1.

Chavin,Moche,NazcapredecessorsoftheInca
Culturalpatternsofeach
o Architecture
Chavin:
Builtearthquakeproofhouses
Ritualmanipulationofwater(Castilloroaring)
Moche:
HuacadelSol
HuacadelaLuna
Nazca:
Particularlyfamousforitsdesertmarkingsandgrounddrawingsthatoccupythepampaflatsbetweenthe
riverstributaries.Calledgeoglyphs,theywerecreatedbybrushingawayandremovingtheupper,dar,
oxidizeddesertsedimentstoexposelower,lightercoloredsurfaces.
o Geoglyphstwokinds:
Billboards(onhillsides)werereadilyvisibletopasserbys
Flatsurfaces(ritualpathways).
o Ceramics(pottery)whatkind,howwasitmade,whatwasitusedfor.(mochehadportraitpots)(rarepotterywasthesexually
explicitones)
Chavin:
Chavn'selaborateiconographyisfoundonhammeredgoldandtextilesaswellasonceramics,stone
sculptureandclayfriezes.
Chavniconographyrepresentsanunprecedentedunificationofpreviouslyheterogeneousgroups,yetwithout
totalculturalhomogenization.
Incontrast,textilesoftheChavnhorizondonotdisplayregionaldistinctionsintechnologyorstyle,andare
thereforeanexcellenthorizonmarkerinareasofgoodpreservation.
Moche:
Mochepotteryissomeofthemostvariedintheworld.
Theuseofmoldtechnologyisevident.
Mocheceramicsvarywidelyinshapeandtheme,withmostimportantsocialactivitiesdocumentedin
pottery,includingwar,metalwork,weavingandsex.
Becauseirrigationwasthesourceofwealthandfoundationoftheempire,theMochecultureemphasizedthe
importanceofcirculationandflow.Expandinguponthis,Mocheartworkfrequentlydepictedthepassageof
fluids,particularlylifefluidsthroughvulnerablehumanorifices.Therearecountlessimagesofdefeated
warriorslosinglifefluidsthroughtheirnose,orhelplessvictimsgettingtheireyestornoutbybirdsor
captors.Imagesofcaptivesexslaveswithgapingorificesandleakingfluidsportrayextremeexposure,
humiliation,andalossofpower.
TherealisticdetailinMocheceramicsmayhavehelpedthemserveasdidacticmodels.Oldergenerations
couldpassdowngeneralknowledgeaboutreciprocityandembodimenttoyoungergenerationsthroughsuch
portrayals.
Thesexpotscouldteachaboutprocreation,sexualpleasure,culturalandsocialnorms,asortofimmortality,
andtransferoflifeandsouls,transformation,andtherelationshipbetweenthetwocyclicalviewsofnature
andlife.
Nazca:TheNazcapotterysequencehasbeendividedintoninephases.
VisualdepictionsfoundonpotteryfromPhase1(alsocalledProtoNazca)incorporatedrealisticsubject
mattersuchasfruits,plants,people,andanimals.
Realismincreasedinimportanceinthefollowingthreephases(2,3,4)referredtoastheMonumentalphases.
Thepotteryfromthesephasesincluderenditionsoftheirmainsubjectmatteragainstaboldred,black,or
whitebackground.
InNazca5,considerableexperimentationoccurred,includingtheadditionofrays,volutes,andother
"proliferous"attachmentstothesupernaturalmotifsonthevessels.Phase5iscalledTransitional,sinceit
bridgesthechangeinstylebetweenthenaturalismofPhases24andtheproliferouselementsaddedtothe
motifsinPhases6and7.
Nazca6and7includesomeoftheearliermotifsbutalsoemphasizesmilitaristicones,suggestingashiftin
socialorganization.Themotifsinthesephasesincludeabstractelementsaspartofthedesign.Largenumbers

