Cristy Aragon

Spring 2005
EDGE Prejudice and Poverty

The Colombian Drug Trade:

A Greater Threat Than
Believed
Cristy Aragon
EDGE- Prejudice and Poverty
Spring 2005

Cristy Aragon
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EDGE Prejudice and Poverty
The Colombian Drug Trade: A Greater Threat Than Believed
On September 7, 2000, the Colombian National Police (CNP) seized a partially
constructed, steel-hulled submarine from a warehouse outside Bogot, Colombia, which, as the
police suspected, could have been used to transport up to 10 metric tons, worth $2 million, of
illicit drugs from Colombia to remote off-load sites in Latin America and the Caribbeanhad it
been completed.1 Colombias Department of Administrative Security says the submarine would
have been used to evade radar and naval patrol ships, taking drugs out to sea where they could be
transferred to high-speed motorboats for the journey to Central America and then on to the
United States.2 While this narco-sub was confiscated before being utilized, its
conceptualization and partial creation demonstrate the infinite resources and ingenuity of modern
drug traffickers. Colombian traffickers especially generate billions of dollars in revenues each
year, which have been increasingly used to purchase the best talent and technology available on
the world market. Despite the Drug Enforcement Administrations (DEA) belief that possible
drug submarines pose only a limited threat to interdiction forces, they cannot deny that
Colombian drug traffickers are devising clever strategies to evade eradication efforts and
maintain their billion dollar illicit drug industry.
Colombia has always been, and remains, the worlds number one producer of finished
cocaine HCI; however, the country has also recently begun to dominate the production of the
worlds cocaine base. As recent as 1995, Colombia had only produced about 25 percent of the
worlds cocaine base and was dependent on Peruvian and Bolivian sources for two-thirds of the
product, which is needed to make finished HCI. Yet, today, Colombian production of cocaine
1
2

The Drug Trade in Colombia: A Threat Assessment. www.dea.gov.

Colombian Police Find Drug Sub. BBC news.

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base has increased to about 74 percent of the worlds supply, according to the 2002 DEA Drug
Intelligence Report. Not only is the country able to independently produce cocaine HCI from
start to finish, but scientific fieldwork carried out by the DEA has also found that traffickers in
Colombia are growing varieties of coca with a higher cocaine alkaloid yield than previously
identified, and that their cocaine base laboratory operations are more efficient than previously
believed.3 The DEA has also observed dramatic changes in the geopolitics of coca cultivation
and cocaine production. These changing dynamics highlight the adaptability of Colombian
cocaine trafficking organizations to changing geographic conditions, market demand, and drug
enforcement policies, as they continue to dominate the international cocaine trade.
From the early 1980s through the mid 1990s, first the Mendellin Cartel and then the Cali
Cartel, dominated all aspects of the international cocaine trade, from wholesale production to
transportation, to wholesale distribution in the United States and Europe. Beginning in the mid
1990s, however, dramatic law enforcement successes against both cartels caused their dissolution
and the rise of experienced drug traffickers who had been in the shadows of the eras renowned
drug lords. As a result, the cocaine trade has been decentralize and fragmented as Colombian
traffickers now specialize in only one aspect of the cocaine industry, diffusing trafficking roles to
cartels in other regions, such as Mexico and the Caribbean. In spite of this fragmentation,
Colombian cocaine trafficking organizations have remained the dominant players in the
international cocaine trade, and continue to control the supply of cocaine at its source; have a
firm grip on Caribbean smuggling routes; and dominate the wholesale cocaine markets in the
eastern United States and in Europe.4

3
4

The Drug Trade in Colombia: A Threat Assessment.

The Drug Trade in Colombia: A Threat Assessment.

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This report examines drug trafficking in Colombia, the evolution of cocaine and its
prevalence in the United States, and the Colombian Governments counter-drug strategies,
programs, and organizations, and offers a future outlook.

Colombia: The Geography of the Drug Trade

Because of its geographic location, diverse terrain, and harvestable climate, Colombia is
a strategic and fruitful center of the drug trade in South America. With over 3,200 kilometers of
coastline, Colombia is the only South American country with coastlines on the Pacific Ocean and
the Caribbean Sea, providing traffickers in the region with access to two major maritime
transshipment corridors for sending drugs to the United States.
Colombia has a population of approximately 40
million and covers a total area of 1,138,910 square
kilometers. The country shares land borders totaling
about 6,000 kilometers with Brazil, Ecuador, Panama,
Peru, and Venezuela. Before Colombia produced a
majority of cocaine base, its southern borders were
extremely important in receiving the product from Peru
and Bolivia. Should base production rebound in these
countries, this factor would again play a significant role
in cocaine base trafficking.
Colombias lack of a safe, domestic transportation infrastructure has shaped how
traffickers move drugs and essential chemicals within the country.5 Because its major road
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The Drug Trade in Colombia: A Threat Assessment.

