Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
An Introduction to FRP
Composites for Construction
Prepared by ISIS Canada
A Canadian Network of Centres of Excellence
www.isiscanada.com
Principal Contributor: L.A. Bisby, Ph.D., P.Eng.
Department of Civil Engineering, Queens University
Contributor: J. Fitzwilliam
March 2006
Section 1
FRPS IN CONSTRUCTION
Since the early 1990s, interest in the use of FRP materials
for structures has increased steadily, and there are currently
hundreds of field applications of FRPs in structures around
the world. Some of the more common FRP applications in
civil engineering structures are described in detail in
Section 5 of this document, and include:
Externally-bonded FRP plates, sheets, and wraps for
strengthening of reinforced concrete, steel, aluminum,
and timber structural members (Fig. 1-2);
FRP bars, rods, and tendons for internal reinforcement
of concrete (Figs. 1-3 and 1-4);
all-FRP structures; and
FRP hybrid structures.
This module presents an introduction into the properties
and uses of FRP materials in civil engineering structures,
with a particular emphasis on their use for reinforcement
and strengthening of structural concrete.
Section 2
FIBRES
POLYMER
MATRIX
FRP
MATRIX
The matrix is the binder of the FRP and plays many
important roles. Some of the more critical functions played
by the matrix are:
to bind the fibres together;
to protect the fibres from abrasion and environmental
degradation;
to separate and disperse fibres within the composite;
to transfer force between the individual fibres; and
to be chemically and thermally compatible with the
fibres.
A major selection criterion for matrix materials is that
they have a low density, usually considerably less than the
fibres, such that the overall weight of the composite is
minimized.
While the fibres provide the strength and stiffness of an
FRP, the matrix is essential to transfer forces between the
individual fibres. This force transfer is accomplished
through shear stresses that develop in the matrix between
the individual fibres. Obviously, the quality of the bond
Polyesters
Polyesters are the most widely used polymers in the
manufacture of FRP components for infrastructure
applications due to their relatively low cost and ease of
processing (these resins cure at ambient temperatures).
Numerous specific types of polyesters are available for use,
with varying degrees of thermal and chemical stability,
moisture absorption, and shrinkage during curing.
Vinylesters
Vinylesters are often identified as a class of polyesters
because of their similar processing procedures. However, in
chemical structure they are essentially unsaturated epoxides,
and so their properties are more akin to epoxies. Vinylesters
are resistant to strong acids and alkalis, which is one reason
that they are commonly used in the manufacture of FRP
reinforcing bars for concrete (the environment inside
concrete is highly alkaline). Vinylesters also offer reduced
moisture absorption and shrinkage as compared with
polyesters. Vinylesters cost slightly more than polyesters.
Epoxies
Epoxies are often used in wet lay-up applications of FRP
plates and sheets (discussed in detail later) because of their
ability to cure well at room temperature and owing to their
outstanding adhesion (bonding) characteristics. Epoxies
have high strength, good dimensional stability, relatively
good high-temperature properties, strong resistance to
chemicals (except acids), and superior toughness. Epoxies,
however, cost significantly more than polyesters or
vinylesters.
FIBRES
The fibres provide the strength and stiffness of an FRP.
Because the fibres used in most structural FRP applications
are continuous and are oriented in specified directions, FRPs
are orthotropic, and they are much stronger and stiffer in the
fibre direction(s). Fibres are generally selected to have:
high stiffness;
high ultimate strength;
low variation of strength between individual fibres;
stability during handling; and
uniform diameter.
For structural engineering applications, fibres are also
characterized by extremely large length-to-diameter ratios
(they are considered continuous) and by extremely small
diameters (as small as 5-10 microns across, refer to
Figure 2-2). The small diameter of the fibres is significant,
in that the molecular structure of the material is aligned
along the length of the fibres giving them high tensile
strength. Also since the probability of a sample of material
containing a flaw large enough to cause brittle failure
decreases with its volume, microscopic fibres have fewer
defects than the bulk fibre material, and hence higher
strengths. In the event of a single fibre break within the
FRP, force transfer to adjacent fibres, through shear stresses
that develop in the polymer matrix, prevents failure of the
overall FRP composite. It is important to note that the force
transfer required to prevent overall failure of the FRP
depends primarily on the shear strength of the matrix.
