteorol., 22(5), 451�457.
Xu, Y., Z.-C. Zhao, Y. Luo, and X. Gao, 2005: Climate change projections for the
21st century by the NCC/IAP T63 with SRES scenarios. Acta Meteorol. Sin., 19,
407�417.
Xu, Y.,Z.C. Zhao,and L.D. Li, 2005:The simulated result analyses on climate
changes over Qinghai-Xizang Plateau and along the Railway in the coming 50 Years,
Plateau Meteorol., 24(5), 700�707.
Xu, Y.L., et al., 2005: Statistical analyses of climate change scenario over China
in the 21st century. AdvClimChange Res., 1, 80�83.
Xu, Z., et al., 2004: Effects of elevated CO2 and N fertilization of CH4 emissions
from paddy rice fields. Global Biogechem. Cycles, 18, GB3009,
doi:10.1029/2004GB002233.
Xue, H., and G. Feingold, 2006: large eddy simulations of trade-wind cumuli:
investigation of aerosol indirect effects. J. Atmos. Sci., 63, 1605�1622.
Xue, M., K.K. Droegemeier, and V. Wong, 2000: The Advanced Regional Prediction
System (ARPS) - A multi-scale nonhydrostatic atmospheric simulation and prediction
model. Part I: Model dynamics and verification. Meteorol. Atmos. Phys., 75(3 � 4),
161�193.
Yamagata, T., et al., 2004: Coupled ocean-atmosphere variability in the tropical
Indian Ocean. In: Earth Climate: The Ocean-Atmosphere Interaction [Wang, C., S.-P.
Xie, and J.A. Carton (eds.)]. American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, pp.
189�212.
Yamaguchi, K., and A. Noda, 2006: Global warming patterns over the North Pacific:
ENSO versus AO. J. Meteorol. Soc. Japan, 84, 221�241.
Yamasoe, M.A., et al., 2006: Effect of smoke and clouds on the transmissivity of
photosynthetically active radiation inside the canopy. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6,
1645�1656.
Yan, X., T. Ohara, and H. Akimoto, 2003: Development of region-specific emission
factors and estimation of methane emission from rice fields in the East,
Southeast, and South Asian countries. Global Change Biol., 9, 237�254.
Yang, E.-S., D.M. Cunnold, M.J. Newchurch, and R.J. Salawitch, 2005: Change in
ozone trends at southern high latitudes. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L12812,
doi:10.1029/2004GL022296.
Yang, F., A. Kumar, M.E. Schlesinger, and W. Wang, 2003: Intensity of hydrological
cycles in warmer climates. J. Clim., 16, 2419�2423.
Yang, F., and M. Schlesinger, 2001: Identification and separation of Mount
Pinatubo and El Nino-Southern Oscillation land surface temperature anomalies. J.
Geophys. Res., 106, 14757�14770.
Yang, F., and M. Schlesinger, 2002: On the surface and atmospheric temperature
changes following the 1991 Pinatubo volcanic eruption: a GCM study. J. Geophys.
Res., 107(D8), doi:10.1029/2001JD000373.
Yang, G.Y., and J. Slingo, 2001: The diurnal cycle in the tropics. Mon. Weather
Rev., 129, 784�801.
Yang, G.Y., B. Hoskins, and J. Slingo, 2003: Convectively coupled equatorial
waves: A new methodology for identifying wave structures in observational data. J.
Atmos. Sci., 60, 1637�1654.
Yang, K., et al., 2004: The daytime evolution of the atmospheric boundary layer
and convection over the Tibetan Plateau: observations and simulations. J.
Meteorol. Soc. Japan, 82(6), 1777�1792.
Yang, R., and M.A. Friedl, 2003: Modeling the effects of 3-D vegetation structure
on surface radiation and energy balance in boreal forests. J. Geophys. Res.,
108(D16), 8615, doi:10.1029/2002JD003109.
Yao, M.-S., and A. Del Genio, 2002: Effects of cloud parameterization on the
simulation of climate changes in the GISS GCM. Part II: Sea surface temperature
and cloud feedbacks. J. Clim., 15, 2491�2503.
Yapp, C.J., and H. Poths, 1992: Ancient atmospheric CO2 pressures inferred from
natural goethites. Nature, 355, 342�344.