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networks and its relatively small rail system are concentrated in the western half of the country,
and traveling by road outside its major cities is extremely dangerous, transportation by river is
the only practical means of moving essential chemicals in quantities required to produce multiton quantities of cocaine. To move cocaine, another crucial method of transporting chemicals
and cocaine products is by air. Colombia has more than 10 airports, including 11 international
airports, and hundreds of illegal clandestine airstrips scattered throughout the country.
Colombia can be divided into six broad geographic regions: the Guajira Peninsula, the
North Coast, the Pacific Coast, the Andean Mountain Ranges, the Lowlands, and the Rain Forest.
Understanding these regions and the types of drug activity which go on in these areas is a chief
concern for successful drug eradication operations. Most of Colombias coca is cultivated in the
eastern lowlands or southern rainforest areas, where the GOC exerts limited authority, making it
more difficult to enforce policy and monitor coca fields.

Coca Cultivation and the Changing Dynamics of Cocaine Production:

In recent years, the DEA has observed dramatic changes in the geopolitics of coca
cultivation and cocaine production. The major change in production has been the shift of base
cocaine production from Peru and Bolivia to Colombia, which produced 76 percent of the
worlds cocaine base in 2001. When expressed in terms of potential cocaine base output,
Colombias production has increased 217 percent, from 230 metric tons in 1995 to 730 metric
tons in 2001.6 On the other hand, from 1995 to 2000, Bolivias potential cocaine base production
fell by 82 percent, from 240 metric tons to 43 metric tons, most likely due to unprecedented coca

Changing Dynamics of Cocaine Production in the Andean Region. Drug Intelligence Brief. June 2002.
www.usdoj.org.

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eradication. Similarly, Perus potential cocaine base production decreased by 68 percent, from
460 metric tons in 1995 to 145 metric tons in 2000.

Still the number one producer of finished cocaine HCI, Colombia produces more than 80
percent of the global cocaine HCI supply, and approximately 90 percent of the cocaine HCI
reaching the United States. Now the chief producer of cocaine base and cocaine HCI, net coca
cultivation in Colombia has more than tripled, from 50,000 hectares in 1995 to 169,000 hectares
in 2001. In other words, the land area under coca cultivation in Colombia in 2001 was three
times the size of the Peru-Bolivia crop combined. 2001 also marked the ninth consecutive year
that Colombias coca cultivation and production have increased. In spite of this steady upward
trend in Colombias cocaine output, estimated cocaine production for the entire Andean region
actually decreased by 17 percent from 1995 to 2000, from 930 metric tons to 768 metric tons.7

Changing Dynamics of Cocaine Production in the Andean Region.

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Unlike HCI production, potential cocaine base production for the entire Andean Region
increased by 16 percent in 2001, from 805 metric tons in 2000 to 930 metric tons in 2001.
Despite the net increase, production in Bolivia and Peru actually dropped by 25 percent and 3.4
percent respectively; this means that Colombias increase of 25 percent dwarfed the combined
25-metric-ton decrease in Peru and Bolivia.

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Not only have the dynamics of cocaine production changed over the past decade, but
there have also been signs of shifting cultivation patterns and improved techniques. UNODCs
surveys consistently reveal signs that farmers are improving and adapting their cultivation
techniques, both to increase yield and to hide crops. In Bolivia, for example, fertilizers and
pesticides have been widely used for coca cultivation, but it was only until 2003 that the
irrigation of coca fields has become common.8 Farmers are also interspersing their coca crop
with other licit crops, such as rice, cassava, pineapple, and citrus trees. They time the addition of
the coca crop to the licit crop carefully, when the licit crop is at about half of its maturity. This
technique is especially popular in regions where the most eradication takes place as it has been a
common method of avoiding regulation. Similarly, coca cultivation in Colombia is characterized

World Drug Report 2004, Volume 1.

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by a high degree of mobility as farmers shift tactically to avoid eradication and exploit new
growing areas.

