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TNO report CHAF WP5, Instrumentation development

PML 03D2/699 D5-1, Quantitative overview of the informa-
tion needed to be met by instrumentation

TNO Prins Maurits Laboratory

Health and Safety Laboratory
Bundesanstalt für Materialfor-
schung und -prüfung
Date
March 2003
TNO-PML Author(s)
Lange Kleiweg 137
P.O. Box 45
R.M.M. van Wees (TNO)
2280 AA Rijswijk A. von Oertzen (BAM)
The Netherlands
J.H.G. Scholtes (TNO)
Phone +31 15 284 28 42
Fax +31 15 284 39 58
S. Myatt (HSL)
C.J. de Ruiter (TNO)

Assignor : European Commision

Research Directorate-General
Contract No.: EVG1-CT-2002-
00074 CHAF

Title : Ongerubriceerd
Summary : Ongerubriceerd
Report text : Ongerubriceerd

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Summary

CHAF (Quantification and Control of Hazards associated with the Transport and
Storage of Fireworks) is an EU 5th framework project by HSL (UK), TNO (The
Netherlands) and BAM (Germany). Its aims are to obtain a better understanding of
the conditions that give rise to explosions in packaged fireworks under transport
and storage conditions and to improve classification methods for fireworks. A large
number of instrumented tests form the core of the project. Work package 5 aims to
determine the instrumentation that is best suited for the tests.
This report is on the first task in that work package which defines the quantitative
information required from the different tests. Lists of requirements for the various
measurements were produced. It should be noted that many of the measurement
requirements are very similar in the different tests, with only the range of meas-
urement or the exposure conditions varying.

Samenvatting

CHAF (Quantification and Control of Hazards associated with the Transport and
Storage of Fireworks) is een project van HSL (V.K.), TNO (Nederland) en BAM
(Duitsland) onder het 5e kaderprogramma van de EC. De doelstellingen zijn het
verkrijgen van een beter begrip van de condities die explosies veroorzaken in
vuurwerk in transportverpakking onder transport- of opslagcondities, en het ont-
wikkelen van een verbeterde classificatiemethode voor vuurwerk. Een groot aantal
geïnstrumenteerde proeven vormen de basis van het project. In werkpakket 5 wordt
de instrumentatie die het best geschikt is voor de proeven bepaald.
Dit rapport behandelt de eerste taak van dat werkpakket, waarin wordt gedefinie-
eerd welke kwantitatieve informatie moet worden bepaald in de proeven. Hiervoor
zijn programma's van eisen voor de metingen opgesteld. Opgemerkt wordt dat veel
van de meeteisen vrijwel gelijk zijn in diverse proeven, waarbij alleen het bereik
van de meting of de omstandigheden waaraan het instrument wordt blootgesteld
verschillen.

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Contents

Summary ...................................................................................................................2

1 Introduction................................................................................................4
1.1 General introduction ...................................................................4
1.2 Work package 5, Instrumentation development .........................5
1.3 This report ..................................................................................6

2 Foreseen tests and instrumentation requirements ......................................7

2.1 WP6, Instrumented benchmarking .............................................7
2.2 WP7, Small-scale characterisation ...........................................15
2.3 WP8, Medium-scale characterisation of packaged
fireworks...................................................................................19
2.4 WP9, Instrumented full-scale validation tests ..........................22

3 Conclusion ...............................................................................................28

4 References................................................................................................29

5 Authentication..........................................................................................30

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1 Introduction

1.1 General introduction

Annual sales of fireworks in the EU amount to tens of thousands of tonnes and

similar quantities are held in storage. Workers at risk if bulk stores of fireworks
explode are numbered in the thousands but the societal risk is much higher as
severe explosions will expose a greater number of members of the public to risks
off site. Also, fireworks often contain heavy metals to give bright flame colours
and a major fireworks accident can have serious effects on the local environment.

On January 1st, 2003, a consortium of Health and Safety Laboratory (HSL, United
Kingdom), TNO Prins Maurits Laboratory (TNO, The Netherlands) and Bundesan-
stalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM, Germany) started a research
project within the EC 5th framework. The project CHAF (Quantification and Con-
trol of Hazards associated with the Transport and Storage of Fireworks) was for-
mulated according to scientific principles.