ofraysandtasselsareappendedtomanyofthedesigns,particularlythosedepictingmythicalsubjects,
producingavisualimpressionofalmostinfinitelymultipliedelements,animpressionwhichaccountsforthe
useoftheterm'proliferous'artfoundonpotteryinrelationtoNazcaphases6and7alsodisplayaninfluence
fromtheMochecultureofnorthcoastalPeru.
Nazca8sawtheintroductionofcompletelydisjointedfiguresandageometriciconographywhichisdifficult
todecipher.Phases8and9arenowbelievedtodatetotheMiddleHorizon,reflectingashiftinpowerfrom
thecoasttothehighlandswiththeadventoftheWaricultureabout650CE
Agriculturaladvancesspecifictocertainareas(nazcaplains,highlands)
Chavin:
TheChavinpeoplewereabletodomesticateanimalssuchasllamas,whichwereusedaspackanimalsfor
fiberandmeat.Thellamascarriedheavyloadsoverhills,helpingtheChavinreachtheirhighaltitudecrops,
suchaspotatoes.Theyusedthemeatfromtheseanimalsfortrade,andprovedtobeamajoreconomicsource
fortheChavinpeople.
TheChavinalsodevelopedanagriculturalsystemtogrowcropssuchasmaizeonthelowlandsthrough
irrigation/canalsandterracing.Asfarashistoriansknow,itwasmostcommonforChavintobewellskilled
inagriculturaltechniques.
Moche:
Inadditiontothecanalsandaqueducts,architecturalelementsofMochesocietyincludedlargemonumental
pyramidshapedarchitecturecalledhuacas,whichwereapparentlypartlytemples,palaces,administrative
centers,andritualmeetingplaces.Thehuacaswerelargeplatformmounds,builtofthousandsofadobe
bricks,andsomeofthemtoweredhundredsoffeetabovethevalleyfloor.Ontopofthetallestplatforms
werelargepatios,roomsandcorridors,andahighbenchfortheseatoftheruler.MostoftheMochecenters
hadtwohuacas,onelargerthantheother.BetweenthetwohuacascouldbefoundtheMochecities,
includingcemeteries,residentialcompounds,storagefacilitiesandcraftworkshops.Someplanningofthe
centersisevident,sincethelayoutoftheMochecentersareverysimilar,andorganizedalongstreets.
OrdinarypeopleatMochesiteslivedinrectangularadobebrickcompounds,whereseveralfamiliesresided.
Withinthecompoundswereroomsusedforlivingandsleeping,craftworkshops,andstoragefacilities.
HousesatMochesitesaregenerallymadeofwellstandardizedadobebrick.Somecaseofshapedstone
foundationsareknowninhillslopelocations:theseshapedstonestructuresmaybeofhigherstatus
individuals,althoughmoreworkneedstobecompleted.
Nazca:
Grewcotton(aninedibleplant).
TheRioNazcaisformedby8shortdrainagesthatcutacrossawide,flatcoastalpampaandthenconvergeto
formasinglechannelleadingtothesea.Limitedrunofffromthesestreambedsrestrictedfarmingtoupper
regionsofindividualdrainagesandresultedinaseriesofseparateoasesratherthananagriculturallyunified
valley.Habitationsitesandsmallvillageswerefrequentlylocatedonterracedhillsidesadjacenttoirrigated
floorplains.Theseparateareasofsurfaceflowwerereclaimedearlyonandsettlementsclusteredalongthe
drainagesaboveandbelowtheirdrymidpoints.
Militaryadvances
Chavin:
Moche:
Nazca:
Roadandbridgesystems
IncanRoadSystem
Usedforvarietyofpurposes:toprovidetransportationaswellastoprovidemanymilitaryandreligious
purposes
Usedchasqui(runners)forrelayingmessagesthroughouttheempireandllamasandalpacasfortransporting
goods.Estimatedtohaveranasmuchas240kilometersperdayandwereinchargeofdeliveringeverything
fromnewstolightweightgoods
Tampus(waystations)wereusedasrestingplacesforchasquisasthemadetheirjourneys.Thesestructures
providedwater,supplies,andshelter.Alsohadsuppliesformilitarythatwereheadedintobattle
Roads,trailsandbridgeswereessentialtothepoliticalcohesionoftheIncastateandtotheredistributionof
goodswithinit.
o VerticalarchipelagosystemwasthebasisfortradethroughouttheIncaempire.Differentsectionsof

theempirehaddifferentresources
MilitaryUsage:Roadsprovidedeasy,reliable,andquickroutesfortheEmpire/scivilianandmilitary
communications,personnelmovement,andlogisticalsupport.Primeuserswereimperialsoldiers,porters,
andllamacaravans,alongwithnobilityandindividualsonofficialduty
o Qollcas,storagehousesforfoodsintheeventofconflictorshortages,wereusedbythemilitaryand
weresituatedalongtheroads.
Religion:InIncansociety,themountainswereobjectsofworship..theIncasheldmanyrituals,includingthe
sacrificeofchildren,goods,andllamas,atthetopsofmountains.TheonlywayforIncanstoreachsummits
forworshipwasbyconstructingroads.
ManyIncaroadswentthousandsoffeetabovesealevel.
Bridges:
o Incaropebridges:providedaccessacrossnarrowvalleys
o Raftswereusedtocrosswide,meanderingrivers
o ItwasdifficultforIncanstoobtainwoodandlaborersoftenhadtobringlumberfromverycar
away.
Inplaceswithnotimber,bridgesweremadefromropesmadeofstrawandgrasses.Ifthe
bridgesweremadefromrope,theyhadtobereplacedeverytwoyears.Ifmadefromwood,
theywerereplacedevery8years.
Chavin:Pavedroads,reallyjustwalkways,thatwerewideenoughfortwopeople,connectedalltheirmainvillagesto
theirsmallvillages.
Moche:
Nazca:

Majorsites
o HuacadelSol
LocatedattheMocheCapitalofCerroBlanco
Wasanexpressionofpoweranddefinedtheapexofregionalhierarchy.Onlylessthanhalfoftheoriginalmonument
survives,theplanofHuacadelSolonceformedagiantcrosswithitsfronttothenorth.
Believedtobetheimperialpalaceandthemausoleumfortheheadsofstate.
Wasbuiltinsegmentswithmorethan100millionbricksusedinconstruction.
Eachworkforce(mita)putdistinctivesymbolsormakersmarkontheirbricks.Therearemorethan100different
makersmarksknowntoday.WashydraulicallyminedbytheSpanishwhodivertedtheRioMochetoreachtherich
tombsofHuacadelSol.CauseoftheSpanishmining,lessthanhalfoftheoriginalmonumentsurvives.
Withitsdearthofmurals,seemsmoreofahuacasepulturewheretheheadsofstatelivedandwereinterred.
o HuacadelaLuna
ContemporouswithHuacadelSol,locatedintheMochecapitalofCeroBlanco
Isacomplexofthreeplatformsthatwereonceinterconnectedandenclosedbyhighadobewalls
Richlyornamentedwithpolychromemurals,thenorthernmoundwaslargelydestroyedbylooters
ThesmallsouthernplatformwastheceremonialstageforritualsthataredepictedinMocheiconographythatshow
themountaintopsacrificeofcaptivewarriorswhosemutilatedbodieswerethenflungdownhill.Thelargecentral
platformheldspacioussummitcourtsthatwereembellishedwithdazzlingpolychromemurals.
ArecurringmotifintheHuacadelLunawasalargesupernaturalwithmarkedcanineteethcalledayapecandother
werepanelsdepictingspiderlikecreatures,anthromorphucbeings,andtheparadingofcaptivewarriors.Huacadela
Lunawasprimarilyanimperialhuacaadoratorio(sanctuariesandtemplesfortheadorationofdivinities)andhomeof
thegods.Somehighstatusburialswereinterred
o ChavindeHuantar
AceremonialcenterthathadacomplexofmasonrybuildingsknownastheCastillo.
Hadasmallpopulationaspeoplecameforpilgrimageorritual/ceremonial/puposes.
TheCastillowasnoremarkableinsizebutwasknownforitsengineering,finemasonry,andstoneart.
TheCastilloisengineeredinawaythataquarteroftheCastilloishollowandoccupiedbyalabyrinthofnarrow
galleries,roofedbygreatslabsofstone.Containedaanelaboratemazeofsmalldrainsandventsthatbyflushing
waterthroughthedrainsandventingthesoundintothechambersandthenoutagainthetemplecould,makearoaring
sound.
Eachsidewallofthecourtwasornamentedwithabandedmasonryfriezeofanthropomorphicfiguresabouta
processionofjaguars.

IntheOldTemplebuiltintothecenterofthecrossisanimposingstella,TheLanzon,whichdepictsa
smiling/snarlinggodwithahumanbodywhosefingersandtoesterminateinclaws,withlargebangledearspools,
andamarkedlyfelineface,withsnakesashair.
UnderahiddenfloorstoneintheroomabovetheLanzon,anunseenpersoncouldspeakforthedeity.Thisaidedin
thebeliefoftheLanzonwasanOraclewhospoketoindividualswhogainedaccesstotheinnersanctum.ThisLanzon
beganacultthatspreadthroughouttheregion(around500BC)andtheCastillogrewaswellwiththeconstructionof
theNewTempleandornamentedwithsplendidartworkofstone.TheLanzonrepresentedsynergisticpowersandthe
twoelaboratevara,onestaffineachhandrepresenttheunitingthedualspheresofAndeansocietyandcosmos(social
andcosmicunity)

Cuzco
CuzcowasamongthegreatestwondersoftheancientNewWorld.FortheInca,itwasthesacredcenterofthe
universe.Accordingly,theylavishedenormousresourcesonembellishmentandconstruction.Fromeachofthedistant
fourquartersofTahuantinsuyu,agreathighwayconvergedhere.
Cuzcowasstructuredbyprinciplesofdualorganization.Ratherthanmonarchy,diarchyordualruleprevailed.
IncaloreassociatesthetransformationofCuzcointoamonumentalcapitalwiththenameofPachacuti.
Althoughthenamecoulddesignateeitheraruleroranofficeofrule,theloreoutlinesathreefoldsuccessionof
eventsthatseemshistoricallyplausible:theIncansconsolidatedtheirhomeland,expandedittotheTiticacaBasin,and
theircitywasremadeinimperialcorporatestyle.Excavationshaverevealedacomplexsystemoffinelycutstone
channelsanddrainssuggestingritualmanipulationofwater.
MacchuPichu
MachuPicchuwasbuiltaround1450,attheheightoftheIncaEmpire.TheconstructionofMachuPicchuappearsto
datefromtheperiodofthetwogreatIncas,PachacutecIncaYupanqui(143871)andTupacIncaYupanqui(1472
93).
ServedasaroyalestatepopulatedbytherulingIncaandseveralhundredservants
Itwasabandonedjustover100yearslater,in1572,asabelatedresultoftheSpanishConquest.Itispossiblethat
mostofitsinhabitantsdiedfromsmallpoxintroducedbytravelersbeforetheSpanishconquistadorsarrivedinthe
area.ThetypesofsacredrocksdefacedbytheconquistadorsinotherlocationsareuntouchedatMachuPicchu.
Sipan
MochecapitalintheNorthernAndeanrange.