Many different types of fibres are available for use, and
50 m In
all have their respective advantages and disadvantages.
Glass Fibres
Glass fibres are commonly produced by a process called
direct melt, wherein fibres with a diameter of 3 to 25
microns are formed by rapid and continuous drawing from a
glass melt. Glass fibres are the most inexpensive, and
consequently the most commonly used, fibres in structural
engineering applications. There are several different grades
available, but the most common are E-glass and the more
expensive, but stronger, R-glass. Glass fibres are
characterized by their high strength, moderate modulus of
elasticity and density, and by their low thermal conductivity.
Glass fibres are often chosen for structural applications that
are not weight critical (glass FRPs are heavier than carbon
or aramid) and that can tolerate the larger deflections
resulting from the comparatively low elastic modulus of the
glass fibres. Glass fibres are often used in the manufacture
of FRP reinforcing bars, pultruded FRP structural sections,
FRP wraps for seismic upgrade, and filament wound FRP
tubes.
Carbon Fibres
Carbon fibres are produced by a process called controlled
pyrolysis, wherein one of three potential precursor fibres is
subjected to a complex series of heat treatments
(stabilization, carbonization, graphitization, and surface
treatment) to produce carbon filaments with diameters in the
rage of 5-8 microns. The resulting fibres can have
properties that vary widely, and so several classes of carbon
6000
E-Glass
Aramid-49
Standard Carbon
High-Modulus Carbon
Ultra High-Modulus
Reinforcing Steel
Stress (MPa)
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0
Strain (%)
Aramid Fibres
Aramid fibres are manufactured from a synthetic compound
called aromatic polyamide in a process called extrusion and
spinning. Two stiffness grades are readily available: 60
GPa and 120 GPa. Aramid fibres are characterized by high
strength, moderate elastic modulus, and low density. In
addition, FRPs manufactured from aramid fibres have low
compressive and shear strengths as a consequence of the
unique anisotropic properties of the fibres. Aramid fibres
are also susceptible to degradation from exposure to
ultraviolet radiation and/or moisture.
FRPs
Although the strength and stiffness of an FRP are governed
by the fibres, the overall material properties depend also on
the mechanical properties of the matrix, the fibre volume
fraction (the volume of fibres per unit volume of FRP), the
fibre cross-sectional area, the orientation of the fibres within
the matrix, and the method of manufacturing. It is the
interaction between the fibres and the matrix that gives
MANUFACTURING TECHNIQUES
As stated earlier, there is a wide variety of techniques by
which FRP components can be manufactured. However,
only those manufacturing methods of immediate interest to
the structural engineer are included herein. Pultrusion, wet
lay-up, and filament winding are all discussed in some
detail, while other techniques such as pull-winding, resin
transfer molding, vacuum bag molding, and injection
molding are left to specialized composite materials texts.
Pultrusion
A manufacturing process called pultrusion is commonly
used to produce FRP bars, rods, tendons, plates, and
structural sections. The technique is fully automated and is
thus highly economical. It is similar to the extrusion process
by which many metal sections are fabricated. Illustrated in
Figures 2-6 and 2-7, the pultrusion process is accomplished
by pulling raw fibres through a resin bath and then through a
heated die. As the resin-impregnated fibres pass through the
die the polymer matrix hardens into the shape of the die,
thus producing a structural component.