The aim of the research is to obtain a better understanding of critical conditions

that give rise to explosions in packaged fireworks under transport conditions as
well as storage conditions and to obtain improved methods of predicting perform-
ance in large scale storage. The project will provide a framework for the safe
storage of bulk fireworks which will have direct benefits to the EU in terms of
improving worker safety and reducing the work-related hazards to which members
of the public are exposed. Also, reduction of the severity of large scale fireworks
storage accidents will have beneficial environmental effects in terms of minimising
the release of toxic fumes and reducing off site blast damage.

The mechanism for flame spread in packaged fireworks will be examined in order
to provide a fundamental understanding of the key parameters that determine the
build up of a critical pressure for explosion. Small-scale experiments will be car-
ried out to serve this purpose. A medium scale assessment method will be devel-
oped to provide a potential cost-effective means of predicting large scale perform-
ance from characterisation of the pressure-time relationships produced by burning
fireworks. Full scale tests with packaged fireworks in steel ISO containers and
concrete storage structures will be undertaken. Data obtained for these non-ideal
explosions in containment will provide validation and complementing information
of insight gained from small scale and medium scale tests. Together, these data
provide key input to the development of methods of risk assessment as currently
the only source data for the development of such models relate to high explosives
and munitions.
The work in the project is defined in the following Work Packages:

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WP 1 Management and Coordination

WP 2 Critical Review Panel
WP 3 Transfer of information
WP 4 Literature review
WP 5 Instrumentation development
WP 6 Instrumented Benchmarking
WP 7 Small-scale characterisation
WP 8 Medium-scale characterisation of packaged fireworks
WP 9 Instrumented full-scale testing
WP 10 Development of testing methodology

The work will provide an evaluation of current UN classification tests for the
transport of packaged fireworks and will provide data that will enable the tests to
be improved so that they can be used for the assessment of storage hazards. This
information, together with the design of new apparatus should form a basis for the
control of hazards at a European (e.g. CEN standards) and international (United
Nations) level.

1.2 Work package 5, Instrumentation development

Work package 5 (WP5, Instrumentation development) is carried out under respon-

sibility of TNO. The objective of WP5 is to determine the diagnostic instrumenta-
tion that is best suited to characterise and quantify the reaction process in fireworks
articles and packages, between packages and the effects on the environment in the
tests of WP6, WP7, WP8 and WP9.
In order to achieve this goal, the work is divided into three tasks:
• Task 5-1, Definition of the quantitative information required from different
tests.
Based on the required output from the various tests and the dominant physical
effects, the quantitative information that is required is determined.
• Task 5-2, Inventory, selection and development of the instrumentation tech-
niques.
Different means of recording the physical effects are categorised and cost-
benefits, reliability, accuracy and achievability of each system are evaluated.
For the development, for the most part the modification of existing instrumenta-
tion techniques to suit the test conditions is foreseen.
• Task 5-3, Developed instrumentation validation.
The suitability of the developed instrumentation techniques is tested (if neces-
sary) in small dedicated tests.

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1.3 This report

This partial report of WP 5 is deliverable D5-1: Quantitative overview of the

information needed to be met by instrumentation. Deliverables D5-2 and D5-3 will
be covered by a subsequent partial report and the final report of WP 5.

This report covers the work done in task 5-1. Based on discussions with the work
package leaders of WP6, WP7, WP8 and WP9 an inventory was made of the
information that they whish to obtain from the tests. This was translated into physi-
cal parameters that would need to be measured in order to obtain that information.
Where possible parameters are specified with the required bandwidth, range et
cetera. One of the main challenges in this project is that the instrumentation needs
to survive extreme test conditions. Therefore, the test set-up and test conditions are
specified in as much detailed as possible at this early point in the project. Combina-
tion of this information leads to the requirements for the measurement method and
instrumentation:
• Parameters to be measured and accuracy
• Conditions that the instruments must be able to withstand

These requirements were compiled for every measurement in every test. However,
at this early stage of the project, the specifications of the test set-ups cannot be
finalised. At a later stage, one or two measurements methods may have to be
added. Nevertheless, the large majority of the possible measurement methods are
covered in this report.