2.Terms

Huaca:usedtorefertosomethingorsomeonethatissacredorholy
o SapaIncaareconsideredhuaca.Alsousedtorefertosacredritual,thestateofbeingafterdeath,oranysacredobject

SapaInca:wastheruleroftheKingdomofCuscoandeventuallytheInca.
o FirstSapaIncawasMancoCapac,afterhecametopowerbyconvincingpeoplehewasthesonoftheSunGod(Inti)
o SaraIncasarebelievetobehuacaandanythingtheytouchbecomeshuacasotheyarecarriedeverywhereonalitter
o Usuallydonottellwhotheirheirwillbe,sotheirsonsfight/battle/gotowarwitheachothertobecomethenextSapaInca.
Whentheydie,hismummyistreatedasifhewasstillalive,andattimesthemummieswouldbebroughtout.
o Aproperburial/mummificationwascrucialforthesoultocontinueonintotheafterlife

Mita:AMochesystem/servicethatwasanannualdrafttoextractlaborfromablebodiedmen(ageof15).
o Ancientformoftributethatembracedactivitiesrangingfromworkonconstructionprojects(buildtemples,maketheroads,
resculptenvironment)toparticipationinmilitarycampaigns.MitagaveTahuantinsuyualaborintensiveeconomyseeninthe
monumentalsplendorofHuacadelSol,orCuzco.

Inti:SunGodandconnectedwithCuzco.Cuzcowasthebelievedhomeofthegodandhewasthesacredpatronofthecityandits
empire.
o Goldwashisessence.ImagesofhimareinanopulentsanctuarytheCoricanchaorHouseoftheSun.HeadedtheIncas
hierarchicalpantheonandhisoriginalhomeshrinewastheRockoftheSun,astoneoutcropontheIslandoftheSunin
LakeTiticaca.

Allyu:theautonomousunitofproductionandreproductionisanallianceofhouseholdsandkindredthatexchangelaborandjointlyown
landandotherresources.

o
o
o
o
o

Isaninstitutionthatisnotsimplyagroupofpeopleofpeople,property,andthings.itisanorganizationalcharterthatallows
problemsofdifferentscopeandscaletobeaddressedbyfolkcollectivesofvariablesizeandinclusiveness.
Basedondescentandemphasizeunity,duality,hierarchy,andreplicativeorganization.
Membersofallyucollectivelyheldandmanagedpastureland,farmland,canals,water,andotherassets.
IsfurthersplitbyamoietyorganizationintoHananandHurin.
Womengenerallymoveintohusbandsmoietywhentheymarry.Followsaruleofexogamy.

Pachamama:MotherEarthgoddessforprettymuchallAndeancivilizations.
o Shereceivesofferingsandprayersonallagriculturaloccasionsbyallwhotillthesoil.
o Wateristhelifebloodofmotherearth

Tambo/u:stophousefortravelersontheroad.
o Distancesbetweentamboareonedayoftraveling
o Alsoactedasastorehouseincaseofadisaster

Tumi:Decapitator
o Symbolicandnotusedifitwasmadeoutofgoldorsilver

Orejoneslikeearspoolsbutwereeardrops
o WereusedasindicatorsofsomethinggreatyoudidfortheSapaIncalikeamedal,usuallywornbylownobles.

Tinku:Quechuatermwhichreferstothejoiningoftwotoformone.
o Wasusedasaritualofunity(socialfissionwasmediated)betweenpeopleofdifferentsocialclasses,moieties,ordecent
groups.
o HistoricallyTinkuritualsunitepeoplebyreleasingtensionsthroughfiercecompetitionorbloodyritualbattles.
o Combativetankritualsinvolvedcombatbetweenanequalnumberofpeoplefromeachsocialdivision/classandinsomecases,
whentherearejusttwocombatantstheyduelhandtohandeachwithalargestone.
o Tinkuetiquettedemandstoastinganddrinking(chichabeerandritualintoxications)andspeakinformalordergovernedby
status.Liquorisgivenoutinridiculousquantitiesduringtheceremoniesthatcanlastforseveraldays.

Tahuatinsuyu(LandoftheFourCorners)anditsdivisions:NameoftheIncanEmpire
o Fourquarters:
North(Chinchasuyu),
West(Contisuyu),
East(Antisuyu),
South(Collasuyu)thelargestquarteranddenselysettleddownnearLakeTiticaca.BecamethefirsttargetoftheInca
Conquest
o BecameanempireunderPachacutiInca(thoughtofastherealcreatoroftheIncanEmpire)whowasthe9thSapaInca,after
hefinishedconqueringthepeopleinChavinlandscalledChimo
CameupwiththeidealmapofTahuatinsuyu
o PachacutiIncaexpandedthesizeoftheempirebyofferingtheotherleadersluxurygoods(suchastextiles)andwouldthen
havetheirchildrencomelearnandliveinCuzcotolearntobeIncaandwouldthenreturntotheirnativelandstogovern.
o HadallroadsintheempireleadtoCuzcoandviewedCuzcoassacred
o StructureditaccordingtoAndeancosmologicalprinciples.
o PachacutiIncassonisTupacInca