Yashayaev, I., J.R.N. Lazier, and R.A. Clarke, 2003: Temperature and salinity in
the central Labrador Sea. ICES Marine Symposia Series, 219, 32�39.
Yasuda, I., et al., 2001: Hydrographic structure and transport of the Oyashio
south of Hokkaido and the formation of North Pacific Intermediate Water. J.
Geophys. Res., 106(C4), 6931�6942.
Yasuda, I., T. Tozuka, M. Noto, and S. Kouketsu, 2000: Heat balance and regime
shifts of the mixed layer in the Kuroshio Extension. Prog. Oceanogr., 47(2�4),
257�278.
Yasunaga, K., et al., 2006: Changes in the Baiu frontal activity in the future
climate simulated by super-high-resolution global and cloud-resolving regional
climate models. J. Meteorol. Soc. Japan, 84, 199�220.
Ye, H.C., and M. Ellison, 2003: Changes in transitional snowfall season length in
northern Eurasia. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30(5), 1252.
Yeh, P. J.-F., and E.A.B. Eltahir, 2005: Representation of water table dynamics in
a land surface scheme. Part 1. Model development. J. Clim., 18, 1861�1880.
Yeh, S.-W., and B.P. Kirtman, 2004: Decadal North Pacific sea surface temperature
variability and the associated global climate anomalies in a coupled GCM. J.
Geophys. Res., 109, D20113, doi:10.1029/2004JD004785.
Yeh, S.-W., and B.P. Kirtman, 2005: Pacific decadal variability and decadal ENSO
amplitude modulation. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L05703, doi:10.1029/2004GL021731.
Yin, J.H., 2005: A consistent poleward shift of the storm tracks in simulations of
21st century climate. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L18701, doi:10.1029/2005GL023684.
Yin, Y., A. Levin, T.G. Reisin, and S. Tzivion, 2000: The effect of giant cloud
condensation nuclei on the development of precipitation in convective clouds - a
numerical study. Atmos. Res., 53, 91�116.
Yin, Y., K.S. Carslaw, and G. Feingold, 2005: Vertical transport and processing of
aerosols in a mixed-phase convective cloud and the feedback on cloud development.
Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 131, 221�246.
Yin, Y., S. Wurzler, A. Levin, and T.G. Reisin, 2002: Interactions of mineral dust
particles and clouds: Effects on precipitation and cloud optical properties. J.
Geophys. Res., 107, doi:10.1029/2001JD001544.
Yiou, P., and M. Nogaj, 2004: Extreme climatic events and weather regimes over the
North Atlantic: When and where? Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, doi:10.1029/2003GL019119.
Yokohata, T., et al., 2005: Climate response to volcanic forcing: Validation of
climate sensitivity of a coupled atmosphere-ocean general circulation model.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L21710, doi:10.1029/2005GL023542.
Yokouchi, et al., 2005: Estimates of ratios of anthropogenic halocarbon emissions
from Japan based on aircraft monitoring over Sagami Bay, Japan. J. Geophys. Res.,
110, D06301, doi:10.1029/2004JD005320.
Yokoyama, Y., et al., 2000: Timing of the Last Glacial Maximum from observed sea-
level minima. Nature, 406(6797), 713�716.
Yonetani, T., and H.B. Gordon, 2001: Simulated changes in the frequency of
extremes and regional features of seasonal/annual temperature and precipitation
when atmospheric CO2 is doubled. J. Clim., 14, 1765�1779.
Yoshida, Y., et al., 2005: Multi-century ensemble global warming projections using
the Community Climate System Model (CCSM3). J. Earth Simulator, 3, 2�10.
Yoshikawa, K., and L.D. Hinzman, 2003: Shrinking thermokarst ponds and groundwater
dynamics in discontinuous permafrost. Permafrost and Periglacial Processes, 14(2),
151�160.
Yoshimori, M., M.C. Reader, A.J. Weaver, and N.A. McFarlane, 2002: On the causes
of glacial inception at 116 kaBP. Clim. Dyn., 18, 383�402.
Yoshimori, M., T. Stocker, C.C. Raible, and M. Renold, 2005: Externally forced and
internal variability in ensemble climate simulations of the Maunder Minimum. J.
Clim., 18, 4253�4270.
