Letter Writing

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LETTER WRITING
The key to the success of the era of globalization is communication. And correspondence (letters)
is perhaps the most important component of communication. Even in the age of modern
technological innovations like e-mail, internet and long distance connectivity, letters still carry
the maximum load of personal and business communication.
Of course writing a letter is not as big a job as planning a marketing campaign or building a family
room. But it is important. As the saying goes, Anything worth doing is worth doing well. Besides,
the planning you do for a small writing job like a letter, need not and should not be elaborate or
time-consuming. A few minutes spent thinking and following the steps can help you write a better
letter, and may actually save time rather than take more time.
Whatever be the medium of carrying the message, the message has to be properly written to
convey the required meaning and complete sense. One has liberty to write personal letters as
one wants, but business or formal letters have to follow some norms in order to make appropriate
impact.
What is the importance of letter writing ?
Letter writing is an important and effective tool. Letter writing helps you put something
concrete in hand that helps you iron out a position or reinforce something you may have
talked about.
Types of Letters
There are several types of letters like application and appreciation, enquiries and requests,
Complaint and Recommendation, Sales and Promotion, Welcome or Invitation letters. Mainly we
have to study two types of letters.
Formal Letters
Informal Letters
Formal Letters They can be related to business, institution or educational purpose. The
format has to be followed while writing a formal letter.
Informal Letters - These types of letter are written to relatives or friends. These can also include
invitations etc. Such kind of letters are also known as Personal or Social Letters.
Tips for Writing A Letter

You must write good letters. And good letters come from careful writing as all literate people
reading your letter are surprisingly talented at quickly spotting errors or gaffes in the writing of
other people. Here are some common tips
Keep paragraphs short, preferably fewer than five lines. Vary the length of your sentences. And
dont be afraid to begin sentences with conjunctions (and, but, or). To emphasize a point, you
can use a one sentence paragraph.
Think twice before using any adjectives or adverbs. Impress people with your nouns and verbs,
not with decorations.
Use a friendly, conversational tone. Also, keep it deferential.
Show confidence but not arrogance.
Avoid unclear phrases like enclosed please find my resume for your perusal. Be more creative
than that.
Avoid vague statements. Give specific statements : people will find it both refreshing and easy to understand.
LETTER WRITING RULES

There are mainly five points that have to be taken care of while writing a letter. These are(a) Heading
(b) The Salutation or courteous greetings
(c) The Body of the letter communication or the message
(d) The Subscription courteous leave taking, or conclusion
(e) The Signature Name of the writer
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(a)
(i)
(ii)
(b)
HEADING
Heading of a letter basically consists of Two Parts :address of the writer followed by
the date on which the letter was written by him.
Heading can be written on the Right or Left (keep on changing with time-presently we follow the
convention of writing heading in the left corner) corner of the first page of the letter.
Examples of a Heading are
63, Vinay Colony
Delhi-160032
June 12, 2010
Examination Hall
A.B.C.
12 th June, 2010
SALUTATION
The Salutation in the letter will depend upon the depth of relationship of the Writer with the person
to whom the letter is being written, thus it varies from letter to letter.
Salutation is written at the left hand of the page, at a lower level the Heading. The first and last
word of the salutation are always started in Capital Letters (of alphabet).
Examples of the salutation are:
In Formal letters
To officials/Principal/Headmaster/Teachers
Sir,
Madam,
In Business Letters
To Businessmen:Dear Sir,
Dear Sirs,
In Informal Letters
To Blood Relations,
My dear Father,
My dear Mother,
My dear Kavita,
To,
Friends,
Dear Rajesh,
My dear Ajay,
Note: Dear friend or my dear friend is never used as Salutations.
(c)
BODY
The body itself is considered as the life of the letter and the style in which it is written will depend
upon the kind of letter one wishes to write. Like, the style of the letter to be written will be entirely
different from the style of the letter to be written to an official and so on. But few points that one
has to keep in mind irrespective of the style while writing the body of the letter areDivide the letter into various paragraphs to mark changes of subject-matter etc.
Use simple and direct language in short sentences. It will make the message clear and to the
point.
Always try to be complete. For this, think out what you want to say before beginning to write a
letter; and put down all the point in logical manner.
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Write neatly to avoid inconvenience to the reader because of your bad penmanship.
Take care of the punctuation and be consistent with it. Incorrect punctuation may alter the whole
meaning of the sentence.
(d)
SUBSCRIPTION
The subscription of the letter i.e. the end should be according to the sharing of the letter. A letter
must not end abruptly as this would look rude. So certain forms of polite leave taking are prescribed
that should be written after the last words of the letter on the left hand side corner of the lines after
the body. It should start with a capital letter and end with a comma. Some examples of the
subscription of the letter of various kinds are:To Blood Relations : Yours affectionately,
To Friends: Yours sincerely,
To Principal/Headquarter/Teacher etc: Yours obediently
To Officials/Businessmen: Yours faithfully,
To Strangers : Yours truly
Note : Never use apostrophe () withyoursin the subscription (yours is incorrect).
(e)
SIGNATURE
The signature of the writer of the letter should be below the subscription. In a letter to the stranger,
the signature should be clearly written so that he could know whom to address in reply.
Note : A woman should prefix to her name Miss or Mrs. or Ms in brackets before her name like
(miss) Purvi Agarwal.
ADDRESS
The address is written on the envelop of the post card very clearly with pin code.
SAMPLE LETTERS
INFORMAL LETTER
Ex-1.
Write a letter to your parents about the programme which you had attended as part of
your SUPW activity in your college.
Sector-13, Kandivali, Mumbai.
15, August, 2008.
Dear mom and dad,
I am writing this letter to you as I want to share my rare experiences with you.
As a part of the SUPW. activity, we had been to the village Bhojpur, which is on the way to
Mathura. The village has an orphanage with 50 other students. They are visually, mentally and
physically impaired. We went there to wish them a happy Dusshera. As a token of love, we
prepared sweets and cutlets in the orphanage and distributed among them. Many of them rejoiced.
They came forward to offer their help. Really mother! It was a tremendous pleasure to see their
happy smiles. No mumbling, no crying, but simple joy! A lesson to learn that happiness is so
cheap to buy!
The education we received here is more useful than my engineering education. I have decided to
help atleast one handicapped person everyday. Mother, I suddenly recalled your oft-quoted words,
Service is the best form of worship of God. Now I have realised that service gives contentment
and inner peace.
Please reply immediately.
With love and regards,
Yours lovingly,
Akanksha.
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Ex-2.
Ex-3.
Ex-4.
Write a letter to your sister inviting her for the Felicitation Function at your college.
SRCC,
New Delhi.
26 August 2008.
Dear Apurva,
I am sorry I couldnt write to you for a long time. I had my fifth semester examination, so
I couldnt spare time. Only today I have finished my exams.
From today we would be busy in making arrangements for our Felicitation Function. Being an
autonomous college, this is our third year function. I would be receiving silver medal for having
secured 2nd rank in the past examination. As I know, our parents cannot come owing to mothers
ill-health. I would be happy, atleast if you could attend the function and be with me for sometime.
His Highness, the Governor of Uttar Pradesh will give away the medals to the best students
selected in the gala function.
I will make arrangements for your accommodation.
Expecting an early and favourable reply.
Yours lovingly,
Kirti
FORMAL LETTERS
Write a leave letter to your Branch Manager.
Hiba,
Canara Bank, R. K. Puram Branch
New Delhi-22
6 November, 2008.
Branch Manager,
Canara Bank, R. K. Puram Branch
New Delhi-22.
Sir,
As my mother is admitted in a hospital at Agra for an operation, I have to be with her. Hence, it
would not be possible for me to attend office for two weeks. Kindly grant me special permission
to take 15 days leave.
Thank you,
Yours Truly,
Malvi
APPLICATIONS AND OFFICIAL LETTERS
Write a letter to the Manager, Birla Sunlife, Maharashtra for the post of a Clerk.
Geeta colony, 15/8,
Madhuban Flats,
Pune.
15 November, 2008.
Sir,
Sub: Application for the post of a Clerk.
I came to know that there is a vacancy for the post of a clerk in your corporate office at
Pune. I am submitting my application for the same.
I am a commerce graduate with typewriting higher and short-hand lower in English. I have learnt
MS Windows 98 also.
I have two years of experience as an accountant. After my marriage, I couldnt take up any job
owing to my family commitments. As my child has begun going to school, I would like to take up
a job near my house.
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I would render sincere service, if I am offered an opportunity.
Thank you,
Yours faithfully,
Harini.
Enclosures:
1. Copy of degree certificate.
2. Copy of typewriting, short-hand and computer certificates.
3. Experience certificate.
Ex.-5. Write an application to Aplab Industries for the post of trainee at the end of the third
year of your course.
Smarika Khare
III Year
Amity International,
Noida
09, May, 2008.
The Production Manager,
Aplab Industries,
Chennai
Sir
Sub.: For Apprentice trainee
I came to know that your organization encourages senior students of Electrical and Electronics
Engineering to undergo training under your able guidance. As I am interested in Micro Software
and in assembling chips, I would be benefited, if you could give me an opportunity to undergo
training. Even during summer vacation we have done a group project. A copy of the abstract of the
project is enclosed for your perusal.
th
Our summer vacation is from May 15th to June 14 of 2012.

Eagerly expecting your favourable reply.
Thank you.
Yours faithfully,
Smarika Khare
Enclosures:
1. Bonafide Certificate.
2. A letter of recommendation from the Head of the Dept.
3. A copy of the abstract of group project.
QUESTIONS FOR PRACTICE

Q.1.
Write a letter to the applicants for the post of Architects fixing a date for an aptitude test, skill
test and an interview.
Q.2.
Draft a letter introducing your product.
Q.3.
Imagine you are a Sales Manager of Mahindra & Mahindra Products. Draft a letter to various
offices explaining the special discount offer before the end of the financial year.
Q.4.
Imagine you have to get a bulk order from educational institutions for Encyclopedia of Information
and Knolwedge on Current Affairs.
Q.5.
Write a letter to the Controller of Examinations about the wrong spelling of your name in your
certificate.
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20
ESSAY WRITING
An essay is a piece of writing which is often written from an authors personal point of view.
Essays can consist of a number of elements, including-literary criticism, observations of daily
life, recollections, and reflections of the author.