Cocaine is produced using two distinctive laboratory conversion stages: coca leaf to
cocaine base, and cocaine base to cocaine HCI. As previously mentioned, Colombias role as the
worlds largest producer of both cocaine base and cocaine HCI is a relatively new phenomenon.
Historically, hundreds of tons of cocaine base were imported from Peru and Bolivia to Colombia
every year, where it was further refined into cocaine HCI and then exported to foreign illicit drug
markets, including the US and Europe. This changing dynamic and shift of production
dependencies within the Andean region has provided Colombia with greater control over cocaine
production and distribution. Scientific fieldwork carried out by the DEA in Colombia from early
1999 through mid-2000 has shown startling results, considering this changing production
dynamic, has revealed Colombias capabilities for greater production efficiency and higher purity

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yields. For example, work by the DEA has determined that Colombian cocaine base cooks
require approximately 1 metric ton of fresh leaf (the equivalent of 260 kilograms of dryleaf) to
produce 1 kilogram of 100 percent pure cocaine base. By contrast, Bolivian cooks require 386
kilograms of dry leaf to produce 1 kilogram of cocaine base, and Peruvian cooks require 400
kilograms of dry leaf9, much more than their Colombian counterpart. Such findings have had a
dramatic impact on the USGs perception of the Colombian cocaine threat.

Pharmacology:
Cocaine in its purest form is an off-white or pink chunky product. Cocaine appearing in
powder form is a salt, typically cocaine hydrochloride; however,
cocaine is frequently adulterated or cut with various powdery
fillers to increase its volume. The substances most commonly
used to dilute cocaine are baking soda, sugars, such as lactose,
inositol, and mannitol, and local anesthetics, such as lidocaine.
This form of cocaine is often a white or off-white powder.
The color of crack cocaine depends on several factors
including the origin of the cocaine used, the method of
preparation (with ammonia or sodium bicarbonate), and the
presence of impurities, but will generally range from a light
brown to a pale brown. While these factors also affect its texture,
crack cocaine takes on a range from a crumbly texture to a hard,
almost crystalline nature, going from light to dark respectively.10
9

The Drug Trade in Colombia: A Threat Assessment.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angelo_Mariani.

10

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Forms of cocaine:
Cocaine sulfate
Cocaine sulfate is produced by smashing coca leaves along with water and dilute sulfuric
acid. This is often accomplished by putting the ingredients into a vat and stamping on it, similar
to the traditional method of crushing grapes. The sulfate itself is an intermediate step to
producing cocaine hydrochloride.

Cocaine hydrochloride
Cocaine hydrochloride (HCI) is the standard form of finished cocaine. Because the
substance is very stable and soluble in water, it is the most suitable for snorting or injecting. In
the seventies, it was commongly used by dissolving it in a glass of Coca-Cola (this was after
cocaine had been removed as an ingredient), making a drink names Coke and Coke (cite).

Freebase
While the salt form of cocaine is hydrochloride, the base form is called freebase.
Unlike its salt counterpart, the base is insoluble in water and is therefore not suitable for
drinking, snorting, or injecting. Instead, it vaporizes at a low temperature, which makes it
suitable for smoking. Freebase cocaine is produced first by dissolving cocaine hydrochloride in
water. Once dissolved, cocaine hydrochloride separates into protonated cocaine ion and chloride
ion, while the remaining solids, which are not cocaine, are removed by filtering. Then, a base,
typically ammonia (NH3), is added to the solutoin to remove the extra proton from the cocaine.
Because freebase cocaine is insoluble in water, it precipitates out and the solution becomes

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cloudy. To recover the breebase, ether is added to the solution and the mixture is shaken
vigorously; after this, the ether is siphoned off and left to evaportae, leaving behind a nearly pire
freebase.
Because the cocaine is immediately absorbed into the blood through the lungs, many
cocaine users prefer smoking freebase to other methods of cocaine use. The rush is much more
intense, since the substance reaches the brain in about five seconds, but the effects do not last as
long. This characteristic of freebasing makes the drug especially dangerous as users often
continue to smoke freebase until its gone, instead of waiting the five to ten minutes for the high
to finish, thus resulting in overdose.
Whats important to note is that the term freebasing refers to the process done by users
to change finished cocaine HCI product back to cocaine base, in what could be considered a
production refersal process.