The FRP
component is pulled from the cured end. This process is
continuous and has the advantage that FRP components of
virtually any length can be fabricated. The reader will note
that all of the fibres in a pultruded element are aligned along
the length of the component, thus creating a unidirectional
FRP.
shaping and
heating die
creel
puller
resin tank
Filament Winding
Many innovative applications of FRPs in structural
engineering, such as stay-in-place formwork for concrete
piles (discussed later) make use of hollow FRP poles, pipes,
and tubes. These members are commonly produced using a
manufacturing process called filament winding. In this
automated process, illustrated in Figures 2-9 and 2-10, raw
fibres are drawn off spools, through a resin bath, and wound
onto a rotating mandrel. The placement of the fibres on the
mandrel is controlled by a computer, allowing for the fibres
to be placed with extreme precision and with various desired
Fibre Roving
Rotating Mandrel
Section 3
GENERAL
The mechanical properties of an FRP depend on a number
of factors including:
the relative proportions of fibre and matrix;
the mechanical properties of the constituent materials
(fibre, matrix, and any additives);
the orientation of the fibres within the matrix; and
the method of manufacture.
Figure 3-1 shows typical stress-strain curves for several
unidirectional FRP materials. Also included in Figure 3-1 is
a stress-strain curve for reinforcing steel. Some commonly
available FRPs used in concrete reinforcing applications,
and their respective properties, are listed in Tables 3-1 and
3-2.
2500
Steel
ISOROD CFRP
ISOROD GFRP
NEFMAC GFRP
NEFMAC CFRP
NEFMAC AFRP
TM
Leadline CFRP
2000
Stress [MPa]
1500
1000
500
0
0
Strain [%]
From this data it is evident that both glass and aramid FRPs
have moduli that are considerably less than steel in the preyield zone, but that carbon FRPs have moduli that are
Table 3-1. Selected Properties of Typical Currently Available FRP Reinforcing Products
Diameter
Area
Tensile Strength
Elastic Modulus
Reinforcement Type
Designation
[mm]
[mm2]
[MPa]
[GPa]
Deformed Steel
#10
11.3
100
400*
200
V-ROD CFRP Rod
3/8
9.5
71
1431
120
V-ROD GFRP Rod
3/8
9.5
71
765
43
NEFMAC GFRP Grid
G10
N/A
79
600
30
NEFMAC CFRP Grid
C16
N/A
100
1200
100
NEFMAC AFRP Grid
A16
N/A
92
1300
54
LEADLINETM CFRP Rod
Round
12
113
2255
147
* specified yield strength
Table 3-2. Selected Properties of Typical Currently Available FRP Strengthening Systems*
Weight
Thickness
Tensile
Tensile Elastic Strain at Failure
FRP System
Fiber Type
[g/m2]
[mm]
Strength [MPa] Modulus [GPa]
[%]
Fyfe Co. LLC [www.fyfeco.com]
Tyfo SEH-51
Glass
930
1.3
575
26.1
2.2
Tyfo SCH-35
Carbon
-0.89
991
78.6
1.3
Mitsubishi [www.mitsubishichemical.com]
Replark 20
Carbon
200
0.11
3400
230
1.5
Replark 30
Carbon
300
0.17
3400
230
1.5
Replark MM
Carbon
-0.17
2900
390
0.7
Replark HM
Carbon
200
0.14
1900
640
0.3
Sika [www.sika.com]
Hex 100G
Glass
913
1.0
600
26.1
2.2
Hex 103C
Carbon
618
1.0
960
73.1
1.3
CarboDur S
Carbon
2240
1.2-1.4
2800
165
1.7
CarboDur M
Carbon
2240
1.2
2400
210
1.2
CarboDur H
Carbon
2240
1.2
1300
300
0.5
Degussa Building Systems [www.wabocorp.com]
MBrace EG 900
Glass
900
0.35
1517
72.4
2.1
MBrace CF 530
Carbon
300
0.17
3500
373
0.94
MBrace AK 60
Aramid
600
0.28
2000
120
1.6
* Additional information can be obtained from the specific FRP manufacturers
Table 3-3. Comparison of Typical Approximate Properties for Reinforcing Materials for Concrete
Steel
Steel
GFRP
CFRP
AFRP
Property
Rebar
Tendon
Rebar
Tendon
Tendon
Tensile Strength (MPa)
483-690
1379-1862
517-1207
1200-2410
1200-2068
Yield Strength (MPa)
276-414
1034-1396
N/A
N/A
N/A
Tensile Elastic Modulus (GPa)
200
186-200
30-55
147-165
50-74
Ultimate Elongation (%)
>10
>4
2-4.5
1-1.5
2-2.6
Compressive Strength (MPa)
276-414
N/A
310-482
N/A
N/A
CTE* (10-6/C)
11.7
11.7
9.9
0
-1--0.5
Specific Gravity
7.9
7.9
1.5-2.0
1.5-1.6
1.25
FRP materials are continually being developed with better properties. The properties given are circa 2000.
* coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE)
Modulus of Elasticity
For unidirectional FRP materials, the greatest strength and
stiffness are achieved when the composite is loaded in
tension in the direction of the fibres. In this case, the elastic
modulus of the FRP, Efrp, can be approximately expressed in
terms of the elastic moduli of the component materials, Em
for the matrix and Ef for the fibres, and their respective
volume fractions, Vm and Vf. This is done through an
equation known as the rule of mixtures:
E frp = E mVm + E f V f = (E f E m )V f + E m
Glass
Very Good
Adequate
Adequate
Adequate
Adequate
Adequate
Very Good
(Eq. 3-2)
(Eq. 3-1)
Strength
The strength of unidirectional FRP materials when loaded in
the fibre direction is dependent on whether the applied load
is tensile or compressive, with most FRPs being vastly more
effective in tension (hence their common use as tensile
reinforcement for concrete).
The response of an FRP material in tension is
dependent largely on the failure strains of the two
component materials, and two possible cases of behaviour
demand consideration. Figures 3-2 and 3-3 show the
potential scenarios for failure strains of the fibres and
matrix, and provide insight into the failure behaviour of
FRP materials.
If the failure strain of the matrix, m,ult, is less than the
failure strain of the fibres, f,ult, as shown in Figure 3-2, and
the fibre volume fraction, Vf, is small (say less than about
0.10), then failure of the FRP is governed by the matrix.
This condition is described by the following approximate
(Eq. 3-3)
(Eq. 3-4)
(Eq. 3-5)
10
Stress,
f,ult
Fibre
f
m,ult
Matrix
Strain,
m,ult
f,ult
m,ult
m
120
100
80
60
40
High Modulus Carbon FRP
Intermediate Modulus Carbon FRP
Low Modulus Carbon FRP
E-Glass FRP
20
0
0
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
Matrix
f,ult
Strain,
m,ult
Fatigue
Fatigue refers to the degradation or failure of a structural
material or element after repeated cycles of loading and
unloading. Most unidirectional FRP materials used in civil
engineering applications display good fatigue behaviour in
comparison with steel, although some FRP materials
(carbon FRPs in particular) display superior fatigue
characteristics.
Creep
Creep is a phenomenon exhibited to varying degrees of
severity by virtually all engineering materials. Creep refers
to a condition of increasing strain under a sustained
(constant) level of stress. Although carbon, glass, and
aramid fibres display comparatively little creep themselves
under most ambient conditions, FRP matrix materials are
visco-elastic (they display properties of both elastic solids
and viscous fluids) and so FRP materials will creep under
sustained load. The amount of creep exhibited by a
particular FRP will depend primarily on the fibre volume
fraction and the orientation of the fibres with respect to the
applied loads. In addition, both temperature and moisture
11
Section 4
Temperature
Temperature is an extremely important factor in the design
and use of FRP materials for infrastructure. At elevated
temperatures, polymer materials will decompose, or in some
cases, burn. The operating temperature to which an FRP
component is subjected in service is therefore limited to
about 20C less than the glass transition temperature (GTT),
for an epoxy resin, or the heat distortion temperature (HDT),
for a vinylester or polyester. At these temperatures, major
changes are observed in the mechanical properties of the
polymer matrix materials which lead to a rapid deterioration
Moisture
Almost all polymers, if placed in a wet environment, will
absorb moisture from their surroundings until their
saturation point is reached. The amount of moisture
12
UV Radiation
Ultra-violet (UV) radiation can degrade FRP materials.