Learning how to write any essay can be quiet annoying and difficult if you are not working in a
right direction. The word essay means to try, to attempt. When you are writing any essay,
you are trying to describe that topic to the best of your ability and knowledge. It can also be said
to be the just opposite of prcis writing i.e. an exercise similar to the expansion of the topic.
Here we bring to you a complete chapter dedicated to types of essays their techniques of writing
along with basic rules that one would follow to write an impressive piece of essay.
WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF ESSAYS ?
Essays can be classified as Narrative, Descriptive, Expository, Reflective & Imaginative.
NARRATIVE ESSAYS
Narrative essays are narration of some event or incident. They are experiences written by you
that you face during your life. It tells a story whether based on real experiences or imaginative.
The writer uses details that are significant and merges them to build up a story line that is easy
for the reader to follow. The narrative can cover Historical Events (The 1857 Mutiny), Social
Events (a marriage or festival) incidents like an accident or earthquake.
DESCRIPTIVE ESSAYS
The descriptive essays are a genre of essay that asks the students to describe an object,
person, place, experience, emotion, situation etc. These types of essays basically allows for a
great deal of artistic freedom. They could be written so as to paint an extremely vibrant image
that is vivid and moving in the mind of the reader.
EXPOSITORY ESSAYS
An expository essay presents, completely and fairly, other peoples views or to report about
an event or a situation. It helps in presenting a subject in detail, apart from criticism, argument or
development. Such writing is discourse designed to convey information or explain what is difficult
to understand. The purpose of these types of essays lies in putting forward other peoples views
with fairness and absoluteness.
PERSUASIVE ESSAYS
Through persuasive essays, you have to persuade the reader into convincing that your point
of view is correct by adopting logical reasoning to show that one idea is more legitimate than the
other idea . Basically all essays are persuasive essays. Sometimes you are assigned a
controversial topic, but an essay on the meaning of an article or poetry is also a persuasive
essay.
REFLECTIVE ESSAYS
It is a reflection or thoughts on some subject. The goal of a reflective essay is to not only
discuss what you learned, but to convey the personal experiences and findings that resulted.
IMAGINATIVE ESSAYS
In these, you have to imagine a position or situation, such as If I were the Prime Minister; or
If all the motor cars are banned, Autobiography of a Television, etc.
HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY ?
Essays can range from five paragraphs to twenty pages or more and cover any topic. What all
essays have in common, however, is that they explain your perspective - preferably in a clear,
illuminating, and informative manner.
Body of an Essay
INTRODUCTION
Every topic should be introduced properly. Slightly general in nature, the introduction should
define, explain or enlarge the topic. It should be a short paragraph leading to the further exposition
of the topic in the body of the essay.
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BODY
Contains the main points or arguments of the explanation All the major points should be put in
separate paragraphs. These should be linked logically, the first point leading to the second, the
second to the third and so on. This is the most important aspect of the essay, the major thrust of
the essay. Points for an argument should come first followed by points against, which you should
dispute properly.
CONCLUSION
Ideally, it should summarize the main points of the essay.
SAMPLE ESSAY
An outline
Should Students Take part in Politics.
Introduction : Start with what politics is and how it should be dealt with.
Body : Take a position; if you think students should or should not.
For :
*
It is but correct to give students ideas of politics even in the early age.
*
In a democracy, politics of the right spirit, will only prove beneficial.
*
It provides them with leadership qualities.
*
It gives them the idea of nationality and confidence to work for the nation.
*
It makes them aware of the problems that face India, and to find out right solutions.
*
They become ideal citizens by taking part in politics.
Against :
*
Politics diverts the students attention.
*
It gives rise to strikes etc.
*
An immature mind is not capable of knowing the full details of a particular party.
*
Their exploitation by the selfish politicians is well known.
*
Instead of becoming the best citizens, they get into the most miserable conditions in life as a
result of this.
Conclusion : Summarize the major arguments in one paragraph.
Brief Overview of 10 Essay Writing Steps.
Below are brief summaries of each of the ten steps to writing an essay.
Step - 1 : RESEARCH
Begin the essay writing process by researching your topic, making yourself an expert. You could
utilize various databases like internet, library, magazines etc. Read maximum to enhance your
knowledge on all subjects so that you are not forced to face a completely new topic in the exam.
Step - 2 : ANALYZE
Now that you have a good knowledge base, start analyzing the arguments of the essays you are
reading. Clarify your doubts as soon as they arise. With proper analysis, you will be able to retain
the meaningful points of any topic and you will be able to recall them at appropriate time. Learning
how to write an essay begins by learning how to analyze essays written by others.
Step - 3 : BRAINSTORMING :
Your essays should have your insights, genuine essay - writing brilliance. Ask yourself a dozen
questions and answer them. Meditate with a pen in your hand. Take walks and think and think
until you come up with original insights to write about.
Step -4: CHOOSE A TOPIC
After you have prepared yourself thoroughly, try to choose something you are interested in, in
your exam, as this will make the essay easier to write. You can also write your thesis statement
at this point. Pick your best idea and pen it down in a clear assertion that you can write your
entire essay around. It is practically impossible to write a good essay without a clear thesis.
Step - 5 : OUTLINE
Sketch out your essay before straightaway writing it out. Use one-line sentences to describe
paragraphs, and bullet points to describe what each paragraph will contain.
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Step - 6 : INTRODUCTION
Now properly write the essay. The introduction should grab the readers attention, set up the
issue, and lead in to your thesis. Your introduction is merely a build up of the issue, a stage of
bringing your reader into the essays argument.
Step - 7 : PARAGRAPHS
Each individual paragraph should be focused on a single idea that supports your thesis. Speak to
your reader as if he or she were sitting in front of you.
Step - 8 : CONCLUSION
Gracefully exit your essay by making a quick wrap-up sentence, and then end on some memorable
thought, perhaps a quotation, or an interesting twist of logic, or some call to action.
Step - 9 : READ THROUGH YOUR ESSAY
For now, dont worry about grammatical errors, underline them so you can go back and fix them
later. Go from start to finish to see how your essay flows. Does each sentence lead smoothly and
logically to the next ?
Step - 10 : PROOF READ
Now check for spelling and/or grammatical errors.
Pick out any repetitive words. Make sure that you are using unfamiliar words correctly.
Avoid using colloquial (informal) writing. Your essay should have a serious tone, even if written in
a light or lyrical style.
Use English punctuation correctly. Consult a style book if you are unsure how to properly use
commas, apostrophes, colons etc. Avoid using exclamation points to emphasize your statements.
TIPS TO WRITING ESSAYS
Use clear and concise language
Choose vivid language
Use your senses
Leave the reader with a clear impression
Be organized
Start early and budget your time
Write a quick draft all the way through
Think differently
Format and Presentation counts.
Here are some essays to help you get the criteria of writing an organized piece on a given topic.
NARRATIVE ESSAYS
Example 11.
A Terrible incident in my Childhood
Every spring, when the weather is cold, I remember when I was a little girl (almost seven years
old) I lived with my mother and my grandma in the country, because they were teachers there. Of
course, this place is in Himachal Pradesh.
We stayed at Shiksha School from Monday mornings to Friday afternoons. There were a lot of
children that went to school there. On the weekends, we lived in a little town named Mandi, in
Manali. My father lived and worked in another place, Delhi (the second most important city in
India). We were together as a family only on the weekends and when we were on vacations.
One day, in the afternoon, when the weather was very cold, the sky began to turn dark. At this
moment, an old man arrived at the school and said: Please, take care of the children and
yourselves. I heard on the radio that hard winds and rain, with the possibility of becoming a
twister, are coming!
I believe that I never felt as I did at this moment. I thought that it could be the final day of our lives.
All the children, my mother, my grandma and I were under the tables and desks. What fear we
had in this moment! However, a few minutes later (almost ten), the sun was shining again, and
the sky went back to blue.
From this experience, I learned not to exaggerate something so little. It was a small storm, and
I thought I was going to die. I think now that similar things happen in many areas of life. The sun
always stays, but the clouds go.
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Example 22.
It was late in the night when I woke up from my bed. I looked out from a window and saw the
street in front of my house. There was that kid again. He was standing like a small creature,
freezing like an ice, and sometimes, walking back and forth like someone who was in a confusing
mind. Unlike the other nights, I went out of my house and got in closer to where the kid was
standing. When I was quite close to him in distance, I saw that the boy had a cold face. His body
was not so big but I could see the way he looked at me. That eyes! I knew that eyes!
Hi, kid. What are you doing around here? Its late at night, I said. He didnt say anything. What
he did was he just kept walking back and forth without saying anything.
I saw you every night in front of my house since last week. Well, if you have nothing to eat or
something, you can come to my house, I offered him food for I could see how his body was
trembling by the snow. And the way his hands tounched his stomach showed how hungry he
was. The weather outside was very bad. I even felt that my body was going to be trembling too,
so, I got back to my house. When I wanted to open the door of my house, that kid touched my
coat. He said something that I was barely able to hear. But, I let him in.
In that house, I stayed alone. I was still a young person them if not very young. Now, there
was a kid in my house. At that time, I felt that the night was going to be longer than I expected,
but, in fact, it wasnt. I gave him a glass of hot chocolate and a French bread that I made by my
own hands. I looked at that kid while he was eating his foods. He was so hungry.
Usually, if the time was at 2 oclock, I would probably be sleeping in that full-of-rose bed. My
husband was still there. Sleeping. This night, I felt little bit different. It was because of the kid.
Days and days passed. But, my husband never knew that the kid and I were always laughing in
the kitchen, even until 3 or 4 in the morning. We ate foods and sometimes, I told him a story of
the fairy tales. Once my husband was awake and he said, Laura, I hear you talk with someone.
Who is that ? I never care for what my husband said. He kept saying that he couldnt see the kid.
And I kept saying that the kid was there with me. I though that the kid was afraid of seeing my
husband.
In one night, he never showed up again. That kid was like missing or going somewhere. I
didnt know. That happened since my pregnancy. I always missed that kid. He had come to my
house and had dinner with me together almost for a month. Again, for this one, my husband didnt
know that. Until I had to bear a baby, I was totally amazed for what I could see in the face of my
baby. He was a miracle.
My baby grew up as a boy. His face was exactly the same as the face of the boy who had
come to my house in that wonderful night. He said, Thank you, mom. He always said that three
words. Everytime he wanted to sleep, he said that words again. I asked him for why he said that
words again and again every night before he went to the bed. My boy said, You were always
there when I needed you. There was only a guessing in my mind and I dont know why he said
that.