Crack cocaine
Crack cocaine is another form of cocaine created by users from finished cocaine HCI,
similar to that of freebase. The difference is found in its production; instead of using ether to
produce freebase cocaine, producers began to omit the step of removing the freebase cocaine
precipitate from the ammonia mixture. The end result is that the cut, in addition to the
ammonium salt, remains in the freebase cocaine after the mixture is evaporated. The rock that
forms contains a small amount of water, which, when heated, boils and makes a crackling sound;
thus, this substance was named crack.
Crack is a unique form of cocaine for it offers a strong cocaine experience in small, lowpriced packages. In the United States, crack cocaine is often sold in small, inexpensive doses

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often referred to as nickels or nickel rocks (because of its five dollar price), dimes or
dime rocks, twenties, or forties. Average users of crack cocaine are typically 30 years and
older inner-city residents of a lower income bracket.

Street Terms:
Street terms for cocaine
All American drug

Icing

Aspirin (powder cocaine)

Jelly

Barbs

Lady

Basa (crack cocaine)

Mama coca

Base (crack cocaine)

Mojo

Bernie

Nose stuff

Big C

Oyster stew

Black rock (crack cocaine)

Paradise

CDs (crack cocaine)

Pariba (powder cocaine)

Candy sugar (powder cocaine)

Pearl

Coca

Real tops (crack cocaine)

Crack

Rocks (crack cocaine)

Double bubble

Roxanne (crack cocaine)

Electric Kool-Aid (crack cocaine)

Scorpion

Flave (powder cocaine)

Sevenup

Florida snow

Snow white

Foo foo

Sugar boogers (powder cocaine)

Gin

Twinkie (crack cocaine)

Gold dust

Yam (crack cocaine)

Happy dust

Zip

Colombian Cocaine Trafficking Groups and the Decentralization of Cocaine Trade:

Colombian drug traffickers are chiefly responsible for most of the worlds cocaine base
production, cocaine HCI production, and cocaine wholesale distribution. From the late 1980s
through the mid-1990s, first the Medellin Cartel, and then the Cali Cartel, dominated all aspects
of international cocaine trade, from wholesale production to wholesale distribution in the United

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States and Europe, until aggressive counter-drug efforts by Colombia and the US caused the
dissolution of these cartels and the decentralization of the drug trade.
In the late 1980s, the Medellin Cartel was run by the Ochoa brothers (Juan David, Jorge
Luis, and Fabio). But, as these leaders faced increasing government pressures, they surrendered
to the Colombian Government in late 1990 and early 1992, assuming they would face lenient
sentencing. Following their surrender, two more chief drug lords of the Medellin cartel, Jose
Rodriguez-Gacha (December 1989) and Pablo Escobar (December 1993), were violently
murdered. As a result, the Medellin cartel broke up and gradually lost its secure lock on the
international cocaine market.
By the early 1990s, a loose association of five independent drug trafficking groups,
collectively known as the Cali Cartel, succeeded the Medellin Cartel in dominating the
international market.11 However, the capture of the Rodriguez-Orejuela brothers in 1995, the
death of Jose Santacruz-Londone, and the surrender of Helmer Pacho Herrera in September
1996 drove the Cali Cartel to a fate similar to that of the Medellin Cartel. Following the
dissolution of these powerful cartels, experienced drug traffickers jumped on the opportunity to
increase their roles and positions in the cocaine trade. What resulted was a decentralized drug
trade which led to a subsequent change in how drug trafficking groups operated.
Today, Colombian traffickers typically specialize in one aspect of the cocaine industry,
unlike their cartel predecessors. This is in part a result of the cocaine trades fragmentation, but
also a product of the reintroduction of extradition in Colombia, which occurred in December of
1997. Because traders can be extradited to the US, as was a recent trader Alejandro Bernal

11

The Drug Trade in Colombia: A Threat Assessment.

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Madrigal (aka Juvenal), major Colombian traffickers are increasingly willing to allow their
foreign criminal associates an expanded international role.
Since the mid-1990s, some Mexican drug transportation groups have received up to 50
percent of the Colombian cocaine they move to the United States as payment for a successful
smuggling operation. Seeing an opportunity to expand their wholesale cocaine distribution, the
major Mexican drug trafficking groups have increasingly capitalized on this payment-inproduct arrangement. In fact, Mexican trafficking groups now dominate the wholesale
distribution of cocaine in the United States West and Midwest. Despite this development,
Colombian traffickers continue to control the supply of cocaine at its source and dominate the
wholesale cocaine markets in the eastern United States and in Europe.
Similarly to their Mexican counterparts, Caribbean drug trafficking groups are primarily
involved in drug transportation and receive a payment-in-product arrangement for successful
smuggling operations. This arrangement has also allowed Dominican traffickers to expand their
own cocaine distribution operations in the United States and the Caribbean. As a result,
Dominican groups dominate drug trafficking in and around the Caribbean, including Puerto
Rico.12

Movement of Colombian Cocaine to the United States and Europe:

Despite the decentralization of the cocaine trade, Colombia continues to produce the bulk
of the worlds cocaine HCI at over 70 percent. Of the cocaine HCI departing from South
America for the United States, about 60 percent comes from Colombias North or Pacific coast
and travels towards either Central America or Mexico via eastern Pacific or western Caribbean.
12

The Drug Trade in Colombia: A Threat Assessment.