Aramid fibres are known to be particularly sensitive to UV
radiation, while both carbon and glass fibres are resistant to
UV light. In addition, most polymer matrices will degrade
slightly due to UV radiation.
Degradation due to UV light can be prevented through
the use of various matrix additives, the application of a
pigmented gel coat on the exterior of an FRP, or by painting
the FRP with an opaque paint. For instance, in most field
applications of concrete strengthening by externally-bonded
FRP plates or sheets, the FRP is finished with a UV resistant
Alkali Effects
FRP materials are increasingly being used as internal
reinforcement for concrete structures in an attempt to
address the corrosion problems that are commonly
encountered when concrete is reinforced with conventional
steel rebars. The environment inside healthy concrete is
highly alkaline (the pH level is generally between 12 and
13.5), and this can be a concern for glass fibre materials,
which suffer from reduced toughness and strength through
alkalinity-induced embrittlement. As a result, GFRP rebars
are often manufactured using alkali-resistant polymer
matrices. While there remains some uncertainty as to the
effects of alkalis on glass FRP rebars, it is generally agreed
that GFRP can be used for reinforcement of concrete
provided that sustained (service) stresses are limited (as
mentioned previously) to account for potential degradation.
Fire
All polymer resins will burn when subjected to sufficiently
high temperatures, and thus fire can be a serious concern for
FRP materials and for structures which incorporate them.
Polymers commonly used as matrices in infrastructure FRPs
are all combustible and generally release large quantities of
dense, black, and sometimes toxic and/or corrosive smoke.
Thus, the potential consequences of fire must be considered
during the design process for any structure incorporating
FRP materials. Various options exist for fire protection of
FRP materials through the use of intumescent coatings, fire
insulation, matrix additives, and ceramic paint, although all
involve trade-offs in terms of cost, ease of application, and
effects on the mechanical properties of the FRP. Research
is ongoing in this area.
Section 5
ALL-FRP STRUCTURES
The most obvious potential use of FRPs in structures is to
fabricate entire structures, or specific structural components,
out of FRP. This is most easily and inexpensively
13
FRP-REINFORCED CONCRETE
Because FRP materials will not corrode electrochemically,
FRP bars, rods, and tendons are increasingly being used in
lieu of conventional reinforcing steel for internal
reinforcement of concrete. Both glass and carbon FRP
rebars and reinforcing grids have been used successfully as
internal reinforcement in concrete beams and slabs, as have
various hybrid FRP grids composed of both glass and
carbon fibres. Research and field applications of FRP
rebars in concrete bridge decks have indicated that these
materials perform well in the harsh Canadian climate. The
14
Concrete Structures
FRP materials are becoming increasingly popular for repair
and strengthening of reinforced concrete structures, and
FRPs are now materials of choice for flexural, shear, and
axial strengthening of reinforced concrete members. In this
application, FRP plates or sheets are bonded to the exterior
of reinforced concrete members using the wet lay-up
procedure with an epoxy resin/adhesive. The FRP sheets or
plates are generally bonded to the tension faces of flexural
elements to increase their bending capacity, or to their side
faces to increase the shear capacity (Figure 5-4). In
addition, FRP sheets can be applied circumferentially
around reinforced concrete columns to provide confining
reinforcement which has been shown to increase both their
strength and ductility (Figure 5-5). A much more complete
discussion into the use of FRPs for strengthening concrete
structures is provided in ISIS EC Module 4, which is also
readily available from ISIS Canada.
Metallic Structures
Many metallic structures such as bridge girders, cranes,
hydroelectric structures, and overhead signs are also
currently in need of structural upgrading, and FRP materials
are beginning to see use in these applications due largely to
the ultra high-modulus fibres that are now available. By
externally bonding FRP sheets or wraps to the exterior of
metallic structures, their flexural, shear, axial, and joint
strengths can be significantly enhanced. Some specific
applications have included glass FRP wraps for the repair of
damaged welds in aluminum overhead signs (Figure 5-6),
and the use of ultra-high modulus carbon FRP sheets for
increasing the flexural capacity of steel bridge girders.