I felt happy for what my boy said. But, things were different when I tried to think of it. A five
year old boy would never say that unless he was taught to do so. I wondered about a weird thing,
so I took a walk around the street of my house. Suddenly, after I passed five corners of the street,
I saw a picture sticked into a wall of a house and something written down on it. Gilbert, 5 years
old, was found dead in this street because of accident. I was crying. My mind brought me back
to that boy and I never realize how weird this life was.
DESCRIPTIVE ESSAYS
Example -1
1.
I have always been fascinated by carnival rides. It amazes me that average, ordinary people
eagerly trade in the serenity of the ground for the chance to be tossed through the air like
vegetables in a food processor. It amazes me that at some time in history someone thought that
people would enjoy this, and that person invented what must have been the first of these terrifying
machines. For me, it is precisely the thrill and excitement of having survived the ride that keeps
me coming back for more.
My first experience with a carnival ride was a Ferris wheel at a local fair. Looking at that
looming monstrosity spinning the life out of its sardine-caged occupants, I was dumbstruck. It
DESCRIPTIVE ENGLISH
24
was huge, smoky, noisy and a little intimidating. Ever since that initial impression became fossilized
in my imagination many years ago, these rides have reminded me of mythical beasts, amazing
dinosaurs carrying off their screaming passengers like sacrificial virgins. Even the droning sound
of their engines brings to mind the great roar of a fire-breathing dragon with smoke spewing from
its exhaust-pipe nostrils.
The first ride on one of these fantastic beasts gave me an instant rush of adrenaline. As the
death-defying ride started, a lump in my throat pulsed like a dislodged heart ready to walk the
plank. As the ride gained speed, the resistance to gravity built up against my body until I was
unable to move. An almost imperceptible pause as the wheel reached the top of its climb allowed
my body to relax in a brief state of normalcy. Then there was an assault of stomach-turning
weightlessness as the machine continued its rotation and I descended back toward the earth. A
cymbal-like crash vibrated through the air as the wheel reached bottom, and much to my surprise
I began to rise again.
Each new rotation gave me more confidence in the churning machine. Every ascent left me
elated that I had survived the previous death-defying fall. When another nerve-wracking climb
failed to follow the last exhilarating descent and the ride was over, I knew I was hooked. Physically
and emotionally drained, I followed my fellow passengers down the clanging metal steps to reach
the safety of my former footing. I had been spared, but only to have the opportunity to ride again.
My fascination with these fantastic flights is deeply engrained in my soul. A trip on the wonderful
Ferris wheel never fails to thrill me. Although I am becoming older and have less time, or less
inclination, to play, the child-like thrill I have on a Ferris wheel continues with each and every ride.
Example-2
2.
One of my favorite things to do before starting my day is to take a jog in the local park. My
mind will clear, and I will be able to face whatever may happen that day. It makes me appreciate
the simple things in life a lot more. Jogging in the park during early hours opens up opportunities
to see different scenes and portraits and open my mind to a new perspective.
Entering the park, a slight breeze rustles the leaves making them fall to the solid ground one by
one. The sun begins to rise, waking the tired sleepers. Flowers are vast, and they conceal the
freshly cut green grass. There are sun-colored daisies, vivid purple lilies, carrot tinted hydrangeas,
and cotton candy pink hyacinths. The pathway is nothing more than dirt littered with random
rocks. The ground, moist from the night before, causes my footing to slip, keeping me on my
toes. There is a white picket fence that runs along the trail, reminding me of the one running along
Marilla and Matthews property in the movie,Anne of Green Gables. The park is barren except for
an elderly couple feeding the ducks and a couple of fellow joggers breathing in the fresh morning
air.
Walking by the minute green and brown tinted pond, the milky white, soft feathered ducks
can be heard a block away as they quack and battle for the food being thrown for them. The
elderly couple, dressed in their black silk slacks and crme colored matching sweaters, watch in
amusement as they are the ones causing all the excitement. Behind the oddly shaped rocks and
algae in the pond, orange, red, and yellow fish dart back and forth. They only come out of hiding
when miniscule hints of bread begin to fall. If you look closely enough, you can see a turtle,
colored forest green, blending in with the algae.
Beyond the pond lies the lonely playground. The brick red jungle gym sits there in its solitude,
longing for some eager company. In between parts of the jungle gym is the bridge to partake in
childrens fantasies from battling trolls, or patrolling the fort. An ugly putrid brown covers it, and it
is obvious that the screws are becoming unhinged, and it is only so long before it comes crashing
down. The swings rock gently, and the sound of the metal rubbing together can be heard. Orange
and bright in color, the swirl shaped slide echoes the belly laughs and shrilly screams of children
who have dared to go down the slide. The merry-go-round, an orange red color with splashes of
blue across the edges, is still like a parked car. No one is there to move it or spin it; There are no
bursts of laughter or tears for when someone falls off and scrapes their knee.
The park offers a variety of scenery, which makes the jog more worthwhile. As the end of the
jog nears, my mind is refreshed and my body is energized for the day. Unforeseen thoughts pop
into my head just as new answers for old problems unfold. One beautiful morning run can change
your day and make all the difference.
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DESCRIPTIVE ENGLISH
EXPOSITORY ESSAYS
Example -1
1.
In Pursuit of Thinness
Throughout history and through a cross-section of cultures, women have transformed their
appearance to conform to a beauty ideal. Ancient Chinese aristocrats bound their feet as a show
of femininity; American and European women in the 1800s cinched in their waists so tightly,
some suffered internal damage; in some African cultures women continue to wear plates in their
lower lips, continually stretching the skin to receive plates of larger size.
The North American ideal of beauty has continually focussed on womens bodies: the tiny waist
of the Victorian period, the boyish figure in vogue during the flapper era, measures of beauty
between the 1930s and 1950s. Current standards emphasize a toned, slender look, one that
exudes fitness, youth, and health. According to psychologist Eva Szekely, Having to be attractive
at this time . . . means unequivocally having to be thin. In North America today, thinness is a
precondition for being perceived by others and oneself as healthy. However, this relentless pursuit
of thinness is not just an example of women trying to look their best, it is also a struggle for
control, acceptance and success.
In attempting to mould their appearance to meet the current ideal, numerous women are
literally starving themselves to death. The incidence of eating disorders, such as anorexia nervosa
and bulimia, has doubled during the last two decades. This increase is no longer limited to
women in their teens and twenties, but is increasingly diagnosed in patients in their thirties and
forties. No doubt, the current sociocultural emphasis on thinness and physical fitness as a
symbol of beauty and success has contributed to this age distribution.
One of the negative psychological side effects associated with eating disorders is the patients
distortion of their own body image,body image being defined as the picture a person has in his
mind of his own body, that is, the way his body appears to him. For the anorexic this distortion
is exaggerated, the patient feels fat even while emaciated, however, many women who are caught
up in the relentless pursuit of thinness also experience some degree of disturbed body image.
The experiences and practices of women who simply diet are not radically different from those
who are diagnosed with eating disorders. For some women, achieving the perfect body form
becomes the most important goal in life.
Example -2
2.
General Elections In India
In a democratic country, government must take a verdict of the people from time to time.
When it contemplates a change in policy, it becomes necessary to know what people think
about it. Also it may be necessary to consult the people as a routine measure, after intervals,
fixed by the statue. For this purpose elections are held all over the country and people are asked
to cast their votes for or against certain measures.
The existing popular assemblies are dissolved, and they are re-constituted on the basis of a
general election. Usually people vote on party lines. Where there is only one party, as it was in
the former Soviet Union and in the present-day communist China, votes are cast for or against
the party candidate. Policies are decided or the basis of such voting.
In our country, a general election is held normally after five years. But if a Prime Minister
contemplates a new line of policy, he or she may seek mandate from the people even before the
expiry of five years, as Mrs. Indira Gandhi did in 1971.
For the purpose of elections, the country is divided into a large number of constituencies.
These constituencies are asked to elect their representatives. Each party puts its own candidates
for election. When the candidates have submitted their nomination papers by the prescribed
date, after the scrutiny of nomination papers are finished, dates for election are announced and
the electoral machinery begins to function.
The candidates or their agents go from house to house, canvassing votes. The party bosses are
active and hold public meetings to explain to the people what they stand for. Each party uses
every argument and influence to convince the electorate that it alone is right and can deliver the
goods.
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At one time voters were bribed, persuaded or threatened. But now this is not much in evidence.
For malpractices during election are strictly forbidden and the whole election may be countermanded or annulled (cancelled) if such a corrupt charge is proved. For there is the three man
election commission to oversee the entire election process.
A prominent and eye-catching feature of election propaganda is by flaunting posters on houses
and banners across the streets as also hoardings with flags and slogans and symbols of the
candidates and wall graphics.
The Election Day is usually a general holiday. From morning, voters go their way to the
polling-booths where long queue are formed to ensure orderly voting. Voters move up to the ballot
box after running through proper formalities and cast their votes according to their preference.
To obviate false voting, the forefinger of the voter is marked with an indelible ink spot and his
signature is taken, after check-up by the rival polling agents. The system to be followed in the
next General Election is to supply each voter with a photo identity card which he must have to
produce to the polling officer on compulsion.
Some take their voting as a serious duty; others are in a more light-hearted mood. The
Election Conducting Officers as well as candidates go from one both to another as if to remind
their supporters of their existence, for canvassing on that day is strictly forbidden. Serious
complaints about malpractices are sent up to the Election Tribunal.
After the voting is over, the ballot boxes are sealed and taken to the proper place for counting.
This is the most important and exciting of all days. The issue is to be decided. The candidates
are on the tenterhook of suspense.
The ministry, i.e. the party in power is equally so for it may be voted out of power. As the
secret of each ballot box is unlocked by the Returning officer, the successful candidate and his
party are overjoyed; the unsuccessful go out crestfallen. The total results show which party has
won. If the ruling party is defeated, it resigns and allows the winning party or coalition to assume
the reins of office. The verdict of the people is mandatory.
Do elections as they are held today in our country truly reflect the will of the people? Doubts
are- often expressed in this regard. Parties are so many that it is difficult to judge their credentials.