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Typically, this Cocaine, which is transshipped to Mexico, is then transported to the US through
the US southwestern land border with Mexico. On the other hand, the remaining 40 percent of
South American cocaine HCI headed for the United States transits various Caribbean islands (in
particular Jamaica, Haiti, and Puerto Rico) or transits directly from South America to the
mainland United States without any stops in between.
Maritime vessels are the primary means used by traffickers to smuggle cocaine from
South America into Central America and Mexico as well as through the Caribbean. Go-fast
boats, bulk cargo freighters, and containerized cargo vessels remain the most common
conveyances for moving multi-hundred-kilogram quantities of cocaine through the regions.
Since the early 1990s, Colombian trafficking organizations have aggressively expanded
their drug operations in Western Europe. This expansion has been highly profitable for
Colombian traffickers, as higher wholesale prices for cocaine in Europe are higher than those in
the US.

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The Iberian Peninsula continues to serve as the principle gateway for cocaine entering
Europe, given its cultural, linguistic, and ethnic ties to South American countries. The primary
method for smuggling large quantities of cocaine to Europe is by containerized cargo, in which
traffickers hide the cocaine among legitimate cargo or within the container structure itself. Still
other methods of moving cocaine to Europe are the same as those going through Mexico and the
Caribbean, including maritime vessels, fishing vessels, and couriers and air freight on
commercial aircraft.13

Colombian Cocaine and the US:

The illegal drug market in the United States is one of the most profitable in the world.
As such, it attracts the most ruthless, sophisticated, and aggressive drug traffickers, creating a
13

The Drug Trade in Colombia: A Threat Assessment.

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serious threat to the health and safety of American citizens. Thus, drug law enforcement
agencies face an enormous challenge in protecting the countrys borders. Each year, according to
the US Customs Service:
60 million people enter the United States on more than 675,000 commercial and
private flights. Another 6 million come by sea and 370 million by land. In
addition, 116 million vehicles cross the land borders with Canada and Mexico.
More than 90,000 merchant and passenger ships dock at US ports. These ships
carry more than 9 million shipping containers and 400 million tons of cargo.
Another 157,000 smaller vessels visit our many coastal towns. Amid this
voluminous trade, drug traffickers conceal cocaine, heroin, marijuana, MDMA,
and methamphetamine shipments for distribution in US neighborhoods.14
Especially with the adaptability and changing dynamics of cocaine production, US efforts to
prevent trafficking are becoming more and more difficult.
Also alarming is the modern level of cocaine abuse in the United States, with while it has
stabilized, remains at high levels. The trafficking, distribution, and abuse of cocaine and crack
cocaine have spread from urban environments to smaller cities and suburban areas in the country,
bringing a commensurate increase in violence and criminal activity.

History of Cocaine:
Cocaine is a powerfully addictive stimulant drug extracted from the leaves of the coca
plant. Originally, cocaine was used in South America in the mid-19th century by natives of the
region to relieve fatigue, for it was then considered an important source of nutrition and energy
14

Drug Trafficking in the United States. DEA Briefs and Backgrounds.

http://www.dea.gov/concern/drug_trafficking.html.