A full list of the possible measurement methods and instrumentation is not made in
this task, although sometimes illustrative examples of instruments that might be
used are given. This is the objective of task 5-2 and therefore the subject of the
next report.

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2 Foreseen tests and instrumentation requirements

This chapter lists in a systematic way the instrumentation requirements for the tests
and experiments. For each test, first the purpose of the test, the set-up and the
exposure conditions are given. Next, lists of the measurements that are desired are
presented. These lists give:
• the information that is required from the measurement;
• the motivation for doing the measurement (i.e., why is the information impor-
tant);
• the physical parameters that might be measured to obtain the information, with
sometimes examples of instrumentation for clarification;
• if possible a statement on the estimated cost-benefit ratio and an indication of
the likelyhood that the measurement will be included in the test. At this point in
time, the likelyhood can only be given in terms like: ‘highly likely’, ‘to be de-
termined’ and ‘highly unlikely’.

From this information tables of requirements are derived for the individual meas-
urements.

2.1 WP6, Instrumented benchmarking

2.1.1 Test purposes

The first objective is to characterise the selected packaged fireworks in standard-
ised UN series 6 tests. The results will be used as a benchmark in the project. The
second objective is to obtain additional information on the test conditions and the
response of the fireworks by utilising extra instrumentation in the tests.

2.1.2 Test set-up

The test set-up will be the standard set-up of the UN test series 6 [UN, 1999]. The
6 (a) single package test will only be done when the already present data basis does
not cover a specific type of articles. The main focus will lie on combined packages
with the 6 (b) stack tests and the 6 (c) bonfire test. The tests will be performed by
BAM and HSL, each applying different alternatives described in the test handbook.

2.1.3 Exposure conditions

In the 6 (a) and the 6 (b) tests, the conditions that instrumentation is exposed to are:
• moderate quasi-static confinement pressures, probably less than 100 kPa;
• blast pressure of single articles functioning normally (the type and calibre of the
articles is yet to be decided).
• high blast pressure in the case of a mass explosion, probably comparable in
energy to a 1 kg TNT explosion at 0.3 m distance, but with lower peak pres-
sures;

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• high temperature combustion gases. The temperature will maximally be the

adiabatic flame temperature of the pyrotechnic compound (often black powder).
However, flame temperature measurements in bonfire tests [Dirkse, 1992] indi-
cated that the flame temperature is maximally 1400 K for fireworks. For low
charge densities (< 1 kg/m3) the temperature is linearly proportional to the pres-
sure, until a maximum is reached of 3000 K (derived with Inblast calculations).
• The duration of the exposure to high temperatures is in the order of 10 s. This is
based on experience with 6 (b) tests with fireworks.
• Impacts of firework articles projected by their propelling charge or by frag-
ments from exploding firework articles. Mass and velocity to be determined.

In the 6 (c) tests, the conditions that instrumentation in the stack is exposed to are:
• low quasi-static confinement pressures, probably much less than 100 kPa;
• blast pressure of single articles functioning normally, calibre of the articles yet
to be decided.
• a mass explosion is unlikely, unless items that have not passed the 6 (b) test are
also subjected to a 6 (c) test.
• high temperature combustion gases. See the 6 (b) tests.
• The duration of the fireworks burn, and therefore the exposure to high tempera-
tures from fireworks is in the order of 100 s. The duration of the bonfire is ap-
proximately 40 minutes. These values are based on experience with 6 (c) tests
of fireworks.
• Impacts of firework articles projected by their propelling charge or by frag-
ments from exploding firework articles. Mass and velocity to be determined.

Outside the stack instrumentation is exposed to blast pressure and thermal radia-
tion. There is also a small risk of impact of fireworks projections.

