Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
The human skeleton serves six major functions; support, movement, protection,
production of blood cells, storage of ions and endocrine regulation.
The human skeleton is not as sexually dimorphic as that of many other primate species,
but subtle differences between sexes in the morphology of the skull, dentition, long bones, and
pelvis exist. In general, female skeletal elements tend to be smaller and less robust
than corresponding male elements within a given population. The pelvis in female
skeletons is also different from that of males in order to facilitate child birth.
The skeleton serves six major functions; support, movement, protection, production
of blood cells, storage of minerals and endocrine regulation.
The joints between bones allow movement, some allowing a wider range of
movement than others, e.g. the ball and socket joint allows a greater range of
movement than the pivot joint at the neck. Movement is powered by skeletal
muscles, which are attached to the skeleton at various sites on bones. Muscles,
bones, and joints provide the principal mechanics for movement, all coordinated by
the nervous system.
Blood circulates in two linked circuits: the pulmonary, which carries blood to the
lungs to be oxygenated, and the systemic, which supplies oxygenated blood to the
body. Arteries carrying blood from the heart divide into smaller vessels called
arterioles and then into capillaries, where nutrient and waste exchange occurs.
Capillaries join up to form venules, which in turn join to form veins that carry blood
back to the heart. The portal vein does not return blood to the heart but carries it to
the liver.
In both the pulmonary and systemic circulations, the exchange of oxygen, nutrients,
and waste products occurs in the capillaries that join arterioles to venules .
The heart powers the pulmonary and the systemic circulations. In the pulmonary
circulation, deoxygenated blood (blue) travels to the lungs, where it absorbs oxygen
before returning to the heart. This oxygenated blood (red) is pumped around the
body in the systemic circulation. Body tissues absorb oxygen, and deoxygenated
blood returns to the heart to be pumped to the lungs again.
The blood pressure in the veins is about a tenth of that in the arteries. Various
physical mechanisms ensure that there is adequate venous return (blood flow back
to the heart). Many deep veins lie within muscles. When the muscles contract, they
squeeze the veins and force blood back to the heart. The action of inhalation during
breathing also draws blood to the heart. In addition, venous return from the upper
body is assisted by gravity.
Cardiovascular disease
Cardiovascular disease (also called heart disease) is a class of diseases that involve
the heart, the blood vessels (arteries, capillaries, and veins) or both.
Cardiovascular disease refers to any disease that affects the cardiovascular
system, principally cardiac disease, vascular diseases of the brain and kidney,
and peripheral arterial disease. The causes of cardiovascular disease are diverse
but atherosclerosis and/or hypertension are the most common. In addition, with
aging come a number of physiological and morphological changes that alter
cardiovascular function and lead to increased risk of cardiovascular disease, even in
healthy asymptomatic individuals.
Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of deaths worldwide, though, since the
1970s, cardiovascular mortality rates have declined in many high-income
countries. At the same time, cardiovascular deaths and disease have increased at a
fast rate in low- and middle-income countries. Although cardiovascular disease
usually affects older adults, the antecedents of cardiovascular disease, notably
atherosclerosis, begin in early life, making primary prevention efforts necessary
from childhood. There is therefore increased emphasis on preventing atherosclerosis
by modifying risk factors, such as healthy eating, exercise, and avoidance
of smoking tobacco.
Evidence suggests a number of risk factors for heart diseases: age, gender, high
blood pressure, hyperlipidemia, diabetes mellitus, tobacco smoking, excessive
alcohol consumption, sugar consumption, family history, obesity, lack of physical
activity, psychosocial factors, and air pollution. While the individual contribution of
each risk factor varies between different communities or ethnic groups the
consistency of the overall contribution of these risk factors to epidemiological
studies is remarkably strong. Some of these risk factors, such as age, gender or
family history, are immutable; however, many important cardiovascular risk factors
are modifiable by lifestyle change, social change, drug treatment and prevention of
Serrano's Cardiac Triad: hypertension, hyperlipidemia, and diabetes.
Age is by far the most important risk factor in developing cardiovascular or heart
diseases, with approximately a tripling of risk with each decade of life. It is
estimated that 82 percent of people who die of coronary heart disease are 65 and
older. At the same time, the risk of stroke doubles every decade after age 55.
Multiple explanations have been proposed to explain why age increases the risk of
cardiovascular/heart diseases. One of them is related to serum cholesterol level. In
most populations, the serum total cholesterol level increases as age increases. In
men, this increase levels off around age 45 to 50 years. In women, the increase
continues sharply until age 60 to 65 years.
blood group systems are now recognized by the International Society of Blood
Transfusion (ISBT). The two most important ones are ABO and the RhD antigen; they
determine someone's blood type (A, B, AB and O, with + and - denoting RhD
status).
Many pregnant women carry a fetus with a blood type different from their own, and
the mother can form antibodies against fetal RBCs. Sometimes these maternal
antibodies are a small immunoglobulin, which can cross the placenta and
causehemolysis of fetal RBCs, which in turn can lead to hemolytic disease of the
newborn called erythroblastosis fetalis, an illness of low fetal blood counts that
ranges from mild to severe. Sometimes this is lethal for the fetus; in these cases it
is calledhydrops fetalis.