Kurakas:Hereditarynoblesthatweretheheadsofmoietiesorfamilylineage.
o Kurakasandtheiroffspringformedaseparate,hereditaryclassofpeoplewhomarriedamongthemselves.
o Thisseparateclasswasorganizedinallyulikeprinciplesofancestry,duality,andhierarchy.
o Kurakasruledasintermediariesbetweenheavenandearthbyclaimingitonthebasisofspecialdescent.
o SmallAllyusclaimedcloserkinshipwithhuacaoraputhenwiththeirsubjects.ThelordsofCuzcorituallyinitiatedand
supervisedtheannualagropastoralcyclewhilethemorehumblekurakasofsmallallyusdirectedsimilarscheduling,while
alsomediatingdisputesandallocatingtheuseofland,water,andothercollectiveassets.
o Inreturn,allyumembersworkedfortheirleadersbyweavingcloth,tendingthefieldsandherds,andotherservices.Leaders
weresupposedtobehospitableandgenerous,plyingtheirsubjectswithfood,anddrinkonritualoccasions,andrewarding

specialservicewithclothorothergifts.
Nobleswereexpectedtokeepnatureonanevenkeelandwhentherewasadisaster,kurakaswereresponsible.

CargoSystem:internallygovernedofficehierarchieswithreligiousandcivilpoststhatgovernallyus.
o Religiouscargosorganizeannualobservationsandritualsofhuacasandgods.Eachmoietyhasitsownadministrative
hierarchyandcargopostsarefilledonarotationbasisforayearorso.
o CargoregimesarealsocalledprestigehierarchiesEachimportantcargopostissymbolizedbyadistinctceremonialstaffor
varawhichhashuacalikeessenceareimportantemblemsofauthorityinancienticonography,buttheyareoftenwieldedby
deitiesorbynobleswhoinheritedtheirprivilegedrank.

3.TheoriesCarniero8(waristhereasonforcivilization/,Childe(urbanization,agriculture,plannedcropping),Wittfogel(irrigationand
applicationstoSouthAmericancivilizations
Moche
Chavin
Nazca
Inca
4.Environment
Coastaldesert
o Lessthan10%ofdesertcanbefarmedbecauseagricultureisdependentuponirrigation
Irrigationofthedesertwithrunofffromtheruggedmountainsrequireslargecanalsystemsandlarge,coordinated
laborforces
Highlandrunofftendstobeseasonal,whichcreatesanagriculturalcyclewithnonproductivetimesoccupiedbycanal
cleaningandmaintenance

Andeanadaptationsculturalandphysical
o TheIncancivilizationwaspredominantlyanagriculturalsociety.TheIncastookadvantageofthesoil,overcomingthe
adversitiesoftheAndeanterrainandweather
TheadaptationofagriculturaltechnologiesthathadbeenusedpreviouslyallowedtheIncastoorganizeproductionof
adiverserangeofcropsfromthecoast,mountains,andjungleregions,whichtheywerethenabletheredistributeto
villagesviatheIncanRoadsystem.
Mainmanualtools:
Chakitaklla:humanpoweredfootploughthatconsistsofawoodenpolewithacurvedsharppoint,often
madeofstoneormetal.Acrosstheendofthispolewasanotherwoodencrossbarwherethefarmercouldput
hisfoottosinkitintotheearthtoproduceafurrow
Rawkana:ahoewithathinsheetofwood,usedtoharvesttubers,removeweeds,andsowsmallseeds
Waqtana:clodbuster
o MountainLife:dependeduponherdingandfarmingconcurrently
Fewcroptypeswouldgrowinheightsandlargepopulationsofthemountainsrequiredlargequantitiesofbasic
commoditiesfromthelowlands:marinesalt,seaweed,fish,fruit,beans,maize,coca,andcotton
Altiplanolandssurroundinghighaltitudecommunitiesreceivesufficientseasonalrainfalltosustaincultivationof
potatoesandchenopodgrains(quinoa)
Storageisimportantbecauseonlyonegoodharvestevery34years
Potatoeswerefreezedriedincavesandstoredfortimesofuncertainty
Becausemountainsoilsareshallowandpoorlydeveloped,cropsneedtoberotatedfrequently.
Fertilizedsoilwithalpacaandllamadung.Herdsalsoprovidedwool,servedaspackanimals,andwere
slaughteredandsundriedtomakecharqui(jerky)
Alternativecropsweregrownonirrigatedterraces
Lowervillageholdingswerealsoworkedtoproducecommoditieslikeiodinerichmarineproducts,cocaleaves
(chewedtorelievehighaltitudefatigue,richincalciumandvitaminB),andmaizeforbrewingchichibeer.
Dependingonlocation,theseholdingsrangedfroma210daytrekawayandmayhavebeenseasonallyor
permanentlyoccupiedbyafewindividualsoranumberoffamilies
CulturalAdaptations
Workingatdifferentlevelsspreadsrisksandrewards.