They often represent local, regional, communal or sectarian interest and therefore they divert
attention from important national issue. Often a party, which is in a minority on a total count of
voter, may win in a large number of constituencies, and thus secure an effective majority for
functioning as a government. Another irritant to Indian Election system is the presence of a large
number of unprincipled independent candidates in the election process. With all its limitations,
election on the basis of adult franchise seems to be the most practical way of ensuring a truly
democratic government.
PERSUASIVE ESSAYS
Example-1
1.
Terrorism in India
Terrorism means the policy of striking terror in the minds of the people by violent methods to
achieve some ends. It is a law of the jungle to use muscle power and force to get things done. It
is a barbarian act. Of late, terrorism has become the order of the day.
People who are disgruntled and who are unable to get their desires fulfilled by normal and accepted
methods in society are resorting to terrorism. Some other causes for which terrorism is resorted
to may be genuine like a protest from people to come out of bondage or fight for freedom. Even
such causes do not support terrorism, when there are other channels and methods to solve the
problem.
Terrorism has now become an international phenomenon. There are terrorists in developed
and advanced countries as well as developing countries like India. We must find out the reasons
for emergence of terrorism. There has been exploitation of the weak and the poor for centuries by
the rich and the powerful. All representations and appeals of non-violent nature failed to yield any
response. Hence the frustrated and the oppressed resort to violence as there is no other alternative.
Such protests are also called terrorist activities. There is another type, that is, where one uses
force on the weak to gain his ends; sit may be to serve the cause of a religion, a language or to
establish a new pattern of government.
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The communist movements which resort to force, and the armed protests which Netaji Subhash
Chandra Bose led, in the name of the Indian National Army (I.N.A) cannot be termed as terrorist
activities. Protests like Khalistan Movement carried on earlier in Punjab, the armed protest marches
of Assam and the L.T.T.E. Movement of Sri Lanka are not justifiable movements. They could
always use other forums of a non-violent nature if they have any grievances to be redressed. The
hijacking of the Indian Airlines Plane in December 1999 is also another ugly face of terrorism. The
worst type of terrorism was that of Idi Amin of Uganda who let loose terrorism in his country to
serve his personal ends. Whether terrorism is justified or not, it has of late become the normal
method for achieving ones ends.
Terrorism is not confined to any area or activity. It is finding its place in the elections conducted
in our country to elect members to legislatures and parliament. Many a times the candidates are
found taking the help of terrorists to win their elections, as violence has its own place in an
election campaign. As long as violence pays dividends much more easily and is allowed to go
unchecked, the animal in man favors its use instead of peaceful methods.
Governments all over the world are doing their best to put an end to terrorism. There are a few who
encourage and support terrorism in other countries to meet their own political ends. The U.N.O.
also is unable to completely eliminate this evil, even though it is able to contain it. But use of
violence to check violence is not a permanent solution.
The only remedy to this evil appears to be the diagnosis of the root cause for each act of
terrorism and if there is a genuine reason behind it, it is better to concede the demand. If terrorism
is based on issues which are immoral and not acceptable, the sure and powerful weapon against
it appears to be non violent satyagraha introduced by Mahatma Gandhi.
Example-2
2.
Death Penalty In India
The Indian penal code provides for capital punishment for criminal conspiracy, waging or
attempting to wage war against the Government of India, abetment of mutiny giving or fabricating
false capital evidence in officers leading to the conviction, abetment of suicide committed by a
child or insane or delirious person or a person who is intoxicated and murdered in decoity.
In India, death penalty is discretionary rather than mandatory in all capital offences except in
case of murder by a life. Section 303 of IPC lays down whoever, being under sentence of
imprisonment for life, commits murder shall be punished with death.
For various capital offences the judges no doubt take into account the background of the
crime, the age of the offender and the mental and physical condition of the accused.
Moreover the appellate courts also show some leniency. And at the top of all there is the
executive clemency exercised by the President of India. The fact that only 25 to 40 percent of
convicted offenders are hanged every year, goes to prove that both judicial process and executive
clemency are available to a significant percentage of offenders condemned to death.
Meanwhile the President of India has rejected the mercy petition field on behalf of Dhananjay
Chatterjee and he was sent to gallows.
The recent announcement by the Government that it was not in favour of abolishing the death
penalty has again highlighted the questions raised by many human rights activists. Is it consistent
with human dignity?
The question was raised even in 1946 on the eve of independence. Since then we have been
discussing the relevance of capital punishment. Does it really solve problems?
The opposition to abolition of the death penalty stems from the myth that it will lead an increase
in the number of murders. The fact is that in the state of Travancore there were 162 murders
between 1946 and 1950 when the death penalty was not in force, But in the five years from 1950
when it was re-imposed. There were 967 murderers. It has been argued that it is not possible to
fight such crimes by framing law. What we need is to target the root of a crime. Discontent in a
society is one of the reasons for such crimes.
Those who do not support capital punishment often quite ignore incidents like Mumbai terror
or attack on Andhra Pradesh Chief Ministers convoy in Tirupati. But we should remember that
terrorist and suicidal maniacs responsible for the blasts and other such crimes also do not care
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about the consequences or punishment. They are already beyond the pale of humanity and have
to be fought using innovative ideas and methods of counter terrorism.
It was 1931 where the death penalty was seriously challenged in the Bihar Assembly. A
member of the Assembly unsuccessfully sought to introduce a bill seeking its abolition. In 1946,
on the eve of independence the then Union Home Minister stated that the Government did not
think it was to abolish capital punishment. Ten years later when the government asked the states
for their opinions; most of them expressed support for the death penalty.
In the 35th report produced in 1967 the Law Commission took the view that capital punishment
acted as a deterrent to crime. But the statistics did not prove these so called deterrent have any
effect the Supreme Court traditionally has not questioned the death sentence per se. In the
Jagmohan Singh case (1973) it agreed with the Law Commission that capital punishment should
be retained.
But subsequently cases such as those of Eliga Anawana (1974) and Rajender Prasad (1979)
saw dissenting voices being raised in the Apex Court. These led (1980) case by Constitution
Bench. The Bench concluded by four to one vote that the death penalty did -not violate Article 14
or Article 21 of the constitution. But some liberal judges tried to develop the alternative by holding
that the consent could involve Article 21 in the event of the death sentence not being carried out
even after two years and demanded that it be quashed.
Amnesty International, a strong opponent of the death penalty world wide, cites the Boldus
report prepared in the U.S. to argue that capital punishment is socially oppressive. It found, that
if the homicide victims were white, the killers were four times more likely to get the death sentences
that if those murdered were black.
It can not be disputed that the outcome of any trial depends to a large extent on the quality of
legal advice that the accused receive. This loads the scales in favour of the rich. The arbitrariness
of the sentencing mechanism in India persuades one to strongly argue against releasing the
death penalty but it is the Parliament who has the right to take capital punishment.
REFLECTIVE ESSAYS
Example-1
1.
As an English major I have learned to appreciate the peaceful, yet exhilarating moment when
my mind engages with an authors thoughts on a page. As Toni Morrison says in The Dancing
Mind , Reading is to experience ones own mind dancing with anothers. In my early days as a
college student, I wanted to know the true meaning of a work or what the author intended,
however, I have now realized this would void literature of its most noteworthy complexities. Individual
interpretations bring varied insights to a work and it is also interesting to point out messages the
author may not have realized.
I have always been a thinker, but throughout my coursework, I have greatly sharpened my
critical analysis skills. Instead of focusing on proposed meanings or biographical background, I
have learned to continuously ask why on many different levels. I challenge myself to dig into a
text as deeply as possible and unpack every detail to develop a satisfying close read. Also, by
reading multiple novels by the same author I have learned to identify different writing styles and
make connections that weave texts together; this helped me develop a deeper understanding of
the novels. When I look at one of my freshman level novels and see clean pages, I realize that I
did not actively read the book. I guess you could say that I have learned to read with a pen, which
has drastically taken my writing to a new level because I am able to connect back with my initial
insights marked on the page.
Writing had always been one of my strengths, but it was challenging to take that initial step
past the high school, five-paragraph essay form that constricted my ideas for so long. Moving
past this form, however, has greatly opened my mind. My thoughts are now able to be more
complex because I have learned how to sustain a logical argument in an organized manner. My
writing has become increasingly more concise and I no longer have room for added fluff or
padding. Another improvement is my ability to point out multiple complexities within a text,
instead of sticking to one-sided arguments in my papers. Furthermore, learning how to find peer
reviewed journal articles and order books through interlibrary loan has significantly widened the
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scope of my research, which has lead to more scholarly papers with credible references. My
writing is so much more interesting than it used to be.
It is difficult to identify gaps in my knowledge as an English major, only because I feel like I
have learned so much. I feel that I have largely expanded my literary analysis and writing skills,
but I need to be prepared to teach high school students their required literature. I think it would be
useful to identify commonly taught novels in our local high schools and study them myself. By
studying the required literature and thinking about how to teach it, I will have a sturdy foundation
to work from once I am in the classroom.
IMAGINATIVE ESSAYS
Example-1
1.
If I were the Prime Minister of India
India is the largest democratic country and the Prime Minister is the head of it. He represents the
country and is regarded as the first among equals. It is really a matter of pride to be the Prime
Minister of such a vast country.
As a Prime Minister I would like to develop India as a strong self reliant nation. For this first of all
I would like to have a check on the increasing population. Unless it is checked, our country can
not progress. Malnutrition, insufficient medical care, high infant mortality rates and problems of
aged people are some of its direct consequences. Hence population control would be the first
priority.
Then I would control the price rise. The distribution system of essential commodity would be
made more effective. The hoarders and businessmen would not take advantage of the things
because of strict rules. Eradication of poverty and illiteracy are also very important.
They are curses and I would try my best so that each and every Indian may get rid of them.
I would give priority to achieve the target of 100% literacy which would be employment oriented.
Rural school would be provided with good and sincere teachers.
Higher education would be based on merit. The talented people would be given proper placements
by setting up centres for excellence. This would stop brain-drain, one of the major problems of
India.
Necessary steps would be taken to uproot unemployment. It has created depression among
our youth. In lack of employment, the young boys go astray. They are indulged in serious crimes
and thus become the unsocial elements.
They would be given proper direction so that they may extend their helping hands in the
progress of the country. My aim would be to spread computer, internet and telephone lines to the
remotest village of the country. Special training sessions would be organised for youth. Loans will
be available for the deserving people.