A blood type (also called a blood group) is a classification of blood based on the
presence or absence of inherited antigenic substances on the surface of red blood
cells (RBCs). These antigens may be proteins, carbohydrates, glycoproteins,
orglycolipids, depending on the blood group system. Some of these antigens are
also present on the surface of other types of cells of various tissues. Several of
these red blood cell surface antigens can stem from one allele (or very closely
linked genes) and collectively form a blood group system. Blood types
are inherited and represent contributions from both parents. A total of 32 human
blood group systems are now recognized by the International Society of Blood
Transfusion (ISBT). The two most important ones are ABO and the RhD antigen; they
determine someone's blood type (A, B, AB and O, with + and - denoting RhD
status).
Many pregnant women carry a fetus with a blood type different from their own, and
the mother can form antibodies against fetal RBCs. Sometimes these maternal
antibodies are IgG, a small immunoglobulin, which can cross the placenta and cause
hemolysis of fetal RBCs, which in turn can lead to hemolytic disease of the
newborn called erythroblastos is fetalis, an illness of low fetal blood counts that
ranges from mild to severe. Sometimes this is lethal for the fetus; in these cases it
is called hydrops fetalis.
Down Syndrome
Down syndrome is a chromosomal condition that is associated with intellectual
disability, a characteristic facial appearance, and weak muscle tone (hypotonia) in
infancy. All affected individuals experience cognitive delays, but the intellectual
disability is usually mild to moderate.
People with Down syndrome may have a variety of birth defects. About half of all
affected children are born with a heart defect. Digestive abnormalities, such as a
blockage of the intestine, are less common.
Individuals with Down syndrome have an increased risk of developing several
medical conditions. These include gastroesophageal reflux, which is a backflow of
acidic stomach contents into the esophagus, and celiac disease, which is an
intolerance of a wheat protein called gluten. About 15 percent of people with Down
syndrome have an underactive thyroid gland (hypothyroidism). The thyroid gland is
a butterfly-shaped organ in the lower neck that produces hormones. Individuals with
Down syndrome also have an increased risk of hearing and vision problems.
Additionally, a small percentage of children with Down syndrome develop cancer of
blood-forming cells (leukemia).
Delayed development and behavioral problems are often reported in children with
Down syndrome. Affected individuals' speech and language develop later and more
slowly than in children without Down syndrome, and affected individuals' speech
may be more difficult to understand. Behavioral issues can include attention
problems, obsessive/compulsive behavior, and stubbornness or tantrums. A small
percentage of people with Down syndrome are also diagnosed with developmental
conditions called autism spectrum disorders, which affect communication and social
interaction.
People with Down syndrome often experience a gradual decline in thinking ability
(cognition) as they age, usually starting around age 50. Down syndrome is also
associated with an increased risk of developing Alzheimer disease, a brain disorder
that results in a gradual loss of memory, judgment, and ability to function.
Approximately half of adults with Down syndrome develop Alzheimer disease.
Although Alzheimer disease is usually a disorder that occurs in older adults, people
with Down syndrome usually develop this condition in their fifties or sixties.
Genetic Engineering
Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification, is the direct manipulation of
an organism's genome using biotechnology. New DNA may be inserted in the host
genome by first isolating and copying the genetic material of interest
using molecular cloning methods to generate a DNA sequence, or by synthesizing
the DNA, and then inserting this construct into the host organism. Genes may be
removed, or "knocked out", using a nuclease. Gene targeting is a different
technique that uses homologous recombination to change an endogenous gene,
and can be used to delete a gene, remove exons, add a gene, or introduce point
mutations.
An organism that is generated through genetic engineering is considered to be
agenetically modified organism (GMO). The first GMOs were bacteria in 1973 and
GM mice were generated in 1974. Insulin-producing bacteria were commercialized
in 1982 and genetically modified food has been sold since 1994. Glofish, the first
GMO designed as a pet, was first sold in the United States December in 2003.
Genetic engineering techniques have been applied in numerous fields including
research, agriculture, industrial biotechnology, and medicine. Enzymes used in
laundry detergent and medicines such as insulin and human growth hormone are
now manufactured in GM cells, experimental GM cell lines and GM animals such as
mice orzebrafish are being used for research purposes, and genetically modified
crops have been commercialized.
Plants, animals or micro organisms that have changed through genetic engineering
are termed genetically modified organisms or GMOs. Bacteria were the first
organisms to be genetically modified. Plasmid DNA containing new genes can be
inserted into the bacterial cell and the bacteria will then express those genes. These
genes can code for medicines or enzymes that process food and other substrates.[17]
[18]
Plants have been modified for insect protection, herbicide resistance, virus
resistance, enhanced nutrition, tolerance to environmental pressures and the
production of edible vaccines. Most commercialised GMO's are insect resistant
and/or herbicide tolerant crop plants. [20] Genetically modified animals have been