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in a region that lacked other food sources and oxygen. Because of its health benefits, the coca
leaf was chewed almost universally in some native communities and even used by doctors to
treat medical patients. In 1609, Padre Blas Valera, an Incan chronicler, described the virtues of
the coca plant in terms of its healing powers, both inside and out. He said, Coca protects the
body of many ailments, and our doctors use it in powdered form to reduce the swelling of
wounds, to strengthen bones, to expel cold from the body or prevent it from entering, and to cure
rotten wounds or sores that are full of maggots.15 At this time, many praised the effects of
cocaine and did not associate habitual use with the negative consequences of its habitual use
today.
It was not until 1855 that the isolation of the cocaine alkaloid was achieved by German
chemist Friedrich Gaedcke, who named the alkaloid erythroxyline.
Soon after, descriptions of the drugs exhilarating effects cluttered
papers and literature throughout Europe and the US, sparking a surge
of curiosity about the drug. Many were even intrigued by cocas
economic potential. In 1863, a chemist named Angelo Mariani,
having read a paper by an Italian doctor who had returned from
witnessing firsthand the effects of cocaine on Peruvian natives,
started marketing a wine called Vin Mariana which had been treated with coca leaves. The
ethanol in the wine acted as a solvent which extracted the cocaine from the coca leaves, altering
(albeit enhancing) the drinks effect. Similarly, Coca Cola was invented in the US, using cocaine
as one of its ingredients (this was only for a short time, however, until cocaine was discontinued

15

http://en.wikipedia.org.
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from the drink using a chemical process in 1929 and replaced with a milder stimulant known as
caffeine).
Cocaine use became very popular in the late 19th century, with many prominent figures
praising its therapeutic and even recreational usage. 16 Renowned figures such as Ulysses S.
Grant and Pope Leo XII claimed to have drunken Marianis cocaine-wine daily and appeared on
a poster promoting the elixir. In Germany in 1879, cocaine was introduced into clinical use as a
local anesthetic and used to treat morphine addiction. At this time, cocaine was still highly
regarded as a helpful, healing, and energizing substance. Even psychologist Sigmund Freud was
an advocate of the drug as he promoted cocaine as a safe and useful tonic that could cure
depression and sexual impotence.17 In his published work, Uber Coca, he wrote that cocaine
causes:
exhilaration and lasting euphoria, which in no way differs from the normal
euphoria of the healthy person. You perceive an increase of self-control and
possess more vitality and capacity for workIn other words, you are simply
normal, and it is soon hard to believe you are under the influence of any drug
Long intensive physical work is performed without any fatigueThis result is
enjoyed without any of the unpleasant after effects that follow exhilaration
brought about by alcohol. . . Absolutely no craving for the further use of cocaine
appears after the first or even after repeated taking of the drug
As its popularity increased, cocaine became available in numerous forms. In 1885, for example,
the US manufacturer Park Davis and Co. sold cocaine in forms which included cigarettes,
powder, and even a cocaine mixture that could be injected directly into the users veins with the
included needle, thus initiating the use of direct injection of cocaine into ones veins. The
company continued the drugs positive image as it promised that its cocaine products would
supply the place of food, make the coward brave, the silent eloquent and . . . render the sufferer
16
17

http://en.wikipedia.org.
http://www.narconon.org.

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insensitive to pain.18 Throughout Europe and the US, messages like these promoted cocaine as
a liberating substance that seemingly provided one with energy, confidence, and self-control
without any negative or addictive effects. This misperception would soon be refuted.
While cocaine enjoyed many years of positive publicity, literature in the late Victorian era
began to portray the drug, not as an exhilarating elixir, but instead a substance of vice. At this
time, evidence was found of cocaines addictive properties, catapulting the problem of cocaine
abuse to the top of the American publics political agenda. In fact, the psychosocial behavior that
resulted when a habitual user was deprived of the drug coined the term drug fiend, as people
discovered that addicts would do almost anything to obtain the drugeven murder (Narconon
International). The dangers of cocaine abuse also became part of a moral panic that was tied to
the dominant racial and social anxieties of the day. In 1903, the American Journal of Pharmacy
stressed that most cocaine abusers were bohemians, gamblers, high- and low-class prostitutes,
night porters, bell boys, burglars, racketeers, pimps, and casual laborers.19 Over the course of
the next few decades, as the American majority became more aware of the dangers of cocaine
and the severity of the problem, concern mounted to an eventual public outcry to ban the social
use of cocaine.20 Beginning with the Harrison Narcotics Act in 1914 and ending with the
Dangerous Drugs Act in 1920 (at least for a while), cocaine was highly regulated and monitored
until its eventual outlaw as a narcotic. Unfortunately, as with the opiates like heroin, the dangers
of cocaine abuse were recognized by law makers after the fact. The market for cocaine had
already been established and was deeply entrenched into American history and culture and is
with us today.
18