Yoshimura, J., and M. Sugi, 2005: Tropical cyclone climatology in a high-
resolution AGCM: Impacts of SST warming and CO2 increase. Scientific Online
Letters on the Atmosphere, 1, 133�136.
Yoshimura, J., M. Sugi, and A. Noda, 2006: Influence of greenhouse warming on
tropical cyclone frequency. J. Meteorol. Soc. Japan,�84, 405�428.
Yoshioka, M., N. Mahowald, J.L. Dufresne, and C. Luo, 2005: Simulation of
absorbing aerosol indices for African dust. J. Geophys. Res., 110, D18S17,
doi:10.1029/2004JD005276.
Yoshizaki, M., et al., 2005: Changes of Baui (Mei-yu) frontal activity in the
global warming climate simulated by a non-hydrostatic regional model. Scientific
Online Letters on the Atmosphere, 1, 25�28.
Yu, H., et al., 2003: Annual cycle of global distributions of aerosol optical
depth from integration of MODIS retrievals and GOCART model simulations. J.
Geophys. Res., 108(D3), 4128, doi:10.1029/2002JD002717.
Yu, H., et al., 2006: A review of measurement-based assessments of the aerosol
direct radiative effect and forcing. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 613�666.
Yu, Y., and X. Zhang, 2000: Coupled schemes of flux adjustments of the air and
sea. In: Investigations on the Model System of the Short-Term Climate Predictions
[Ding, Y., et al. (eds.)]. China Meteorological Press, Beijing, China, pp. 201�207
(in Chinese).
Yu, Y., G.A. Maykut, and D.A. Rothrock, 2004: Changes in the thickness
distribution of Arctic sea ice between 1958-1970 and 1993-1997. J. Geophys. Res.,
109, C08004, doi:10.1029/2003JC001982.
Yu, Y., R. Yu, X. Zhang, and H. Liu, 2002: A flexible global coupled climate
model. Adv. Atmos. Sci., 19(1), 169�190.
Yu, Y., Z. Zhang, and Y. Guo, 2004: Global coupled ocean-atmosphere general
circulation models in LASG/IAP. Adv. Atmos. Sci., 21, 444�455.
Yuan, X.J., 2004: ENSO-related impacts on Antarctic sea ice: a synthesis of
phenomenon and mechanisms. AntarctSci., 16, 415�425.
Yukimoto, S., and A. Noda, 2003: Improvements of the Meteorological Research
Institute Global Ocean-Atmosphere Coupled GCM (MRI-GCM2) and its Climate
Sensitivity. CGER�s Supercomputing Activity Report, National Institute for
Environmental Studies, Ibaraki, Japan.
Yukimoto, S., et al., 2001: The new Meteorological Research Institute global
ocean-atmosphere coupled GCM (MRI-CGCM2)--Model climate and variability.�Papers in
Meteorology and Geophysics, 51, 47�88.
Yukimoto, S., et al., 2006: Climate change of the twentieth through the twenty-
first centuries simulated by the MRI-CGCM2.3. Pap. Meteorol. Geophys., 56, 9�24.
Yurganov, L.N., et al., 2005: Increased Northern Hemispheric carbon monoxide
burden in the troposphere in 2002 and 2003 detected from the ground and from
space. Atm. Chem. Phys., 5, 563�573.
Yvon-Lewis, S.A., and J.H. Butler, 2002: Effect of oceanic uptake on atmospheric
lifetimes of selected trace gases. J. Geophys. Res., 107(D20), 4414,
doi:10.1029/2001JD001267.
Zachos, J., et al., 2001: Trends, rhythms, and aberrations in global climate 65 Ma
to present. Science, 292(5517), 686�693.
Zachos, J.C., et al., 2003: A transient rise in tropical sea surface temperature
during the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum. Science, 302(5650), 1551�1554.
Zachos, J.C., et al., 2004: Early Cenozoic Extreme Climates: The Walvis Ridge
Transect, Sites 1262-1267. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Initial
Reports Vol. 208, Ocean Drilling Program, College Station, TX.
Zachos, J.C., et al., 2005: Rapid acidification of the ocean during the Paleocene-
Eocene thermal maximum. Science, 308(5728), 1611�1615.
Zebiak, S.E., and M.A. Cane, 1987: A model El Nino-Southern Oscillation. Mon.
Weather Rev., 115, 2262�2278.