This would encourage self-employment, which is the need of the hour. There would not be
any gap between the rich and the poor. Employment avenues would be available for all.
People would be taught about their duties in respect of their rights as provided by the constitution.
Strikes will be banned. Attention will be given towards immoral elements to punish them seriously.
I would give priority to establish a society free from fear and insecurity by encouraging universal
brotherhood. Restoration of peace would be the ultimate goal of my tenure. I would leave not a
stone unturned to bring peace in the country. The dignity of the individuals and the finer qualities
of the citizens would be elevated.
Strict laws would be framed for smugglers, hoarders and blackmarketeers. Law and order will be
maintained at all cost. In a nutshell, as a Prime Minister I would like to build my country as it was
dreamt by Rabindra Nath Tagore.
Where the mind is without fear and the head is held high;
Where knowledge is free;
Where the world has not been broken up
Into fragments by narrow domestic walls
Into that heaven of freedom
My father let my country awake.
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ECONOMY
BRAIN DRAIN
No mans genius, however shining, can raise him from obscurity unless
he has industry, opportunity and also a patron to recommend him.
The term Brain-drain hasrecently come into vogue for describing the flight of talent from our
country to another. Often, it is loosely employed to describe all migration of educated and talented
persons to countries abroad in search of better careers even though their services may be badly
needed in their native land, and thus, this exodus of talent, depletes a countrys intellectual resources
and tells on national life.
However, the problem of Brain-drain is not peculiar to the present age of ours. It existed even in
Medieval times when great conquerors carried away not only hoards of gold and rich treasures from
the vanquished countries, but they also took away men of talent and genius as a matter of right. The
only difference we see today is that now the talented and educated persons migrate of their own
accord, attracted by the glitter and glamour of better emoluments and amenities.
Today, the problem of Brain-drain is a product of the revolution in science and technology inspired
by the Second World War and speeded up by the discovery and use of the nuclear energy. After the war,
the stupendous advance made by U.S.A., U. S. S. R., Great Britain, Germany etc. in the field of scientific
research began to attract men of science and talent from other Countries.
One striking feature of this problem of Brain-drain is that it is a global phenomenon, affecting
almost every country. India, too, has been facing this problem and it is discussed from time to time in
a rather casual and cursory manner. It is revived with afresh momentum when some Indian repatriate
in another country achieves some distinction in his field of work.
Let us also analyze the reasons which prompt such people to leave the land of their birth for foreign
shores. Is it merely the enchantment and glamour of life in more affluent countries, or is it the search
for a more satisfying professional career. An overwhelming majority of such repatriates go abroad as
students seeking academic, scientific or technological education which is sadly lacking in their own
countries. More often than not, such advanced courses of training are designed to benefit the host
country. Naturally, such an education has no market in their native countries, and quite obviously, they
cannot be accommodated there. So they are forced to seek voluntary exile to settle in .the country of
their learning.
One more factor deserves consideration. After a promising young-man has completed his training,
he usually expects work which should not only bring in enough money and other emoluments but also
give him sufficient professional satisfaction.
But a greater contributing factor to this problem of Brain-drain is the unimaginative handling of the
issue by the most callous and unimaginative bureaucracy of the country. The research workers and
men of genius are men out of the ordinary and their work is of an extraordinary nature. But bureaucracy
fails to cope with such people for it lacks the intellectual equipment and sensibility needed to handle
such volatile human material. Very often, this becomes the main deciding factor for the emigrant, with
other factors acting as catalytic agents.
In India, the pattern of Brain-drain has caught the public eye very recently. Facts and figures are put
forward to emphasize the terrible loss being caused to the country as a result of this phenomenon.
What is really alarming is the information that the average age of migrants is between 20 and 40 years.
This means that India is losing the cream of the intelligent at the most productive period of their life.
The Government of India set up the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, partly with a view
to meeting the problem of Brain-drain. The C.S.I.R. installed in 1958 the scheme of scientists pool as
a device for bringing back highly qualified Indian nationals from abroad. On papers this scheme has
been doing some service but in actual practice the scheme has flopped owing to various simple
reasons viz., a yawning discrepancy in salary and emoluments and a severe lack of research-cumworkshop facilities for the highly skilled and specialized scientists.
The problem of Brain-drain should be tackled at national and international level on a broad-based and
rational pattern, for it is a global issue. On the national level, a country like India, should ameliorate the
working conditions of scientists and equip the laboratories with latest technology. Internationally, the
country gaining by Brain-drain must compensate the losing country by sending her scientists in return.
CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY
Business social responsibility should not be coerced; it is a voluntary decision that the
entrepreneurial leadership of every company must make on its own.
CSR is a companys commitment to operating in an economically, socially and environmentally
sustainable manner whilst balancing the interests of diverse stakeholders.
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is a concept whereby organizations consider the interests
of society by taking responsibility for the impact of their activities on customers, employees, shareholders,
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communities and the environment in all aspects of their operations. This obligation is seen to extend
beyond the statutory obligation to comply with legislation and sees organizations voluntarily taking
further steps to improve the quality of life for employees and their families as well as for the local
community and society at large.
The debate about CSR has been said to have begun in the early 20th century, amid growing concerns
about large corporations and their power. The ideas of charity and stewardship helped to shape the
early thinking about CSR in the US.
To demonstrate good business citizenship, firms can report compliance with a number of CSR
standards The scale and nature of the benefits of CSR for an organization can vary depending on the
nature of the enterprise, and are difficult to quantify, though there is a large body of literature exhorting
business to adopt measures beyond financial ones. CSR may be based within the human resources,
business development or public relations departments of an organization, or may be given a separate
unit reporting to the CEO or in some cases directly to the board.
Some companies may implement CSR-type values without a clearly defined team or programme.
The business case for CSR within a company will likely rest on one or more of these arguments:
A CSR programme can be seen as an aid to recruitment and, particularly within the competitive
graduate student market. Potential recruits often ask about a firms CSR policy during an interview and
having a comprehensive policy can give an advantage. CSR can also help to improve the perception
of a company among its staff, particularly when staff can become involved through payroll giving,
fundraising activities or community volunteering. In crowded marketplaces companies strive for a
unique selling proposition which can separate them from the competition in the minds of consumers.
CSR can play a role in building customer loyalty based on distinctive ethical values. Business
service organizations can benefit too from building a reputation for integrity and best practice. So
businesses should be more responsible for their environment. It is difficult to concede if CSR is purely
driven by the intentions of corporate members to exert ethical conduct or is it a distraction and/or
opportunity to over shadow or distract society and consumer perception based on the moral standing
of an organization
There are major challenges in todays corporate arena that impose limitations to the growth and
potential profits of an organization. Government restriction, tariffs, globalization, environmentally
sensitive areas and exploitation are problems that are costing millions of dollars for organization. It
may be apparent that in some cases, ethical implications are simply a costly hindrance that potentially
forces businesses to finding alternative means to shift viewpoints.
It is certainly a potential strategic tactic to gain public support to sustain a competitive advantage.
Another plausible driver of CSR is by independent mediators to ensure that corporate goals dont
harm or disadvantage anyone or environment. Unfortunately many consequential events are a reason
why CSR policies become evident. But CSR opens up a whole new horizon for safer and better
opportunities for both the employer and employee. It is now for more organizations to realize the
importance of CSR, and take the right step towards success.
RISE IN OIL PRICES; AN ENCOUNTER
Across the country, people are willing to tighten their belts and sacrifice. The President should ask
the oil industry to do the same.
There was a time when global oil prices reflected changes in the real demand and supply of crude
petroleum. The current oil price spike reflects not only current economic conditions and perceptions of
future activity, but also world political situations. Crude oil price increased five-fold in five years: from
$22 per barrel in 2003 to $110 per barrel. Cost per barrel was $100-115 in April-May, 2011. A country like
India that imports three-fourths of its oil cannot ignore global price trends for very long. However,
repeated fire-fighting to douse the oil surge has adverse effects on people. Already burdened by
inflation, hike in oil price directly or indirectly enters into all other prices, leaving a consumer unhappy.
The repercussions will be far-fetched: an increase in the price of diesel, the economys main
transportation fuel, will push up the cost of cloth and food items, including fruits and vegetables, eggs,
and many other perishables that are moved largely by truck. A hike in transportation costs usually has
a cascading effect on food prices already reeling under food inflation. Transported raw materials will
raise input costs, thereby, production costs. Eventually, end consumer takes the blow in the form of
cost push inflation.
A common man can find an increase in fares charged by public transport system in order to offset
the price rise as recently was the case with APSRTC. The cement industry has a large part of its
transport through roads. Cement prices will be impacted by about Rs. 3-4 per 50 kg bag and
consequently a dearer infrastructure leading to hike in user fees. The recent fuel price hike has had a
cascading effect on the packaged drinking water industry as well. According to manufacturers of
packaged drinking water around the city of Chennai, the price has been hiked by Rs.5 per 20-litre
bubble-top container by the dealers.
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As per census 2001, 12,528,916 Indians use kerosene as a cooking fuel; significantly rural. As for
the increase in the price of kerosene the poor womans fuel there have been reports that a
significant proportion of the fuel obtained from the public distribution system is being diverted for
adulterating diesel and other more expensive fuels. Clearly, an access made difficult. Even cooking
gas users primarily of middle class or above poverty level (APL) were not allowed to save
their neck. A recent increase of Rs. 50 on a LPG cylinder of 14.2 kg is deeply resented.
Now considering a petrol price rise, in India two-wheeler density is more than 75% while the
passenger vehicle is only 15%. Petrol is the only fuel for two-wheelers. Hence, proportion of twowheeler users affected by petrol price rise is several times more than car and big car users.
Such cost pressures have another consequence: they push governments to inflation control measures,
such as higher interest rates. In many countries this worsens the chances for the already fragile
economic recovery after the crisis. So people across the world face lower real incomes and may face
reduced employment opportunities.
From the above it is clear that we encounter the percolation effect of oil surge into every possible
sector. Oilonomics has gone haywire. Strong oil reforms, especially in pricing, subsidies and retailing
in place could unleash the burden of consumer.
UNION BUDGET AND ECONOMIC SURVEY IN INDIA
A budget tells us what we cant afford, but it doesnt keep us from buying it.