2.1.4 Required information and envisioned instrumentation

The standard measurements and instrumentation of the test series 6 will be done,
including the instrumentation which is optional according to the UN test descrip-
tion.
These are for the 6 (a) and 6 (b) tests:
• evidence of thermal effects, for which the instrumentation is not prescribed but
which is usually done with a video camera;
• evidence of projection effects, for which the instrumentation is not prescribed
but which is usually done with a video camera and a search of the test site;
• evidence of a violent detonation, deflagration or explosion:
− from observation of the crater at the test site;
− measured with a sheet of 3.0 mm thick mild steel placed below the pack-
age(s) to act as a witness plate;
− measured with blast measuring equipment (optional).

The standard measurements and instrumentation in the 6 (c) test are:

• evidence of potentially hazardous projections, measured with:

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− three 2000 mm x 2000 mm x 2 mm aluminium sheets to act as witness

screens, placed in three quadrants at a distance of 4 m from the edge of the
packages;
− a search of the test site;
• evidence of explosion, measured with:
− colour cine or video cameras, preferably high speed and normal speed;
− blast gauges (optional);
• evidence of thermal effects (fireball, jet flame, fiery projections and heat radia-
tion), measured with:
− radiometers (optional);
− the cameras.

Extra information is desired on the test conditions and the response of the fire-
works.
• Characterisation of the amount of confinement, in particular in the 6 (a) and
6 (b) test but also in the 6 (c) test.
This is essential information for correlation of the test series 6 with the con-
finement that is possible in storage and transport conditions and with the con-
finement in the WP7 and WP8 test equipment.
It can be obtained by measurement of the pressure and temperature near the
centre of the stack, with a relatively low bandwidth.
These measurements will be difficult, but the information is important. Suitable
equipment is currently being developed and will be employed.
• Heat load that the fireworks are exposed to (both due to the reacting fireworks
and due to the bonfire).
This information is nice to know for comparison with the tests in WP7.
It could be obtained by measurement of the temperature and/or the thermal en-
ergy flux.
A decision whether to include it will be made when more is known about the
effort the measurements would require.
• Time of reaction of the fireworks articles, reaction rate.
It is almost certain that a correlation exists between the reaction rate and the
thermal radiation. Knowing this relation might make it possible to design a bet-
ter test method. A correlation might also exist with mass explosion effects. The
information can also be used for comparison with the tests in the other work
packages.
Recording fewer explosions than there are articles is evidence of simultaneous
explosions (or of unreacted articles).
It could be obtained by measurement of initiation of the individual articles (e.g.
with trigger wires) or by measurement of their blast (or perhaps light) effects
with high bandwidth and high range pressure measurement.
This is an essential information part and corresponding equipment will be tested
despite the difficulties.
• Time of reaction of the individual fireworks articles.
The former measurement gives information that an article reacted, but not

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which article. Knowing when each individual article reacts could give informa-
tion on the transition of reactions from one box to another box, or of the se-
quence of reactions in one box. This might lead to more insight in the mecha-
nism of sympathetic reactions.
It could be obtained by measurement of initiation of the individual articles (e.g.
with trigger wires).
Getting more insight is an objective of WP7, not of WP6. This will therefore
not be done in WP6.
• Explosion effects
Any classification test needs to establish in the first place whether sympathetic
reactions take place and in the second place what the hazards are. Having a ref-
erence of the explosion effects in the UN test series 6 is important, because the
criteria for classifying an article in the hazard divisions are not always rigor-
ously specified.
The standard measurements seem adequate to quantify the far-field explosion
effects. The close-in explosion effects could be obtained by measurement of the
deformation of the steel witness plate in the 6 (a) and 6 (b) tests (e.g. with strain
gauges) or with high bandwidth, high range pressure measurement.
Besides the standard measurements, the latter will be included.
• Measurement of the emissions
Knowing the type and quantity of the emissions would enable the environ-
mental impact of a fireworks accident to be predicted.
It could be measured by sampling the smoke and analysing this.
Note that this would be much easier to measure in WP8 or to calculate from the
composition and quantity of the pyrotechnic substances. This will therefore not
be done in WP6.