Zeebe, R.E., and D. Wolf-Gladrow, 2001: CO2 in Seawater: Equilibrium, Kinetics,
Isotopes. Elsevier Oceanography Series 65, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 346 pp.
Zelle, H., G.J. van Oldenborgh, G. Burgers, and H.A. Dijkstra, 2005: El Ni�o and
greenhouse warming: Results from ensemble simulations with the NCAR CCSM. J.
Clim., 18, 4669�4683.
Zemp, M., R. Frauenfelder, W. Haeberli, and M. Hoelzle, 2005: Worldwide glacier
mass balance measurements: general trends and first results of the extraordinary
year 2003 in Central Europe. In: XIII Glaciological Symposium, Shrinkage of the
Glaciosphere: Facts and Analyses, St. Petersburg, Russia [Science, R.A.O. (ed.)].
Data of Glaciological Studies [Materialy glyatsiologicheskikh issledovaniy],
Moscow, Russia, pp. 3�12.
Zender, C., R.L. Miller, and I. Tegen, 2004: Quantifying mineral dust mass
budgets: systematic terminology, constraints, and current estimates. Eos, 85(48),
509, 512.
Zeng, G., and J.A. Pyle, 2003: Changes in tropospheric ozone between 2000 and 2100
modeled in a chemistry-climate model. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30, 1392.
Zeng, N., 2003: Drought in the Sahel. Science, 302, 999�1000.
Zeng, N., A. Mariotti, and P. Wetzel, 2005: Terrestrial mechanisms of interannual
CO2 variability, Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 19, GB1016, doi:10.1029/2004GB002273.
Zeng, N., H. Qian, E. Munoz, and R. Iacono, 2004: How strong is carbon cycle-
climate feedback under global warming? Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L20203,
doi:10.1029/2004GL020904.
Zeng, N., K. Hales, and J.D. Neelin, 2002: Nonlinear dynamics in a coupled
vegetation-atmosphere system and implications for desert-forest gradient. J.
Clim., 15, 3474�3485.
Zeng, X.-D., S.S.P. Shen, X. Zeng, and R.E. Dickinson, 2004: Multiple equilibrium
states and the abrupt transitions in a dynamical system of soil water interacting
with vegetation. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L05501, doi:10.1029/2003GL018910.
Zerefos, C., et al., 1998: Quasi-biennial and longer-term changes in clear sky UV-
B solar irradiance. Geophys. Res. Lett., 25, 4345�4348.
Zerefos, C.S., et al., 2003: Evidence of impact of aviation on cirrus cloud
formation. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 3, 1633�1644.
Zhai, P.M., X.B. Zhang, H. Wan, and X.H. Pan, 2005: Trends in total precipitation
and frequency of daily precipitation extremes over China. J. Clim., 18, 1096�1108.
Zhang, C., 2005: Madden-Julian Oscillation. Rev. Geophys., 43, RG2003,
doi:10.1029/2004RG000158.
Zhang, C., B. Mapes, and B.J. Soden, 2003: Bimodality of water vapour. Q. J. R.
Meteorol. Soc., 129, 2847�2866.
Zhang, D.E., 2005: Severe drought events as revealed in the climate record of
China and their temperature situations over the last 1000 years. Acta Meteorol.
Sin., 19(4),485�491.
Zhang, D.F., X.J. Gao, H.Z. Bai, and D.L. Li, 2005? b: Simulation of climate over
Qinghai-Xizang Plateau utilizing RegCM3. Plateau Meteorol., 24, 714�720.
Zhang, J., and D. Rothrock, 2001: A thickness and enthalpy distribution sea-ice
model. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 31, 2986�3001.
Zhang, J., and D. Rothrock, 2003: Modeling global sea ice with a thickness and
enthalpy distribution model in generalized curvilinear coordinates. Mon. Weather
Rev., 131, 845�861.
Zhang, J., and S. Christopher, 2003: Longwave radiative forcing of Saharan dust
aerosols estimated from MODIS, MISR and CERES observations on Terra. Geophys. Res.
Lett., 30(23), doi:10.1029/2003GL018479.
Zhang, J., S.A. Christopher, L.A. Remer, and Y.J. Kaufman, 2005: Shortwave aerosol
radiative forcing over cloud-free oceans from Terra: 2. Seasonal and global
distributions. J. Geophys. Res., 110, D10S24, doi:10.1029/2004JD005009.