The term budget was derived from an old English word Bougett which means a pouch or sack. In fact,
it was a leather bag from which the British Chancellor of Exchequer (incharge of finance) took out his
papers (which contained government financial programme for the coming year) to present to the
Parliament. Thus Budget is plan of financing for the coming fiscal year. It has two parts- an itemized
estimate of all revenues on the one hand and all expenditure on the other hand.
IMPORTANCE OF BUDGET
According to Kautilya All undertakings depend upon finance. Hence foremost attention must be
paid to the treasury. Financial administration is always at the core of modern government. It is an
integral and indispensable tool of administration. It is concerned with implementation of policies.
Finance is universally involved in administration as oxygen is in the atmosphere.
FUNCTIONS OF THE BUDGET
Budget ensures the financial and legal accountability of the executive (government) to the legislature.
It makes sure accountability of subordinates to superiors in the administrative hierarchy.
It works as an instrument of social and economic policy to serve the functions of allocation, distribution
and stabilization.
It facilitates the efficient execution of the function and services of government.
It facilitates administrative management and coordination as it unifies the various activities of the
government into a single plan.
FORMULATION OF BUDGET
There are four organs which are involved in the formulation of the Budget:
The Finance Ministry-it has the overall responsibility for the formulation of the budget and provides
required leadership and direction.
The Administrative Ministers-They have a detailed knowledge of administrative requirements.
The Planning Commission-It facilitates the incorporation of plan priorities in the budget. We can say
that the Finance Ministry remains in constant touch with Planning Commission to incorporate the plan
priorities in the budget.
The Comptroller and Auditor General-He provides the accounting skills which are necessary for the
formulation of the budget estimates.
STAGES IN FORMULATION OF BUDGETStage 1- ln September-October (5-6 months before the commencement of the financial year).
The Finance Ministry dispatches circulars and forms to administrative Ministry and invite their
estimates of expenditure for the next financial year. The administrative ministry passes on these forms
to their local field officers. In these forms the estimates and requisite information have to be filled in by
local field officers. Each such form contains:
(i) Actual figures of the previous year.
(ii) Sanctioned budget estimates for the current year.
(iii) Revised estimates of the current year.
(iv) Proposed estimates for the next year.
(v) Actual of current year available (At the time of preparation of the estimates).
(vi) Actual for the corresponding period of the previous year.
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Stage 2- Head of the departments after receiving the estimates from drawing officers, scrutinizes and
consolidates them for the entire department and submits them to the Administrative Ministry. The
Administrative Ministry scrutinizes the estimates in light of its general policy and consolidates them for
the whole ministry and submits them to the Finance Ministry.
Stage 3- The Finance Ministry scrutinizes the estimates received from the view point of economy of
expenditure and availability of revenues. Its scrutiny is nominal in case of standing charges and more
exacting in case of new items of expenditure.
Stage 4- If there is difference of opinion between the Administrative Ministry and Finance Ministry on
the inclusion of a scheme in the budget estimates the former can submit such estimates to the Union
Cabinet and the decision of cabinet in this regard is final.
Stage 5- After this, the Finance Ministry consolidates the budget estimates on the expenditure side.
Based on the estimated expenditure, the Finance Ministry prepares the estimates of revenue in
consultation with the Central Board of Taxes and Central Board of Indirect Taxes. It is also assisted by
Income Tax Department and Central Excise and Customs Department in this regard.
Stage 6- The Finance Ministry places the consolidated budget before the cabinet. After the approval of
the cabinet, the budget can be presented to the parliament. It must be mentioned that Budget is a
secret document and should not be leaked before it is presented to the Parliament.
ENACTMENT OF BUDGET/PASSAGE OF BUDGETEnactment of budget means the passage of the budget by the Parliament and ratification by the President.
The government can neither collect money nor spend money without the enactment of the budget.
EUROZONE CRISIS AND ITS IMPACT IN INDIA
The aim is of course to make the euro an irreversible project.
The eurozone (a currency union of 17 European countries) has been going through a major crisis
which started with Greece but spread rapidly to Ireland, Portugal, and Spain and subsequently Italy.
While it got sparked off by fear over the sovereign debt crisis in Greece, it went on to impact the
peripheral economies as well, especially those with over-leveraged financial institutions. These
economies (especially Greece) have witnessed downgrades in the ratings of their sovereign debt due
to fears of default and a rise in borrowing costs.The sovereign debt crisis has made it very difficult for
some of these countries to re-finance government debt. The banking sector in these countries also
stands adversely affected.
Good times: After the launch of the euro, the eurozone witnessed not only a decline in long-term
interest rates (especially from 2002 to 2006), but an increasing degree of convergence in the interest
rates of member countries. A common currency, similar interest rates, and relatively strong growth
provided a basis for a rise in public and private borrowing with cross-border holdings of sovereign and
private debt by banks.
Trigger: In the aftermath of the global financial crisis in 2008, sovereign debt levels started to mount.
The revelation that the fiscal deficit in Greece was much higher than stated earlier set off serious
concerns in early 2010 about the sustainability of the debt. The downgrade of ratings led to a spiral of
rising bond yields and further downgrade of government debt of other peripheral eurozone economics
as well, that had high public debt or a build-up of bank lending or both.
How it spread: Concerns intensified in early 2010 as cross-border holdings of sovereign debt and
exposure of banks came to light. The financial markets quickly transmitted the shocks which not only
led to a sharp rise in credit default swap (CDS) spreads but later impacted capital flows elsewhere.
Underlying weaknesses: The crisis has been difficult to resolve due to certain specific things
The eurozone hicks a single fiscal authority capable of strict enforcement;
Economies with different levels of competitiveness (and fiscal positions) have a single currency;
These economics cannot adjust through a depreciation of the currency.
There is no lender of last resort, i.e. a full-fledged central bank
Steps to resolve it: In May 2010, the European finance ministers agreed on a rescue package worth
750 billion to ensure financial stability by creating the European Financial Stability Facility (EFSF). In
October 2011, the eurozone leaders agreed to a package of measures that included an agreement
whereby banks would accept a 50 per cent write-off of Greek debt owed to private creditors, an increase
in the EFSF to about 1 trillion, and requiring European banks to achieve 9 per cent capitalization. The
date for starting the European Stability Mechanism was brought forward to July 2012. To restore
confidence in Europe, EU leaders also agreed to a fiscal compact with a commitment that participating
countries would introduce a balanced budget amendment. In December 2011, the European Central
Bank (ECB) took the step of offering a three-year long-term refinancing operation (LTRO) at higlily
favourable rates to alleviate funding stress which helped bring down the yields somewhat during
January and February 2012. But overall uncertainty about the effectiveness of all these measures and
how further resources would be raised, their adequacy, and doubts about sovereign debt levels
coming down and the ability of Greece and other economies to undertake further fiscal austerity
remain, especially due to the low-growth scenario.
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The Euro zone and India: The eurozone, though distinct from the European Union (EU) is a major
subset of the EU. The eurozone and EU account for about 19 and 25 per cent respectively of global
GDP. The EU is a major trade partner for India accounting for about 20 per cent of Indias exports and
is an important source of foreign direct investment (FDI). The IMF has forecast that the eurozone is
likely to go through a mild recession in 2012. A slowdown in the eurozone is likely to impact the EU and
the world economy as well as India.
EFFECTS OF DEVALUATION OF INDIAN CURRENCY ON INDIAN ECONOMY
Devaluation means decreasing the value of nations currency relative to gold or the currencies ofother
nations.
Devaluation occurs in terms of all other currencies, but it is best illustrated in the case of only one
other currency. Devaluation is usually undertaken as a means of correcting a deficit in the balance of
payment. Some analyst are of the view that weakening the value of currency could actually be good for
the economy-since a weaker currency will boost manufacturing production, which in turn will lift
employment and all this will set in motion economic growth and keep the economy going. But the
dangers of a falling rupee too quickly, would be that the foreigners will stop investing in the country,
which would make it impossible to finance the current account (trade) deficit. It will then be forced to
push interest rates up to defend the rupee (crashing rupee stock and bond markets is supposed to
make the rupee more valuable), and that could create recession.
IMPACT OF DOLLAR FLUCTUATIONS ON THE INDIAN ECONOMY:
Possible impacts of the devaluation on the economy could be the stimulation of merchandise
exports, discouraging merchandise imports and thus improving terms of trade, increase revenue
collection and savings in repatriation of profits and royalties by existing foreign investors, bringing
illegal foreign exchange leakages into official channels and putting an end to gold smuggling. Inflow
of foreign capital can be improved by devaluation only if prices do not rise. It is supposed to provide an
escape from vexation import controls that prevent utilisation of full industrial capacity, stifle export
drive, bestow monopoly profits on a few, inefficient market regulation and pressure on budget and
domestic prices will sky rocket. Balance of payment (BOP) of any country is the balance resulting from
the flow of payments/receipts between an individual country and all other countries as a result of
import/exports happening between an individual country, in our case India and rest of the world. This
gap widened during Iraqs attempt to take over Kuwait. Thereafter, exports also contributed to FX
reserve along with Foreign Direct Investment into the Indian economy and reduced the BOP gap.
The obvious consequence of devaluation in the short run would be to worsen the balance of
payment position and raise the burden of Indias foreign debt and debt service liability and foreign
loans repayment would break the back of the budget, which would in turn increases the trade gap. It
will upset all the cost price relationships in the economy, lead to galloping inflation, and will stall many
ongoing projects due to rising costs. Conclusively, appreciation and depreciation of rupee cannot
certainly be taken as beneficial to the Indian economy in general. On one hand the rupee appreciation
will affect exporters, BPOs, etc., on the other, rupee depreciation will affect importers. So now it depends
on what the future has to reveal for, how effectively the central bank can balance the FX rates with little
impact to the relative areas of FX usage. Can the Dollar remain king or not, is no longer a million dollar
question, but a million Rupee question!
GLOBAL RECESSION: IMPACT ON INDIA
It has engulfed America and Europe and is now spreading to Asia and Africa and has left behind
carnage of mass unemployment, slowing of industrial growth; fall in the stock market and an overall
negative sentiment of the economy. Yes we are talking about the global recession which is now a
reality and posing us serious questions.
There is a raging fire so enormous that no economy seems to be safe from it. It has engulfed
America and Europe and is now spreading to Asia and Africa and has left behind carnage of mass
unemployment, slowing of industrial growth; fall in the stock market and an overall negative sentiment
of the economy. Yes we are talking about the global recession which is now a reality and posing us
serious questions. With the global GDP growth rate expected to be merely 0.5 percent this year our
concerns immediately shift to what implications it will have on India and what can be done about it.