2.1.5 Instrumentation requirements 6 (a) and 6 (b) tests

2.1.5.1 External blast

type of measurement external blast

information Reaction rate of the fireworks articles

evidence of a violent detonation, deflagration
or explosion
physical parameter to be incident air pressure (gauge or absolute)
measured:
range: 50 - 550 kPa absolute
bandwidth: 100 kHz
accuracy: ±1%
duration of measurements: 300 s
test conditions that the sensor heat radiation
and cables are exposed to:
allowable space and position of NOT APPLICABLE
the sensor and cable:

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2.1.5.2 Internal blast

An internal blast measurement can give information for several purposes. The
requirements for these are combined.

type of measurement Internal blast in 6 (b) test

information Characterisation of the amount of

confinement
Reaction rate of the fireworks articles
Time of reaction of the fireworks articles
Close-in explosion effects
physical parameter to be air pressure
measured:
range: 0-700 bar
bandwidth: 100 kHz
accuracy: ± 1%
duration of measurements: 300 s
test conditions that the sensor fire, pressure, explosion effects
and cables are exposed to:
allowable space and position of to be determined, in direct vicinity of testing
the sensor and cable: package

2.1.5.3 Internal temperature

type of measurement temperature measurement

information Characterisation of the amount of

confinement
Heat load that the fireworks are exposed to
physical parameter to be temperature
measured:
range: 0-1400 K
bandwidth: 0.5 kHz
accuracy: 5%
duration of measurements: 300 s
test conditions that the sensor fire, pressure, explosion effects
and cables are exposed to:
allowable space and position of to be determined, inside the test sample
the sensor and cable:

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2.1.5.4 Visualisation

type of measurement visualisation

information evidence of thermal effects

evidence of projection effects
physical parameter to be NOT APPLICABLE
measured:
range: not applicable
bandwidth: 50 Hz
resolution: not applicable
duration of measurements: 300 s
test conditions that the sensor fireworks projections, moderate blast
and cables are exposed to:
allowable space and position of no restrictions
the sensor and cable:

2.1.5.5 Witness plate

The witness plate is prescribed in [UN, 1999].

type of measurement witness plate

information brisance of explosion

evidence of fragmentation

2.1.5.6 Time of reaction

type of measurement trigger wire

information Time of reaction of the fireworks articles,

reaction rate
physical parameter to be not applicable
measured:
range: not applicable
bandwidth: 100 kHz
resolution: not applicable
accuracy: not applicable
duration of measurements: 300 s
test conditions that the sensor fire, nearby explosions
and cables are exposed to:
allowable space and position of to be determined, inside the package
the sensor and cable:

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2.1.5.7 Deformation of witness plate

type of measurement Deformation of witness plate

information close-in explosion effects

physical parameter to be
measured:
range:
bandwidth:
resolution:
accuracy:
duration of measurements:
test conditions that the sensor
and cables are exposed to:
allowable space and position of
the sensor and cable:
strain or displacement
0-20% (strain) 0-200 mm
100 kHz or post-test
-
10 %
300 s or post-test
shielded from fire and explosions
to be determined

2.1.6 Instrumentation requirements 6 (c) tests

2.1.6.1 External blast

type of measurement external blast

information Reaction rate of the fireworks articles

physical parameter to be
measured:
range:
bandwidth:
accuracy:
duration of measurements:
test conditions that the sensor
and cables are exposed to:
allowable space and position of
the sensor and cable:
evidence of a violent detonation, deflagration
or explosion
incident air pressure (gauge or absolute)
50 - 550 kPa absolute
100 kHz
1%
300 s typical, 2000 s maximal
heat radiation
no restrictions, at approx. 10 m distance

2.1.6.2 Internal blast

type of measurement internal blast

information Confinement pressure

physical parameter to be
measured:
range:
bandwidth:
accuracy:
duration of measurements:
test conditions that the sensor
and cables are exposed to:
allowable space and position of
the sensor and cable:
Reaction rate of the fireworks articles
air pressure
0-50 kPa (confinement pressure) 0-700 bar
(blast from article)
100 kHz
1 % (for confinement pressure)
300 s
Fire, pressure, explosion effects
to be determined, in or near the stack