Zhang, J., U. Lohmann, and P. Stier, 2005: A microphysical parameterization for
convective clouds in the ECHAM5 climate model, 1. Single column results evaluated
at the Oklahoma ARM site. J. Geophys. Res., 110, doi:10.1029/2004JD005128.
Zhang, J.P., Z. Yang, D.J. Wang, and X.B. Zhang, 2002: Climate change and causes
in the Yuanmou dry-hot valley of Yunnan China. J. Arid Environ., 51, 153�162.
Zhang, K., B.C. Douglas, and S.P. Leatherman, 2000: Twentieth-century storm
activity along the U.S. east coast. J. Clim., 13, 1748�1761.
Zhang, M., 2004: Cloud-climate feedback: how much do we know? In: Observation,
Theory, and Modeling of Atmospheric Variability, World Scientific Series on
Meteorology of East Asia, Vol. 3 [Zhu et al. (eds.)]. World Scientific Publishing
Co., Singapore, 632 pp.
Zhang, M.H., et al., 2005: Comparing clouds and their seasonal variations in 10
atmospheric general circulation models with satellite measurements. J. Geophys.
Res., 110, D15S02, doi:10.1029/2004JD005021.
Zhang, M.H., R.D. Cess, J.J. Hack, and J.T. Kiehl, 1994: Diagnostic study of
climate feedback processed in atmospheric general circulation models. J. Geophys.
Res., 99, 5525�5537.
Zhang, R., and T.L. Delworth, 2005: Simulated tropical response to a substantial
weakening of the Atlantic thermohaline circulation. J. Clim., 18(12), 1853�1860.
Zhang, T., 2005: Influence of the seasonal snow cover on the ground thermal
regime: An overview. Rev. Geophys., 43, RG4002, doi:10.1029/2004RG000157.
Zhang, T., et al., 1999: Statistics and characteristics of permafrost and ground-
ice distribution in the Northern Hemisphere. Polar Geogr., 23(2), 132�154.
Zhang, T., et al., 2003: Distribution of seasonally and perennially frozen ground
in the Northern Hemisphere. In: Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on
Permafrost, 21-25 July 2003, Zurich, Switzerland [Phillips, M., S.M. Springman,
and L.U. Arenson (eds.)]. A.A. Balkema, Lisse, the Netherlands, pp. 1289�1294.
Zhang, T., et al., 2005: Spatial and temporal variability in active layer
thickness over the Russian Arctic drainage basin. J. Geophys. Res., 110, D16101,
doi:10.1029/2004JD005642.
Zhang, X., and J.E. Walsh, 2006: Toward a seasonally ice-covered Arctic Ocean:
scenarios from the IPCC AR4 model simulations. J. Clim., 19, 1730�1747.
Zhang, X., F.W. Zwiers, and P.A. Stott, 2006: Multi-model multi-signal climate
change detection at regional scale. J. Clim., 19, 4294�4307.
Zhang, X., K.D. Harvey, W.D. Hogg, and T.R. Yuzyk, 2001: Trends in Canadian
streamflow. Water Resour. Res., 37(4), 987�998.
Zhang, X., L.A. Vincent, W.D. Hogg, and A. Niitsoo, 2000: Temperature and
precipitation trends in Canada during the 20th century. Atmos-Ocean, 38(3),
395�429.
Zhang, X.D., and J.E. Walsh, 2006: Toward a seasonally ice-covered Arctic Ocean:
Scenarios from the IPCC AR4 model simulations. J. Clim., 19, 1730�1747.
Zhang, X.Y., et al., 2003: Sources of Asian dust and role of climate change versus
desertification in Asian dust emission. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30, 2272,
doi:10.1029/2003GL018206.
Zhang, X.Y., H.Y. Lu, R. Arimoto, and S.L. Gong, 2002: Atmospheric dust loadings
and their relationship to rapid oscillations of the Asian winter monsoon climate:
two 250-kyr loess records. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 202, 637�643.
Zhang, X.Y., R. Arimoto, and Z.S. An, 1997: Dust emission from Chinese desert
sources linked to variations in atmospheric circulation. J. Geophys. Res., 102,
28041�28047.