How it Started
Before we analyze its implications for India it would be wise to understand the causal factors
behind it. If we look back just a little into our past it started in the US with the sub prime housing crisis.
The banks were guilty of lending to sub-prime borrowers or NINJAS (No Income, No job, No Assets)
due to the following reasons:
Large inflow of foreign funds leading to excess liquidity in the market. (These funds came in from well
to do economies such as China, India, Japan and Russia having surplus foreign reserve and they
pumped the money back to US in the form of sovereign funds)
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Booming housing sector (It was imagined that the property rates would keep increasing in perpetuity)
Low interest rates in the market.
Thus seducing the banks into ignoring the prudential norms and lending to sub prime borrowers
with bad credit history and no source of income to repay their debts.
However this bubble created was to burst someday. It did, and was witnessed by falling property rates
and defaulting of the amount payments by the sub prime borrowers. Numerous Hedge funds and
Mutual Funds, who had purchased these high risk sub prime loans from the banks with the hope of
making high profits, started making losses. But this crisis led to a domino effect spreading to various
economies through out the world. The hedge funds and the mutual funds removed their money from
well performing stock markets to cover their losses in the sub prime crisis. Thus leading these stock
markets around the world to crash. This crisis has seen major financial institutes such as Lehman
Brothers, Bear Sterns, Freddie Mac, Fannie Mae and leading insurer such as AIG eat dust, Banks and
financial institutes are the backbone of any economy and the fall of these titans has resulted in
spoiling the entire money market, causing difficulties for industry to get credit thereby slowing down
the overall industrial growth.
TIME FOR INTROSPECTION
The US government offered a bailout package of 700 billion dollars to these financial institutes. This
move has been met with tremendous uproar throughout the world and people are asking many
uncomfortable questions and making caustic observations.
Is the taxpayers hard earned money being put to prudent use by bailing out these institutes?
Wouldnt bailouts reinforce them thus making them carry even more risky behaviour in the future?
Are free markets in the best interest of the country? In fact the very conception of capitalism is under the scanner.
Many of the fundamentals that free markets take for granted are not applicable even for sophisticated
financial markets such as the US. It is then an obvious question that how are they expected to work in
developing markets such as those of India with widespread imperfections.
IMPACT ON INDIA
In the age of globalization, no country can remain isolated from the fluctuations of world economy.
Heavy losses suffered by major International Banks is going to affect all countries of the world as
these financial institutes have their investment interest in almost all countries.
India is facing challenges mostly on the following three fronts. These fronts are deeply interlinked.
THE CONTINUOUS FALL IN THE STOCK MARKETS.
For the last two years, our stock market was touching new heights such as crossing the impossible
to imagine 20000 mark by the Sensex, thanks to heavy investments by Foreign Institutional Investors
(FIIs). However, when the parent companies of these investors (based mainly in US and Europe)
found themselves in a severe credit crunch as a result of sub-prime mess, the only option left with
these investors was to withdraw their money from Indian Stock Markets to meet liabilities at home. FIIs
were the main buyers of Indian Stocks and their exit from the market is certain to wreak havoc in the
market. FIIs that were on a buying spree last year, are now in the mood of selling their stocks in India.
As a result our Share Markets are touching new lows everyday.
RUPEE IS WEAKENING AGAINST DOLLAR
Since, the money, which FIIs get after selling their stocks, needs to be converted into dollars
before they can sent it home, the demands for dollars has suddenly increased. As more and more FIIs
are buying dollars, the rupee is loosing its strength against dollar. As long as demands for dollars
remain high, the rupee will keep loosing its strength against dollar.
OUR BANKS ARE FACING SEVERE CRASH CRUNCH RESULTING IN SHORTAGE OF LIQUIDITY
IN THE MARKET.
The current financial crisis has also started directly affecting Indian Industries. For the past few
years, the two most preferred method of raising money by the companies were Stock Markets and
external borrowings on low interest rates. Stock Markets are bleeding everyday and it is not possible
to raise money there. Regarding external borrowing from world markets, this option has also become
difficult.
International lenders have become extremely risk averse and this is affecting the Indian financial
markets and real economy. In the present scenario the earlier targets of 9 per cent growth rate seem
to be out of reach. A modest 7 per cent is a more realistic target in the existing circumstances However
the picture is not entirely gloomy as our finance minister has repeatedly pointed out. India wont be
affected much by the current recessionary trends due to the following reasons.
India is a domestic consumption- and investment-driven market where contribution of exports to the
growth is not as big goes in its favour to tackle this crisis in a much better way than few of the other
emerging economies
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The inflationary pressures have eased out to a comfortable level and the government can refocus on
its growth strategies.
Indian banks have very limited exposure to the US mortgage market, directly or through derivatives,
and to the failed and stressed financial institutions.
LESSONS LEARNT BY INDIA:
It is of utmost importance that India takes appropriate lessons from the current financial mess
because those who do not learn from history are doomed to repeat it. Some important learnings that
emerge would enable India to have a pragmatic approach towards the future and will help it to ward off
similar problems in a more efficient manner.
India will be increasingly moving towards a more integrated financial network with the world over the
next 10-15 years. We need to rethink our policy framework for such integration. We are fortunate that
our economy is relatively decoupled and pretty much free from such external shocks.
We should reign in our horses before we jump onto to the capital convertibility bandwagon. We never
realized the ill effects of the 1970s oil crisis nor the East Asian crisis of the 90s. This time we wouldnt
be thai fortunate and if not cautious even in the future we stand vulnerable.
The policy makers should rather be interested in protecting the interests of our markets such as
agriculture (though it only contributes 1A of the GDP but employs 60 per cent of our work force.)
There is a great demand for deregulation in the economy especially from the middle class and the
media. We should however not be fooled into thinking that economic freedom will automatically lead
to economic growth. We need to focus on developing a regulatory framework for the economy at a
much faster rate.
Market failure is a distinct possibility. The Indian policy makers should make use of various simulation
models and construct what if scenarios for various banks and NBFCs. This would ensure the
governments readiness to tackle various contingencies.
Many experts are now appreciating the prudent practices and the socialistic fiscal policies followed by
countries such as India. India should take heart from its well thought of economic model for removing
glaring social inequities and its aversion for blindly jumping into a dark alley in pursuit of instant profits.
India should resort to old Buddhist teachings of following the middle path and develop a unique
modified economic model. A model that would be neither socialistic nor a free economy model and
which would be regulated by independent regulators. Thus our model should neither be influenced by
the left nor the right and neither should be self serving in nature.
India has an important lesson in the fact that we should not let our own judgment to be replaced by that
of self serving international institutions propagating absurd financial doctrines having no semblance
what so ever of either the past or of the future.
We could also benefit from international effort for co-ordination between the various agencies entrusted
with the task of maintaining financial stability. The IMF suggests that the respective roles of central
banks, regulators, supervisors, and fiscal authorities regarding financial stability needs to be revisited
India should cooperate and coordinate with the developed countries in the management. It should
also ensure its participation as a representative of the developing world so that the implications of this
management on the developing world are factored in. This move would also open a dialogue for the
future, so that continuous cooperation can take place between north and south.
It is very well understood that the current situation has precipitated due to the greed of few, their
inability to foresee the consequences of their actions and has led to the woes of millions worldwide.
It is thus imperative for us to rethink our economic strategies and not be swayed by the blind claims of
self professed financial messiahs claiming clairvoyance when it is quite clearly evident that they have
trouble seeing disaster sitting right under their noses. An effective and efficient regulatory framework
needs to be developed that would keep abreast with financial innovations and new emerging business
models and a quick reaction time incase of market failures. Thus until and unless we take charge of
things and fight this monster with all our strength it is likely to grow and would also periodically reemerge in the form of the all powerful depression, leaving us with nothing but horrendous tales of
despair to tell to our future generations.
FDI IN REATIL: ANALYSIS and IMPLICATIONS
The study found symptoms of nervousness, chronic fatigue, body ache, insomnia, nausea, anxiety,
restlessness, depression etc. due to odd working hours (mostly might shifts, because BPOs
generally cater to clients in USA and UK) and stress.
What impact all these would have on a large section of our population is a matter of some concern,
specially because ours is a young population on whose shoulders rest the future of India. As per
industry experts, stress results in one out of every seven workers leaving the industry every year.
FDI in retail has become the new buzzword in policy-making and industrial circles. The government
has already allowed 51 per cent FDI in single-brand retailing and is contemplating the pros and cons
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of allowing FDI in retail for multiple brands. Meanwhile, small retailers are up in arms over the
governments proposal. Political consensus too is yet to build up as the consequences of allowing
FDI in multi-brands are still being debated.
PROPONENTS OF FDI IN RETAIL
The proponents of FDI in the retail sector put forward the following arguments in its favour:
It would make economic sense to open up the sector for Multinational companies (MNCs). According
to the World Bank, foreign investment in the sector will be beneficial to India because it would lower
prices and provide more choice to the Indian consumer due to greater availability of products.
The India Council for Research on International Economic Relations (ICRIER) has recommended the
phased opening up of the retail sector with an initial cap of 49 per cent FDI. It has supported foreign
investment because such a move would speed up the growth of organized formats in retailing. It has
also argued that foreign retailers can anyway enter the Indian market through other routes, such as the
franchise route. Therefore, the existing FDI ban has not, in reality, restricted the entry of foreign companies
in the retail sector. While they have been there already, it is the nation which has lost on investment.
Also the entry process for the retail companies through these other routes is non-transparent and
complex. These things can be rectified by allowing FDI in retail. The ICRIER has also suggested that
the government should grant industry status to the retail sector. It should also issue licenses to
players that are to be allowed, make quality standards for local and imported products and specify
those products where FDI would not be allowed. Besides all these things, domestic retailers should
be given time to adjust to the changed scenario before the sector is opened up.
It is also true that the major trading partners of India in the WTO have requested India to open up the
retail sector so that their companies can invest in Indias huge retail market. Thus, if the sector is
indeed opened up, it would increase Indias bargaining power in the WTO, which then would have
tremendous ramifications for future trade talks, specially the Doha found which has presently got
stuck up.
The experience of other counties, like China, which have opened up their retail sectors have been
good. These countries have benefited in the following, ways:
(i) Speedy development of modern formats with clean and hygienic shop environment.