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2.1.6.3 Internal temperature

type of measurement temperature measurement

information Heat load that the fireworks are exposed to

physical parameter to be Temperature
measured:
range: < 1400 K
bandwidth: 0.5 kHz
accuracy: ±5 %
duration of measurements: 300 s
test conditions that the sensor fire, explosion effects, explosion effects
and cables are exposed to:
allowable space and position of to be determined, in the package or stack
the sensor and cable:

2.1.6.4 Heat radiation

type of measurement Heat radiation

information evidence of thermal effects

physical parameter to be Heat radiation
measured:
2
range: corresponding to up to 20 kW/m in 15 m
distance of the test site
bandwidth: 1 Hz
accuracy: ±5 %
duration of measurements: 300 s
test conditions that the sensor none
and cables are exposed to:
allowable space and position of no restrictions, at a distance of approx. 50 m
the sensor and cable:

2.1.6.5 Visualisation

type of measurement visualisation

information evidence of thermal effects (fireball, jet

flame, fiery projections and heat radiation)
evidence of projection effects
evidence of explosion
physical parameter to be not applicable
measured:
range: not applicable
bandwidth: 50 Hz
resolution: colour
duration of measurements: 300 s
test conditions that the sensor none
and cables are exposed to:
allowable space and position of no restrictions, at a distance of approx. 50 m
the sensor and cable:

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2.1.6.6 Witness screens

The witness screens are prescribed in [UN, 1999].

type of measurement witness screen

information evidence of potentially hazardous

projections

2.2 WP7, Small-scale characterisation

2.2.1 Test purposes

Clear test and experiment purposes (in the form of hypotheses that are to be tested)
have not yet been defined. Aims are:
• To determine the reaction mechanism in fireworks, i.e. deformation (friction
initiation when the article is crushed); shock initiation (not considered likely) or
thermal initiation.
• To determine the propagation mechanism in fireworks, and determine which
parameters influence the propagation.

The tests and experiments are aimed both at the 1.4 to 1.3 transition, which is
expected to be thermal initiation, and at the 1.3 to 1.1 transition, which may well
have a different initiation mechanism (i.e. deformation).

2.2.2 Test set-up, 1D

The 1D test consists of a closed round or rectangular tube in which the articles are
placed. The confinement level (pressure) is controlled by a burst membrane cover-
ing a vent opening. The size of the tube will depend strongly on the size of the
firework articles that will be selected.
Possible variables are:
• confinement level;
• type of items;
• loading density;
• initiation: squib; detonation.
• spacing between items;
• packaging between items;
• original or mechanically damaged items.

It will be important to distinguish between thermal and mechanical initiation. For

example by use of a perforated wall that allows pressure and heat to pass, but not
debris or fragments.
In its most simple form it is a closed vessel with one item or amount of substance.

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2.2.3 Test set-up, 2D

The 2D test set-up consists of a flat box, with a transparent lid. The items are
placed in the box. Otherwise it is the same as the 1D test set-up. Due to the geome-
try the pressure level that can be achieved is lower.

2.2.4 Test set-up, additional tests

It may be necessary to do some closed-vessel tests on pyrotechnic substances. This
gives a reference burning rate and pressure dependence of the burning rate.
It may be useful to do hammer drop tests in order to study crushing in the absence
of fire effects.
It may be useful to determine the fire resistance / burning behaviour of the packag-
ing materials.

2.2.5 Exposure conditions

The mean pressure is not known yet.
The temperature will be around 1400 K. The entire tube will be filled with fire.
For the local pressures, mass explosion of the articles should be considered as the
extreme.
The tests might have a duration of the order of 10 s.

2.2.6 Required information and envisioned instrumentation

Needed parameters are:
• pressure, in the vicinity of the articles and mean pressure;
• initiation time of items
• temperatures, at positions on or near the articles. Both radiation and convection
may be important.
• flame position (reactive species might be important for thermal initiation)
• deformation of articles, pressures in articles, temperatures in articles;
• displacement of articles;
• not needed is the amount and type of toxic products that are generated.

Possible solutions are:

• robust pressure gauges, resistant to heat;
• trigger wires;
• camera through transparent lid, in both 1D and 2D test (but many difficulties
with smoke foreseen).