Zhang, Y.-C., et al., 2004: Calculation of radiative flux profiles from the
surface to top-of-atmosphere based on ISCCP and other global data sets:
Refinements of the radiative transfer model and the input data. J. Geophys. Res.,
109, D19105, doi:10.1029/2003JD004457.
Zhang, Y., J.M. Wallace, and D.S. Battisti, 1997: ENSO-like interdecadal
variability: 1900-93. J. Clim., 10, 1004�1020.
Zhang, Y., W. Maslowski, and A.J. Semtner, 1999: Impacts of mesoscale ocean
currents on sea ice in high-resolution Arctic ice and ocean simulations. J.
Geophys. Res., 104(C8), 18409�18429.
Zhang, Y.S., T. Li, and B. Wang, 2004: Decadal change of the spring snow depth
over the Tibetan Plateau: The associated circulation and influence on the East
Asian summer monsoon. J. Clim., 17(14), 2780�2793.
ZhangD.F., X.J. Gao, and Z.C. Zhao2005a:Simulation of climate in China by RegCM3.
AdvClim. Change Res., 1(3), 119�121.
Zhao, L., et al., 2004: Changes of climate and seasonally frozen ground over the
past 30 years in Qinghai-Xizang (Tibetan) Plateau, China. Global Planet. Change,
43, 19�31.
Zhao, L., G. Cheng, and Li, S., 2003: Changes of plateau frozen-ground and
environmental engineering effects. In: The Formation Environment and Development
of Qinghai-Tibet Plateau [Zheng, D., et al. (eds)]. Heibei Science and Technology
Press, Shijiazhang, pp. 143�150 (in Chinese).
Zhao, M., A. Pitman, and T.N. Chase, 2001: The impacts of land cover change on the
atmospheric circulation. Clim. Dyn., 17, 467�477.
Zhao, T.X.P., I. Laszlo, P. Minnis, and L. Remer, 2005: Comparison and analysis of
two aerosol retrievals over the ocean in the terra/clouds and the earth�s radiant
energy system: moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer single scanner
footprint data: 1. Global evaluation. J. Geophys. Res., 110, D21208,
doi:10.1029/2005JD005851.
Zhao, Y., et al., 2005: A multi-model analysis of the role of the ocean on the
African and Indian monsoon during the mid-Holocene. Clim. Dyn., 25, 777�800.
Zhao, Z.C., X.J. Gao, M.C. Tang, and Y. Xu, 2002: Climate change
projections.In:Assessment for Evolution of Environment in Western China, Vol. 2
[Qin, D.H., and Y.D. Ding (]eds.)]. Science Press, Beijing, pp.16�46.
Zhou, L., et al., 2001: Variations in northern vegetation activity inferred from
satellite data of vegetation index during 1981 to 1999. J. Geophys. Res., 106,
20069�20083.
Zhou, L., et al., 2003a: A sensitivity study of climate and energy balance
simulations with use of satellite-derived emissivity data over Northern Africa and
the Arabian Peninsula. J. Geophys. Res., 108(D24), 4795, doi:10.1029/2003JD004083.
Zhou, L., et al., 2003b: Relations between albedos and emissivities from MODIS and
ASTER data over North African desert. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30(20), 2026,
doi:10/1029/2003GL018069.
Zhou, L., et al., 2003c: Relation between interannual variations in satellite
measures of northern forest greenness and climate between 1982 and 1999. J.
Geophys. Res., 108(D1), 4004, doi:10.1029/2002JD002510.
Zhou, L., et al., 2004: Evidence for a significant urbanization effect on climate
in China. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 101(26), 9540�9544.
Zhou, L., R.E. Dickinson, and Y. Tian, 2005: Derivation of a soil albedo dataset
from MODIS using principal component analysis: Northern Africa and the Arabian
Peninsula. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L21407, doi:10.1029/205GL024448.
Zhou, L.M., et al., 2001: Variations in northern vegetation activity inferred from
satellite data of vegetation index during 1981 to 1999. J. Geophys. Res.,
106(D17), 20069�20083.
Zhou, M., et al., 2005: A normalized description of the direct effect of key
aerosol types on solar radiation as estimated from aerosol robotic network
aerosols and moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer albedos. J. Geophys.
Res., 110, D19202, doi:10.1029/2005JD005909.
Zhou, T.J.and Z.X. Li, 2002: Simulation of the East Asian summer monsoon by using
a variable resolution atmospheric GCM. Clim. Dyn., 19, 167�180.