http://en.wikipedia.org.
http://en.wikipedia.org.
20
http://www.narconon.org.
19

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For more than fifty years before its outlaw, cocaine and opium laced elixirs, tonics and
wines were broadly used by people of all social classes in the US. Because there were no
restrictions placed on acquiring these drugs in the early 1900s, narcotics were an acceptable way
of life for a large number of people, many whom were people of stature. Especially in the silent
film industry, cocaine was fashionable and widely advocated by famous faces. Stars sent prodrug messages from Hollywood promoting cocaines acceptability through testimonials and the
examples they set by their well publicized lifestyles that reverberated throughout the nation and
international world. To name a few: the worlds most famous psychologist; the man that
invented the light bulb; a stable of Hollywood silent film stars; and the inventor of the most
popular soft drink in historyall on the pro-cocaine bandwagon.21 Thus, a cocaine culture
deeply woven into the fabric of American life predated the prohibition policies enacted in the
1920s, setting the stage for future drug trafficking.

Modern Usage:
Table 1. Percentage of Americans reporting lifetime use of cocaine, by age group, 2002

While the use of

cocaine has stabilized since
1999 at significantly lower

Age Group

Lifetime

Past Year

Past Month

1217

2.7%

2.1%

0.6%

1825

15.4

6.7

2.0

26 and older

15.9

1.8

0.7

Total population

14.4

2.5

0.9

Source: National Survey on Drug Use and Health.

levels that at its peak in 1982 (when 10.4 million Americans, also 5.6 percent of the population,
reportedly used cocaine), statistics indicate that cocaine is still widely present in the United
States.
During 2000, there were an estimated 2,707,000 chronic cocaine users and 3,035,000
occasional cocaine users in the United States. According to What America's Users Spend on
21

http://www.narconon.org.

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Illegal Drugs, users spent $35.3 billion on cocaine in 2000, a decrease from the $69.9 billion
spent in 1990. Americans consumed 259 metric tons of cocaine in 2000, a decrease from the 447
metric tons consumed in 1990.
The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services' Results From the 2002 National
Survey on Drug Use and Health: National Findings found that more than 33 million people age
12 and older (14.4%) in 2002 reported that they had used cocaine at least once in their lifetime
(see table 1). More than 8 million Americans (3.6%) age 12 and older had used crack cocaine at
least once in their lifetime (see table 2).
According to the University of Michigan's Monitoring the Future Study, in 2002, 3.6% of
8th graders, 6.1% of 10th graders, and 7.8% of 12th graders surveyed reported using cocaine at
least once during their lifetime (see table 3 on
next page). Of the students surveyed, 2.5% of
8th graders, 3.6% of 10th graders, and 3.8% of
12th graders reported using crack within their

Table 2. Percentage of Americans reporting lifetime use of

crack, by age group, 2002
Age Group

Lifetime

Past Year

Past Month

1217

0.7%

0.4%

0.1%

1825

3.8

0.9

0.2

26 and older

3.9

0.7

0.3

Total population

3.6

0.7

0.2

Source: National Survey on Drug Use and Health.

lifetime (see table 4 on next page). The study also showed that, in 2002, 8.2% of college
students and 13.5% of young adults (ages 19 to 28) reported using cocaine during their lifetime.
Almost 2% of college students and 4.3% of young adults reported using crack cocaine during
their lifetime.22

22

http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/publications/factsht/cocaine/index.html.

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In another study, among the high school
students surveyed in 2001 as part of the Youth
Risk Behavior Surveillance System, 9.4%
reported using cocaine in their lifetime and

Table 3. Percentage of students reporting cocaine use, 2001

2002
Lifetime

Past year

Past month

Grade

2001

2002

2001

2002

2001

2002

8th grade

4.3%

3.6%

2.5%

2.3%

1.2%

1.1%

10th grade

5.7

6.1

3.6

4.0

1.3

1.6

12th grade

8.2

7.8

4.8

5.0

2.1

2.3

Source: Monitoring the Future Study.

4.2% reported using cocaine in the 30 days before the survey. Hispanic students reported the
highest percentage of lifetime cocaine use (14.9%), followed by white students (9.9%), and black
students (2.1%). Male students (10.3%) were
more likely than female students (8.4%) to
report lifetime cocaine use.23
Thus statistics show that despite drug

Table 4. Percentage of students reporting crack use, 2001

2002
Lifetime

Past year

Past month

Grade

2001

2002

2001

2002

2001

2002

8th grade

3.0%

2.5%

1.7%

1.6%

0.8%

0.8%

10th grade

3.1

3.6

1.8

2.3

0.7

1.0

12th grade

3.7

3.8

2.1

2.3

1.1

1.2

Source: Monitoring the Future Study.

enforcement policies, cocaine use is still very prevalent throughout society, even among todays
youth.