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2.2.7 Instrumentation requirements, 1D tests

2.2.7.1 Internal pressure

type of measurement internal pressure measurement

information confinement pressure

initiation time, reaction rate
explosion effect
physical parameter to be reflected or incident pressure
measured:
range: 0-700 bar
bandwidth: 100 kHz
resolution: -
accuracy: ±1%
duration of measurements: 0 – 60 s
test conditions that the sensor Heat/fire, explosion effects
and cables are exposed to:
allowable space and position of to be determined
the sensor and cable:

2.2.7.2 Temperature

type of measurement Temperature

information Flame position

Heat load on articles
Reaction of articles
physical parameter to be Temperature
measured: Possibly heat radiation
range: 0 – 2000 °C
bandwidth: 10 kHz
resolution:
accuracy: ±5%
duration of measurements: 300 s
test conditions that the sensor Heat, fire, explosion effects
and cables are exposed to:
allowable space and position of to be determined
the sensor and cable:

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2.2.7.3 Initiation time

type of measurement Initiation time of article

information Initiation time

physical parameter to be Trigger wire
measured: Air pressure
Light
range: to be determined
bandwidth: 10 kHz
resolution:
accuracy: depends on chosen parameter
duration of measurements: 300 s
test conditions that the sensor Heat/fire, explosion effects
and cables are exposed to:
allowable space and position of to be determined
the sensor and cable:

2.2.7.4 Flame position

type of measurement flame position

information position of reaction products

physical parameter to be temperature
measured: ionisation
light, heat radiation
range:
bandwidth: 1 kHz
resolution: to be determined
accuracy:
duration of measurements: 60 s
test conditions that the sensor fire, heat, explosion effects (for intermal
and cables are exposed to: sensor only)
allowable space and position of to be determined
the sensor and cable:

2.2.7.5 Deformation of articles

type of measurement deformation of articles

information amount of deformation that articles are

subjected to
physical parameter to be strain
measured: visual shape
range: to be determined
bandwidth: 10 kHz
resolution:
accuracy: to be determined
duration of measurements: 60 s
test conditions that the sensor Heat/fire, pressure
and cables are exposed to:
allowable space and position of to be determined
the sensor and cable:

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2.2.7.6 Displacement of articles

type of measurement displacement

information displacement of articles

physical parameter to be position
measured:
range: 0 – 200 mm
bandwidth: 50 Hz
resolution:
accuracy:
duration of measurements: 60 s
test conditions that the sensor to be determined
and cables are exposed to:
allowable space and position of to be determined
the sensor and cable:

2.2.8 Instrumentation requirements, 2D tests

The instrumentation requirements for the 2D tests are identical to those of the 1D
tests.

2.2.9 Instrumentation requirements, additional tests

Closed vessel tests are expected to require only their standard instrumentation.
Drop hammer tests are expected to require only visualisation.

2.3 WP8, Medium-scale characterisation of packaged fireworks

2.3.1 Test purposes

To develop and utilise a medium scale apparatus to quantify the increase of pres-
sure with time when stocks of fireworks are ignited when stored in a fashion that is
relevant to the situations encountered in bulk storage and transport. The hypothesis
is that the pressure trace from burning fireworks in a closed vessel gives informa-
tion about its hazard classification.
The medium scale test could provide an alternative candidate method for classify-
ing packages of fireworks for transport and storage.

2.3.2 Test set-up

The test set-up consists of a pressure vessel of approximately 2 m diameter and
3.5 m length, with a working pressure of approximately 25 bar (that is, the pressure
produced by the burning of 25 kg of explosives). The vessel has several portholes.
Boxes of fireworks are placed inside and one of them is ignited. The pressure is not
vented until the test is finished.