Becausepeopleneededtobescatteredamongstthelandinordertoprovidefortheparent
community,relationshipswereimportantforacommunitytosticktogether.
o Distantcolonistsretainedfullprivelegesofmembershipintheirhomecommunities,andthese
communitiesdecidedbasicmatterssuchaspastureallocationsandwhichlandsweretobefarmed
andallocated.
Ashighlandpopulationsgrewinsizeandlowelevationdomesticatesgrewindiversity,thestrategyof
securingdirectcontrolofforeignholdingsappearedfirstatthehouseholdandcommunitylevel.Verticality
promotedlonglastingrelationshipsbetweenmajorsierrabasinsandloweradjacentdrainagesfeedinginto
thePacificand
MaritimeOasisAdaptations
MaritimeOasiswaysoflifereliedoneconomicspecializationndcommodityexchange
Fisherfolkusedsunkengardensalongthebeachestogrowbulrushreedsforwatercraft,cottonforfishnets
andlines,andgourdsfornetfloats.
o Foragriculturalstaples,theyexchangedmaritimeproductsforcropsfromfarmerswhodidnotfish.
Fishingandfarmingremainedseparatewaysoflifebecausetheyinvolveddifferentrisks,tiedtodifferentcycles,andinvolved
differentbeliefs
Lunar:governingtidesandfishmovements
Solar:governingprecipitationandplantgrowths
o

5.Articles:
LordofSipan:
o LordsofSipan:believedtobewarriorpriestswhoreenactedacomplexsacrificialceremonyatprescribedtimesoftheyear,
whenprisonersofwarweresacrificedtothegods.
o Whenlordsdied,theywereplacedinagravewearingtheformalregaliaandobjectstheyusedinthesacrificialceremonies.
Theirsuccessorsassumedtheirroles,wearingnewsetsofthesamecostumesandartifacts,notonlyperpetuatingtheofficial
religion,butalsoguaranteeingworkforthedozensofskilledartisanswhomanufacturedpreciousobjectsforthenobility.
o Sipanburialsareremarkablefortheirsophisticatedartifacts(ie:pictureinclass)
o Burialchamberwasactuallyaroomwithsolidmudbrickbenchesalongitssidesandattheheadend.ThePlankcoffinwas
placedinthecenterofthisarea,alignedparalleltothesidewalls.Thecontentsofthecoffinwerethenplacedinsideitandthe
coffinlidwassecurelyfastenedwithcopperstraps.
Hundredsofceramicvesselswereloweredintoburialchamber.Theceramicswerepredominantlymoldmadejars,
sculptedintheformofnudeprisonerswithropesaroundtheirnecks,warriorsholdingwarclubsandshields,and
seatedfigureswiththeirhandsontheirkneesandchests.
Chamberalsohadtwosacrificedllamasputonthefloor,oneoneachsideadjacenttothefootofthecoffin.Thebody
ofachildwasalsoplacedonthefloorneartheheadofthecoffin.
Fivecancoffinseachcontaininganadultwerealsoloweredintotomb.Oneofthesecoffinshadthebodyofanadult
malewiththeleftfootmissing.Thisbodymayhavebeenanopponentinoneononecombat.
Incombat,defeatisindicatedbytheenemyreceivingablowtotheheadorupperbodywithawarclub,
resultinginprofusebleedingfromthenose,losinghisheaddressandpossiblyotherpartsofattire,orbythe
victorgraspinghishair,removinghisnoseornament,orslappinghisface.Onceanenemywasdefeated,
someorallofhisclothingwasremoved,aropewasplacedaroundhisneck,andhishandsweretiedbehind
hisback.Hisclothingandweaponsweretiedtothevictorswarclubandslungoverhisshoulder.Thevictor
heldtheropediedtotheprisonersneckandforcedtheprisonertowalkinfrontofhim,publiclyparading
hisvictory.
Prisonerswereultimatelytakentoaplacewheretheywereformallyarraignedbeforeahighstatus
individual.Followingarraignment,therewasaceremonyinwhichtheprisonersweresacrificedbyhaving
theirthroatscutandtheirbloodconsumedbypriestsandattendants.Theprisonersbodieswerethen
dismembered.
MocheArtrepresentationsofSacrificeCeromonies:
o OfthefourprincipalpriestswhoparticipateintheSacrificeCeremony,mostimportantisthe
WarriorPriest,whoholdsatallgoblet.Raysemanatefromhisheadandshouldersandhewearsa
conicalhelmetwithacrescentshapedornamentatitspeak,acrescentshapednoseornament,large
circularearornaments,andawarriorbackflap.Adogisalwaysadjacenttohisfeet.
o TotherightofWarriorPriestisBirdPriest,whoispartbirdandparthumanandisalwaysshown

wearingeitheraconicalhelmetoraheaddresswithanowlatitscenter.
TotherightofBirdPriestisPriestess,whoalwayswearsadresslikegarmentandaheaddresswith
twoprominentplumes.Hairiswrappedinbraidsthathangdownoverherchestandendinserpent
heads.
o TotherightofPriestessisapriestwhoalwayswearsaheaddresswithlongstreamerswithserrated
upperedges,andasashlikegarmentwithfringeofdisksattheend.Hisheaddressisahalfcircle
ofsheetmetalwithananimalface,perhapsafeline,embossednearitscenter.
Ofthefive,threeothercoffinscontainedadultfemales,oneofthemmissingherfoot.Theirskeletalremains
suggestedthattheydiedlongbeforetheprincipalfigureandthattheirbodieswerepartiallydecomposedatthetime
theywereputinhistomb.Theywerepossiblyhiswives,concubines,orservants.
o