Zhou, Y., X. Gao, and Y. Wang,1996: The ground temperature changes of seasonally
freeze-thaw layers and climate warming in Northeast China in the past 40 years.
In: Proceeding of the 5th Chinese Conference on Glaciology and Geocryology (Volume
1). Gansu Culture Press, Lanzhou, pp. 3�9 (in Chinese).
Zhou,J.and K.-M. Lau, 2002: Intercomparison of model simulations of the impact of
1997/98 El Ni�o on South American Summer Monsoon. Meteorologica, 27(1�2), 99�116.
ZhouT.J.,and R.C.Yu, 2006: 20th century surface air temperature over China and the
globe simulated by coupled climate models. J. Clim., 19, 5843�5858.
Zhu, K., 1973: A preliminary study on the climate changes since the last 5000
years in China. Science in China, 2, 168�189.
Zhu, Y., R.E. Newell, and W.G. Read, 2000: Factors controlling upper-troposphere
water vapour. J. Clim., 13, 836�848.
Zhuang, Q., et al., 2004: Methane fluxes between terrestrial ecosystem and the
atmosphere at northern high latitudes during the past century: A retrospective
analysis with a process-based biogeochemistry model. Global Biogeochem.Cycles, 18,
doi:10.1029/2008GB002239.
Ziegler, A.D., et al., 2003: Detection of intensification in global- and
continental-scale hydrological cycles: Temporal scale of evaluation. J. Clim., 16,
535�547.
Zielinski, G.A., 2000: Use of paleo-records in determining variability within the
volcanism-climate system. Quat. Sci. Rev., 19(1), 417�438.
Zittel, W., and M. Altmann, 1996: Molecular hydrogen and water vapour emissions in
a global hydrogen energy economy. In: Proceedings of the 11th World Hydrogen
Energy Conference, Stuttgart, Germany, June 1996. Sch�n & Wetzel, Frankfurt,
Germany, pp. 71�82.
Zondervan, I., R.E. Zeebe, B. Rost, and U. Riebesell, 2001: Decreasing marine
biogenic calcification: a negative feedback on rising pCO2. Global Biogeochem.
Cycles, 15, 507�516.
Zorita, E., et al., 2004: Climate evolution in the last five centuries simulated
by an atmosphere-ocean model: Global temperatures, the North Atlantic Oscillation
and the Late Maunder Minimum. Meteorol. Z., 13(4), 271�289.
Zorita, E., et al., 2005: Natural and anthropogenic modes of surface temperature
variations in the last thousand years. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32(8), L08707,
doi:10.1029/2004GL021563.
Zorita, E., F. Gonzalez-Rouco, and S. Legutke, 2003: Testing the Mann et al.
(1998) approach to paleoclimate reconstructions in the context of a 1000-yr
control simulation with the ECHO-G coupled climate model. J. Clim., 16(9),
1378�1390.
Zou, C.-Z., M.L. van Woert, C. Xu, and K. Syed, 2004: Assessment of the NCEP�DOE
Reanalysis-2 and TOVS pathfinder amoisture fields and their use in Antarctic net
precipitation estimates. Mon. Weather Rev., 132, 2463�2476.
Zuo, Z., and J. Oerlemans, 1997: Contribution of glacial melt to sea level rise
since AD 1865: A regionally differentiated calculation. Clim. Dyn., 13, 835�845.
Zwally, H.J., et al., 2002: Surface melt-induced acceleration of Greenland ice-
sheet flow. Science, 297, 218-222.
Zwally, H.J., et al., 2006: Mass changes of the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets
and shelves and contributions to sea level rise: 1992-2002. J. Glaciol., 51,
509�527.
Zweck, C., and P. Huybrechts, 2005: Modeling of the northern hemisphere ice sheets
during the last glacial cycle and glaciological sensitivity. J. Geophys. Res.,
110, D07103, doi:10.1029/2004JD005489.
Zwiers, F.W., and X. Zhang, 2003: Toward regional scale climate change detection.
J. Clim., 16, 793�797.
Zwiers, F.W.VVKand V. Kharin, 1998: Changes in the extremes of the climate
simulated by CCC GCM2 under CO2 doubling. J. Clim., 11, 2200�2222.

Vous aimerez peut-être aussi