Masonry Structures
Many aging masonry structures, built long before current
design loads and guidelines were formulated, are now
considered structurally inadequate in a number of respects
(commonly with respect to seismic loading). Externallybonded FRP reinforcements can be used to increase both the
strength and ductility of masonry walls and columns for
both in-plane and out-of-plane shear and flexural behaviour.
An example of a typical FRP strengthening application on a
masonry wall is shown in Figure 5-7, where transparent
glass FRP sheets have been used to improve the in-plane
behaviour of a traditional clay brick masonry wall.
15
Timber Structures
16
THE FUTURE
The future holds unlimited promise for the use of FRPs in
structural engineering applications. One of the most
exciting recent advances is the development of smart
Section 10
ISIS Design Manual No. 3: Reinforcing Concrete Structures with Fiber Reinforced Polymers.
ISIS Design Manual No. 4: Strengthening Reinforced Concrete Structures with Externally-Bonded Fiber Reinforced
Polymers.
ISIS Design Manual No. 5: Prestressing Concrete Structures with FRPs.
ISIS Canada Specifications for Product Certification of Fibre Reinforced Polymers (FRPs) as Internal Reinforcement in
Concrete Structures
ISIS Educational Module 1: Mechanics Examples Incorporating FRP Materials.
ISIS Educational Module 3: An Introduction to FRP-Reinforced Concrete.
ISIS Educational Module 4: An Introduction to FRP-Strengthening of Concrete Structures.
ISIS Educational Module 6: Application and Handling of FRP Reinforcements for Concrete.
17
The following publications have been used in the preparation of this module and can be consulted for a more complete
discussion of the various topics presented herein:
CSA 2002. CAN/CSA-S806-02: Design and Construction of Building Components with Fibre Reinforced-Polymers.
Canadian Standards Association, Ottawa, ON.
CSA 2005. CAN/CSA-S6-05: The Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code (CHBDC). Canadian Standards Association,
Ottawa, ON.
ACI 2003. ACI 440.1R-03: Guide for the design and construction of concrete reinforced with FRP bars. American
Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI.
ACI 2002. ACI 440.2R-02: Guide for the design and construction of externally bonded FRP systems for strengthening
concrete structures. American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI.
ACI 1996. ACI 440R-96: State-of-the-art report on fiber reinforced plastic reinforcement for concrete structures.
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI.
Teng, J.G., Chen, J.F., Smith, S.T., and Lam, L. 2002. FRP strengthened concrete structures. Wiley.
Hollaway, L.C., and Head, P.R. 2001. Advanced polymer composites and polymers in the civil infrastructure. Elsevier.
Hollaway, L.C. 1990. Polymers and polymer composites in construction. Thomas Telford Ltd., London, UK.
Chawla, K.K. 1998. Composite materials: Science and engineering. Springer.
ICE 2001. FRP composites: Life extension and strengthening of metallic structures. Institution of Civil Engineers,
Design and practice guides. Thomas Telford Ltd., London, UK.
Further information on field applications of FRPs in various types of structures is available from a number of sources,
including:
ACI Special Publication SP-215-9. Field Applications of FRP Reinforcement: Case Studies. Published by the American
Concrete Institute, 2003.
ASCE Journal of Composites for Construction. Published by the American Society of Civil Engineering, 1997-2004.
Notation
Ef
Efrp
Em
Vf
Vm
f,ult
m,ult
frp,ult
ultimate tensile strength of a unidirectional FRP in the direction of the fibres (MPa)
f,ult
m,ult
18
Appendix A:
Suggested Laboratory
The following laboratory procedure is given as an example
of a materials laboratory that could be given in conjunction
with an undergraduate course on engineering materials or
mechanics of materials, and that includes tests on both steel
and FRP materials. Given the wide variety of laboratory and
testing facilities available at various Canadian universities,
this laboratory is given primarily as an example for
professors of what can be done using FRP materials to
increase laboratory impact and student understanding of
important materials concepts.