CollisionatCajamarca:OnNovember16,1532,FranciscoPizarro,theSpanishexplorerandconquistador,springsatraponthe
Incanemperor,Atahualpa.Withfewerthan200menagainstseveralthousand,PizarroluresAtahualpatoafeastintheemperor'shonor
andthenopensfireontheunarmedIncans.Pizarro'smenmassacretheIncansandcaptureAtahualpa,forcinghimtoconvertto
Christianitybeforeeventuallykillinghim.
o Pizarro'stimingforconquestwasperfect.By1532,theIncaEmpirewasembroiledinacivilwarthathaddecimatedthe
populationanddividedthepeople'sloyalties.Atahualpa,theyoungersonofformerIncanrulerHuaynaCapac,hadjust
deposedhishalfbrotherHuascarandwasinthemidstofreunitinghiskingdomwhenPizarroarrivedin1531,withthe
endorsementofSpain'sKingCharlesV.OnhiswaytotheIncancapital,Pizarrolearnedofthewarandbeganrecruiting
soldiersstillloyaltoHuascar.
o PizarrometAtahualpajustoutsideCajamarca,asmallIncantowntuckedintoavalleyoftheAndes.Sendinghisbrother
Hernanasanenvoy,PizarroinvitedAtahualpabacktoCajamarcaforafeastinhonorofAtahualpa'sascendancetothethrone.
Thoughhehadnearly80,000soldierswithhiminthemountains,Atahualpaconsentedtoattendthefeastwithonly5,000
unarmedmen.HewasmetbyVicentedeValverde,afriartravelingwithPizarro.WhilePizarro'smenlayinwait,Valverde
urgedAtahualpatoconvertandacceptCharlesVassovereign.Atahualpaangrilyrefused,promptingValverdetogivethe
signalforPizarrotoopenfire.Trappedintightquarters,thepanickingIncansoldiersmadeeasypreyfortheSpanish.Pizarro's
menslaughteredthe5,000Incansinjustanhour.PizarrohimselfsufferedtheonlySpanishinjury:acutonhishandsustained
ashesavedAtahualpafromdeath.
o RealizingAtahualpawasinitiallymorevaluablealivethandead,Pizarrokepttheemperorincaptivitywhilehemadeplansto
takeoverhisempire.Inresponse,Atahualpaappealedtohiscaptors'greed,offeringthemaroomfullofgoldandsilverin
exchangeforhisliberation.Pizarroconsented,butafterreceivingtheransom,PizarrobroughtAtahualpauponchargesof
stirringuprebellion.Bythattime,AtahualpahadplayedhispartinpacifyingtheIncanswhilePizarrosecuredhispower,and
Pizarroconsideredhimdisposable.AtahualpawastobeburnedatthestaketheSpanishbelievedthistobeafittingdeathfor
aheathenbutatthelastmoment,Valverdeofferedtheemperorclemencyifhewouldconvert.Atahualpasubmitted,onlyto
beexecutedbystrangulation.ThedaywasAugust29,1533.
o FightingbetweentheSpanishandtheIncaswouldcontinuewellafterAtahualpa'sdeathasSpainconsolidateditsconquests.
Pizarro'sboldvictoryatCajamarca,however,effectivelymarkedtheendoftheIncaEmpireandthebeginningofthe
EuropeancolonizationofSouthAmerica.

6.WhatreallycollidedatCajamarca?
Religion
7.ComparisonofIncatoAztecandconsequencesofcontactwithSpanish.
ConquestofAztecs:
o HernanCorteswantedtoconquerMexicotogainwealthforSpainandtheKingCharlesV.HewantedtoincreaseSpanish
territory,spreadChristianity,andgainpersonalwealth,gloryandpowerforhimself.
o TheAztecreligionsaidthatoneday,oneoftheirgodswouldreturnintheformofafairskinnedmanfromtheEast.
Montezuma,theAztecking,thoughtCortesmightbethatgodandwelcomedhimwithgoldandlavishgifts.Whenhe
arrivedinMexico,CortesfoundaSpanishprisonerwhocouldspeakMayandialectsandwasgivenanAztecgirlasaprize
whocouldspeaktheAztecdialectandMayanaswell,allowingCortestonowcommunicatewiththeAztec.
o ThelavishgiftsofMontezumaandhiswarningstoCortestostayawayfueledtheSpanishdesiretoconquerthecity.Upon
arrivalinthecity,theSpanishwereimpressedwiththegrandeurandrichesoftheAzteccapital,buthorrifiedbythe
barbarismandcrueltyoftheAztecs.Cortesimmediatelydecidedtoputastoptothecannibalismandhumansacrificeand
endthereignofatyrant.
o Cortesandhismenarewelcomedintothecity,butfearinganattack,CortestakesMontezumaprisonerinhisownpalace.
Afterseveralmonths,theAztecpeopleriotedandkilledMontezuma.Cortesandmostofhismenescapedandreorganized