(ii) Reduction of the capital constraints of domestic retailers.
(iii) Greater efficiency and productivity in the sector.
(iv) Increased global competitiveness of the retail sector.
Allowing FDI in retail would also be advantageous in the following ways:
(a) It would provide better quality of employment to many. In other words, there would be better
salaries and better work ambience.
(b) It would lead to greater investment in supply chains because FDI in the sector would establish
significant backward linkages by setting up supply chains.
It would stimulate allied sectors like textile manufacturing and food processing, through greater
investments. It would help the agricultural sector, which at present is undergoing one of its worst
phases. This is because, if retailing of agricultural products is allowed, then retail outlets will establish
direct contact with farmers. This would do away with middle-men. Retailers would establish world
class storage facilities and help reduce transportation cost. Better storage would preserve agricultural
products longer. Overall, farmer incomes would substantially increase. It may well help in turning
around the present rural distress in India and stem the growing number of farmer suicides. Also, due
to absence of middle-men and reduction in transportation costs, the prices of agricultural commodities
would reduce, in turn bringing down the present high inflation rates. Apart from this, interrelated
sectors like tourism may also benefit.
Global retail companies, if they are allowed to set shop in India, can help in increasing Indias exports.
The Chinese experience, in this regard is worth noting. In China, where 100 per cent FDI in retail is allowed,
global retail companies buy almost $ 60 billion of Chinese goods per year and export them to feed their
operations in other countries. In contrast, only $ 1 billion worth Indian goods are bought for export.
Indian consumers would be the biggest gainers from FDI in retail. They can buy popular brands from
global retail giants like Wal-Mart, Carrefour, 7-Eleven, Auchan etc. It is believed that all these companies
will enter the Indian market if the sector is opened up. Wal-Mart has already tied up with Bharti. Also,
Pricewaterhouse Cooper (PwC) has in its reports said that India is among the six most attractive retail
investment destinations.
Opening up the sector is an inevitable process of globalization and the integration of the India economy
with the global economy. It would also increase manifold the total inflow of FDI in to India. The experience
of many countries show that most of the FDI comes from the retail sector.
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LIMITATIONS OF FDI IN RETAIL
Despite the above advantages, the concerns also can not be ignored. Those who oppose foreign
investment in retail do so on the following grounds:
The retail sector in India employs no less than about 4 crore people i.e., 4 per cent of the population of
India. It is the second major employment providing sector after agriculture. Because of the ease of
opening up local kiranas, almost anyone without employment can set up a kirana. Statistics show
that local kiranas constitute 7 per cent of the total employment in India. The retail sector, in fact absorbs
some of the surplus labour in agriculture. Retail is also the single largest component of the services
sector (14 per cent) in terms of contribution to the GDP. According to AC Nielsen and KSA Technopak,
India has the highest shop density in the world. In 2001, there were 11 outlets for every 1000 people.
If the retail sector is opened up to MNCs, then these unorganized domestic retailers will not be able to
withstand the competition. They will be devoured by the global retail giants. In the process, the domestic
retailers will lose their jobs, further aggravating the already bleak employment scenario in the nation.
In fact the Secretary of the Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion had gone on record saying
that there is empirical evidence to suggest that wherever the retail sector has been opened up, it has
had an adverse impact on the local people. It may push many below poverty line.
Even the domestic organized retail sector in India is worried. Organized retailers feel that with the entry
of MNCs, there might not be a level playing field, and they would be driven out of the retail business.
There is also the concern that the entry of retail giants will lead to simultaneous monopoly for customers
and monopsony for suppliers. Many feel that foreign retail companies may collude with one another
and create a monopoly in the retail market. They can then hike prices at will, thereby hurting the
customers. A similar collusion may make then the sole buyers from the suppliers i.e. a monopsony
situation. They can then arm-twist the suppliers to supply goods at excessively low prices. Thus while
the retail companies will make profit both from the side of the suppliers and the consumers it is the
suppliers and the consumers who will suffer. Such a situation is dangerous.
While the urban middle class will benefit from FDI in the retail sector, a large section of the society will
be left out of the purview of the retail boom. This will result in lopsided and unequal growth in cities and
accentuate social tensions.
The opening up of the retail sector is not an automatic guarantee of increased exports. If Chinese
exports have grown since it allowed FDI in the sector, then it is because of Chinese strengths in terms
of manufacturing, infrastructure and labour laws. Neither of these three are favorable in India. Hence,
to think that simply allowing foreign retail companies will increase Indias exports, is faulty. It may also
happen that the global retail giants, because of their much stronger foothold in China, may actually
import Chinese goods into India.
The issue is politically a very sensitive one. No political party can afford to overlook the interests of
almost 4 crore people and hope to survive. There have already been cries of market dictatorship and
loss of democracy from sections of the political leadership. Any decision that is taken, has to be taken
after a lot of thought and sufficient amount of debate.
LAND REFORMS WISELY CONCEIVED POORLY EXECUTED
Land Reforms is an integrated process to enhance the productivity of land by improving the economic
conditions of farmers and tenants so that they may have the incentive to invest in and improve agriculture and
thereby ensure distributive justice and create an egalitarian society by eliminating all forms of exploitation.
Article 46 of the Indian Constitution confers the duty upon the states to promote economic interests
of weaker sections and prevent them from social injustice and all forms of exploitation.- The ultimate
aim of Land Reforms in India is to confer the rights of ownership to tenants to the larger possible
extent, in order to ensure social justice.
Land Reforms is an integrated process to enhance the productivity of land by improving the
economic conditions of farmers and tenants so that they may have the incentive to invest in and
improve agriculture and thereby ensure distributive justice and create an egalitarian society by
eliminating all forms of exploitation. It is meant to create a system of peasant proprietorship with the
motto of land to the tiller and to transfer the income of the few to many so that the demand for
consumer goods could be created.
The basic purpose of the Land Reforms is to make more rational use of the scarce land resource
by affecting conditions of holding, imposing ceilings on land holdings so that cultivation can be done
in the most economical manner without any waste of labour and capital. It is also a means of
redistributing agricultural land in favour of the less privileged classes. It also aims at improving the
terms and conditions on which the land is held for cultivation by the actual tillers. The land reforms
have the following objectives: (a) the abolition of intermediaries and bringing the actual cultivator in direct contact with the state;
(b) the regulation of rent and provision of security of tenure of tenants and sharecroppers with the
ultimate objective of conferring ownership rights on them;
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(c) the imposition of land ceiling on agricultural land holdings and distribution of surplus land to
landless agricultural workers and small land holders, in order to bring about a more equitable
distribution of land;
(d) the agrarian reorganization including consolidation of holdings and prevention of subdivision
and fragmentation; and
(e) the maintenance and updating of the land records;
(f) to protect the interests of tribalsih land and to prevent non-tribals to encroach upon tribal
lands.
Only a few intermediaries have left, like Devasthan in Maharashtra, service jagirdars in Odisha,
and communidades in Goa. The security of tenure to tenants has been given in all states. The declared
surplus land has however, not been taken into possession fully due to litigation. The distribution of the
ownership of the land holdings remains unequal with nearly three quarters of the land being owned by
one quarter of the land owning households.
Further, the number of marginal farmers as well as landless farm workers has significantly
increased even as there has also been a decline in the number of self -employed, in relation to causal
labour, in the structure of the rural work force. The average value of assets (excluding land) per rural
household is estimated to have increased from Rs.1655 in 1971 to Rs.2236 in 1981 (at 1971 prices).
But at the bottom, 30 per cent of the rural households continued to hold only 4 per cent of the assets
in 1981-82 and the share of top 30 per cent increased to 78 per cent. The case of West Bengal shows
how clearly even relatively limited land reforms and distribution of vested land can play very important
role in improving agricultural productivity, generating a range of complementary economic activities in
the countryside, and generally enabling a small-producer led growth at least for some time.
In large parts of the country, the existing land records do not accurately portray the actual position
with respect to land holding and cultivation. The subdivision and fragmentation of holdings over
generations, consequent upon household division, are not reflected in the land records, which
sometimes continue to list the names of deceased holders, and so on. The problem is especially
acute in areas like Telengana. A fresh settlement of the revenue record is imperative.
This requires a major administrative drive to record the actual cultivators. While this has to be undertaken
by the state governments, but for doing it effectively they will have to seek the assistance of the
panchayats and other local agencies, since it could turn out to be a complicated process.
The increasing extent of tenancy in the states over the past few decades has been associated with a
shift away from sharecropping to fixed rent tenancy. Earlier, sharecropper tenancy dominated, with the
crop being shared on a 50:50 basis. The fixed rent systems are of two kinds: 1. Those which involve an
advance of working capital from the landlord. 2. Those, which involve no such advance. Tenant farmers
face a range of problems, they mostly stem from the lack of officials recognition of tenancy and the fact
that their status as actual cultivators is nowhere recorded.
This continues despite the fact that the Land Revenue Act 1999 stipulates that the names of tenants
should be recorded in the revenue records. This lack of recognition effectively denies tenant farmers
all access to institutional finance, such as bank credit and crop insurance.
Apart from this, they cannot benefit from any of the government schemes directed to farmers, or get
any assistance or compensation at time of natural calamity, since such benefits go to the registered
owner of the land. Nor do they receive any of the free or subsidised inputs which are distributed to the
owner cultivators by the state government. The inputs include seeds, subsidised fertilisers, pesticides
and implements.
IMPORTANT MEASURES
The Central government has brought all land reform laws under the Ninth Schedule of the
Constitution to expedite the smooth distribution of surplus land enmeshed in litigations. The Centre
has already initiated five ways to increase pace of land reforms, they are:
All land free from encumbrances has been distributed largely.
Efforts should be made to expedite pending litigations from the revenue courts and necessary steps
taken to expedite disposal of cases pending in the High Courts and the Supreme Court, so that more
surplus land is available for distribution.
Setting up of Tribunals under Article 323 (B) of the Constitution for expeditious disposal of pending
litigations should be linked with the ceiling laws. Alternatively, special benches should be created in
the High Courts.
All tenants and sharecroppers are brought on record and ownership rights conferred on them.
Loopholes should be plugged in existing laws to effectively check the alienation of tribal and to restore
possession of already alienated land. The confusion over Land Reforms must go.
DESCRIPTIVE ENGLISH
40

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