Drug Enforcement Policy:

Coca Eradication:
Coca eradication is the most used method of killing coca plants in an effort to regulate
and limit drug. These aerial eradication programs are coordinated by the US State Department
Narcotics Affairs Section (NAS) at the US Embassy in Bogot and overseen by the Colombian
National Police (CNP). Since April 1994, the CNP has used aerial chemical spraying to
eradicate coca and opium poppy fields in Colombia. The aircraft used for spraying are
maintained by the NAS, and piloted either by NAP contractors or CNP personnel. Because
insurgents in the coca-growing areas continue a serious threat to CNP aircrafts involved in spray
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operations, the Colombian military provide force protection for the spraying operations. They
secure the areas to be sprayed to ensure the safety of CNP and NAS personnel. According to the
US State Departments International Narcotics Control Strategy Report (INCSR) for 2000, the
GOC eradicated 47,000 hectares of coca.

Plan Colombia and Regional Spill-Over:

Because serious political instability exists in Colombia, and because cocaine abuse in the
United States is a continuous problem for all ages, the DEA strives to aid the Colombian
government in its efforts to prevent international drug traffickers from using the country for
money laundering or as a production area for illicit drugs destined for the US and other
international markets. Doing so helps to strengthen Colombias ability to track, interdict, arrest,
and successfully prosecute money laundering and drug smuggling organizations that operate in
Colombia. In July 2000, the US Government (USG) enacted a comprehensive $1.3 billion
assistance package in support of the GOCs Plan Colombia, which in addition to other DEA
counter-drugs operations. Plan Colombia, however, was not only intended to combat illicit drug
trafficking, but also focused on Colombias peace process, economy, justice reform, human
rights protection, democratization, and social development.

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Under Plan Colombia the USG is providing equipment, training, and technical assistance
to the CNP and the Colombian military to increase their capability for eradication of coca leaf
and to conduct interdiction operations.

Conclusion:
Despite the fragmentation of the cocaine trade, the DEA anticipates that Colombian
cocaine trafficking organizations will remain the dominant payers in the international cocaine
trade will into the 21st century. Colombian traffickers are increasingly more self-sufficient in
cocaine base production; more efficient in laboratory procedures; have a firm grip on Caribbean
smuggling routes; and dominate wholesale cocaine markets in the eastern United States and in
Europe.
The DEA, however, anticipates that some major cocaine trafficking groups will
eventually diversify their product line to include heroin and synthetic drugs. Should this occur,
the threat posed by Colombian heroin and synthetic drugs would increase due to the trafficking
resources available to major cocaine trafficking organizations. These traffickers would be
expected to use the transportation and wholesale cocaine distribution networks they have
established over the last decade to expand their involvement in the US heroin and synthetic
markets. Should these groups prove successful, it is likely that they will merge to some extent.
In terms of counter-drug policies for cocaine in Colombia, the DEA anticipates that the
GOC will continue eradication operations and extradition of Colombian nationals, who are under
indictment in the United States for drug trafficking.
Cocaine use, because it has become entrenched in American culture, will continue to
reach high levels among all ages. Unfortunately, despite government regulation and enforcement

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efforts, people have and will continue to find ways of obtaining the drug. Thus, more efforts
need to be directed at stopping cocaine production at the source.

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Works Cited:
Cocaine Information. 2002. Association for Better Living and Education International . 1 June
2005 <http://www.narconon.org/>.

"Colombian police find drugs sub." BBC News 26 Mar. 2005. 1 June 2005
<http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4383707.stm>.

DEA Intelligence Division. U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration. The Drug Trade in
Columbia: A Threat Assessment. Mar. 2002. May 2005
<http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/pubs/intel/02006/index.html>.

DEA Intelligence Division. U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration. Changing Dynamics of

Cocaine Production in the Andean Region. Jun. 2002. May 2005
<http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/pubs/intel/02033/02033.html >.

United States. United States General Accounting Office. Report to Congressional Committees.
June 2003. 1 July 2005 <http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d03783.pdf>.

Walters, John P. Office of National Drug Control Policy. 15 Mar. 2005. May 2005
<http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/publications/factsht/cocaine/i
ndex.html>.

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World Drug Report. 2004. May 2005 <http://www.unodc.org/pdf/WDR_2004/Chap2_coca.pdf>.

Wikipedia. 27 May 2005 <http://en.wikipedia.org>.

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