hisarmy.Afterathreemonthsiege,theAzteccapitalsurrenderedandwasdestroyed.
DespitethefactthattheSpanishhadasmallerforce,theywonbecauseofsuperiortechnology(steelweapons,guns,
horses),Indianallies(AztecswerehatedsoSpanisheasilyrecruitedhelpofothernatives,andEuropeandiseasewhich
devastatedtheAztecpopulation(Smallpox)
ConquestofInca
o FranciscoPizarrowantedtogainpersonalwealth,fameandgloryaswellandhadheardaboutaveryrichempireinPeru.He
travelledtoPeruin1526toexplore,contactedtheInca,andreturnedtoSpainwithgoldandsilver.KingCharlesV,impressed
bywhatPizarrobroughtback,agreedtofinanceanexpeditiontoattackandconquertheInca.PizarroreturnedtoPerutofind
theIncaweakenedduetocivilwarandasmallpoxepidemic.Heled160soldierstotheIncanhomeland,raidedIncan
storehouses,andfiredgunsatvillagers.
o Incanemperor,Atahualpa,thoughtPizarrowascrazy.SpanishmessengersinvitedAtahualpatoameeting.Heagreedandleft
mostofhisarmybehind,andbroughtonly5000bodyguards.PizarrossoldiersattackedtheIncaandkidnappedAtahualpa,
offeringtofreehimifhefilledoneroomwithgoldandonewithsilver.
o Atahualpakepthisendofthebargain,butPizarrostillkilledhim.
o EventhoughtheIncansfoughton,withinafewyearstheyfacedannihilationbecause:
SuperiorSpanishweapons,diseases,SpanishfightingexperiencefromfightingtheAztec,andtheSpanishworldview
(SpanishthoughtitwastheirdutytowipeoutnonChristians.
o

Studyallquizquestions.
1.

ExplainthevegetationalmetaphoranditsconnectiontoIncanburialpractices.
o

2.

HowdidthereligionofeachsideplayaroleintheeventsatCajamarca?
o TheSpanishthoughtthatitwastheirdutytospreadChristianityandtowipeoutnonChristians.Whenmeetingwith
Atahualpa,hehadhismenhiddenincorners.Atthemeeting,hetriedtoconvinceAtahualpatoconverttotheonetrue
religion,Catholicism.HeofferedAtahualpaaBible,claimingithadalltheanswers.Atahualpahadneverseenabooksohe
putitnexttohisearandwaitedforittogivehimthepromisedanswers,andwhenitdidnt,hethrewtheBibletotheground,
whichwasperceivedasanoffenceandanexcusetostarttheattack.
o Asransom,AtahualpaofferedPizarrowhatheknewhewouldlikebest,goldandsilver.Pizarroacceptedtheoffer,butnever
releasedAtahualpa.Inhisconfinement,Atahualpabegantofearthathewouldstrikeback,soheorderedtohavehimkilled.
TheSpaniardshadsimilarconcernsandafterforcingAtahualpatoconverttoChristianity,theykilledhim.

3.

WhatwastheMochemitasystem?HowisthisdocumentedinthebuildingofHuacadelSol?
o Mitadesignatesaturnoflaborandtheequalexchangeofwork.HuacadelSolreflectsmitalikelabororganizationwithits
segmentedconstruction.Whenanadobeplatformisviewedfromtheside,itcanbeseenthatthedistributionofbricksisnot
homogenous.Instead,themoundlookslikeavastloafofslicedsandwichbreadwithdistinctverticalseamsseparatingtall
slabsofbricks.Contiguousslabssimplyrestagainstoneanotherandarenotbonded.Segmentationisameansofsubdividing
constructionprojectsintothesamesortofrepetitivemodularunitsofworkthatcharacterizedmanyotherworksthroughout
Incantime.

4.

DescribetheLanzon.Whatdoesitrepresent?
o Slenderand4.5meterstall,thestoneisknifeshapedwiththebladepointembeddedinthefloorandanarrowtangprojecting
intotheceiling.Itdepictsabeingwithahumanbodyinsimpleattireandfingersandtoesterminatinginclaws.Earsadorned
withearspoolsarealsohuman,butthefaceisfeline.Thicklipssnarlupandbackattheircornersexposingtwotusklike
canineswhileeyebrowsandhairaredepictedassnakes.
o TheLanzonisinterpretedasaprincipaldeityoftheChavn,asanoraclewiththepowertospeakthroughaholeintheroofof
thechamber,orasasymboloftrade,fertility,dualismorhumankindsinteractionwithnature.
o TheLanzonishousedinthecentralcruciformchamberofalabyrinthineseriesofundergroundpassagesinChavnde
Huantar.Devoteeswouldbeledintothemazeoftunnelsandeventuallycomefacetofacewiththesculpturessnarlingmouth
andupturnedeyes.

5.

Describethetextiletaxationsystem.WhatwasthelinktotheKurakas

o Womenandmenweretaxedbybeingrequiredtospin,weave,andproduceclothandcord.Tohomeboundtaxpayers,the
governmentannuallygaveoutspecifiedquantitiesofrawfiber,cottonorwool.Thetextiletaxwasusedtorewardpeoplewith
valuedgoods(wealthfinance).Thekarakassoughttomonopolizeitemsofwealth.