Inclusion of FRP materials into traditional strength of
materials laboratories is advantageous for a number of
reasons, including:
it introduces students to a new and innovative material
which is gaining acceptance within the civil
engineering industry;
it increases student understanding of the fundamental
materials concepts and assumptions used in structural
design and analysis;
Caution:
FRP Materials
FRPs are linear elastic materials. As such, these materials
do not display the yielding behaviour observed when testing
steel and they provide little warning prior to failure. It is
extremely important that instructors, students, laboratory
demonstrators, and technical staff be made aware of the
19
6.
7.
OBJECTIVES
The objective of this laboratory can be summarized as
follows:
1. To observe and develop stress-strain relationships for
both steel and FRPs in tension.
2. To determine the elastic modulus of both steel and FRP
materials.
3. To define the proportional limit and the yield strength
of steel.
4. To define the ultimate stress and strain for both steel
and FRP in tension.
5. To observe the effects of inelastic behaviour.
6. To compare the overall stress-strain behaviour and
failure modes of ductile materials versus those of brittle
materials.
Laboratory Report
Apparatus
20
Movable
Crosshead
Load
Frame
Test
Specimen
Stationary
Crosshead
Hydraulic
Cylinder
Strain at Failure
(%)
7-15
2-4.5
1-1.5
2.1-2.2
0.3-1.7
21
End
Tabs
FRP
Bar
OR
OR
Steel
Pipe
Cement
grout
Machined
Steel Bar
Steel
Rebar
2.
3.
Steel Specimen
4. With the help of the instructor, mount the steel
specimen in the load frame and affix the extensometer
to the specimen. Loading of the machine, and setting
of scales and the rate of loading/deformation should be
done by the laboratory instructor or by an experienced
technician. Record the loading/deformation rate for
the specimen.
5. With the help of the instructor or technician, ZERO the
load applied to the specimen by adjusting the position
of the Dynamic Testing Machines hydraulic ram.
Also, adjust the X-Y plotter so that it indicates zero
force and deformation in the test specimen.
6. Load the specimen in tension up to 80% of the
expected yield load and reverse the direction of
loading.
7. Reduce the load to zero, and then reload the specimen
in tension until yielding is observed. Continue loading
beyond yield to ascertain that the yield point has been
exceeded (or if no true yielding occurs, that the
proportional limit has been exceeded).
8. It is now required to put the specimen through an
unload-reload cycle. Reduce the tensile load to about
50% of the yielding load. Reload the specimen again
to the previously observed yielding load. Allow a little
more deformation to occur beyond this point to
22
elastic modulus, Es
stress at proportional limit, p
stress at yield point (if apparent) or at 0.2% offset
strain, y
ultimate tensile strength, s,ult
stress at fracture, s,f
percentage deformation at fracture, s,f
percentage reduction of cross-sectional area at fracture
type and character of fracture
Stress:
P
A
NOTATION
Strain:
Hooke's law:
= E
Lo
(elastic region only)
A
d
E
Efrp
Es
Lo
P
t
w
frp,ult
s,f
frp,ult
p
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REFERENCES
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2.
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Appendix B:
Suggested Student Assignment
Answer the following questions to the best of your ability. Additional references will likely need to be consulted. It is
suggested that students visit the library and consult texts on materials science, construction materials, and composite
materials.
Problem #1:
The developed world relies heavily on a complex and widespread system of infrastructure for economic and social health
and prosperity. However, much of our public and private infrastructure is now inadequate to meet the needs of current and
future generations. Briefly describe three factors which have led to the inadequacy of our infrastructure systems.
Problem #2:
List and describe the advantages of FRP materials for construction and repair applications in comparison with conventional
materials such as timber or steel.
Problem #3:
Compare and contrast the mechanical properties of FRP materials for construction and repair applications with those of
conventional materials such as timber or steel.
Problem #4:
Compare and contrast the environmental durability of FRP materials for construction and repair applications against that of
conventional materials such as timber or steel.
Problem #5:
List and briefly describe three applications of FRP materials in construction or structural repair applications. What
properties of FRP materials make them viable alternatives to conventional materials in these situations?
25