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2.3.3 Exposure conditions

The exposure conditions are similar to those in the 6 (a) and the 6 (b) tests and the
1D and 2D tests. The difference is that the pressure might be higher. The expected
conditions that instrumentation is exposed to are:
• quasi-static confinement pressures, less than 2500 kPa;
• blast pressure of single articles functioning normally (the type and calibre of the
articles is yet to be decided).
• high blast pressure in the case of a mass explosion, probably comparable in
energy to a 1 kg TNT explosion at 0.3 m distance, but with lower peak pres-
sures;
• high temperature combustion gases. The temperature will be about 1400 K.
• The duration of the exposure to high temperatures and pressures is in the order
of 100 s. Say 10 s reaction and pressure rise, 10 s waiting time, 10 s vent time,
5 minutes ventilation.
• Impacts of firework articles projected by their propelling charge or by frag-
ments from exploding firework articles. Mass and velocity to be determined.

2.3.4 Required information and envisioned instrumentation

• Measurement of the pressure trace
This gives information on the amount of confinement pressure and the reaction
rate (low bandwidth) and type of reaction (pressure wave is indicative of a de-
flagration) (high bandwidth). This is essential information to test the hypothesis
that the pressure trace from burning fireworks in a closed vessel gives informa-
tion about its hazard classification. It is also essential for correlation with WP6,
WP7 and WP9.
It can be obtained by measurement of the pressure at the vessel wall or inside a
package, with a relatively high bandwidth.
These measurements will be difficult, but the information is important. Suitable
equipment is currently being developed and will be employed.
• Heat load that the fireworks are exposed to (due to the reacting fireworks).
This information is nice to know for comparison with the tests in WP7.
It could be obtained by measurement of the temperature and/or the thermal en-
ergy flux.
A decision whether to include it will be made when more is known about the
effort these measurements would require and depending on the outcome of WP7
• Time of reaction of the fireworks articles, reaction rate.
It could be obtained by measurement of initiation of the individual articles (e.g.
with trigger wires) or by measurement of their blast (or perhaps light) effects
with high bandwidth and high range pressure measurement.
• Time of reaction of the individual fireworks articles.
Knowing when each individual article reacts could give information on the tran-
sition of reactions from one box to another box, or of the sequence of reactions
in one box. This might lead to more insight in the mechanism of sympathetic
reactions.
It could be obtained by measurement of initiation of the individual articles (e.g.

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with trigger wires).

This information might be useful, depending on the outcome of WP7.
• Explosion effects
This is not required.
• Measurement of the emissions
Knowing the type and quantity of the emissions would enable to predict the en-
vironmental impact of a fireworks accident or classification test.
It could be measured by sampling the smoke and analysing this. An alternative
is to determine it analytically, from the chemical composition of the fireworks.
This will be investigated.

2.3.5 Instrumentation requirements, medium-scale tests

2.3.5.1 Internal pressure

type of measurement internal pressure measurement

information confinement pressure

initiation time, reaction rate
physical parameter to be reflected or incident pressure
measured:
range: 0-700 bar
bandwidth: 100 kHz
resolution:
accuracy: ±1%
duration of measurements: 0. – 60 s
test conditions that the sensor heat, fire, explosion effects
and cables are exposed to:
allowable space and position of to be determined
the sensor and cable:

2.3.5.2 Measurement of the emissions

type of measurement Toxic emissions

information type and amount of toxic emissions

physical parameter to be to be determined
measured:
range: nitrous oxides, metal oxides aerosol
bandwidth: not applicable
resolution: not applicable
accuracy: not applicable
duration of measurements: sample
test conditions that the sensor none
and cables are exposed to:
allowable space and position of sample port required
the sensor and cable:

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2.4 WP9, Instrumented full-scale validation tests

2.4.1 Test purposes

The objectives of these tests are:
• Confirmation at full scale of effects observed at small and medium scale in
other experimental WPs;
• Characterization of essential internal effects and mechanisms;
• Visualisation of experiments (both for visual interpretation of effects and for
presentation purposes).

2.4.2 Test set-up

The full-scale tests will be performed in steel 20 ft ISO freight containers to simu-
late transport/storage conditions and in light concrete structures to simulate storage
conditions. The containments will be filled with fireworks in their transport pack-
ages. The selection and possibly the mixture of articles will be determined
throughout the project in a continuous process. In this stage of the project, there are
several options for initiation, e.g.:
• internal fire;
• external fire; or
• initiation of a single article.
The tests will be carried out at the test ranges of MIAT in Poland. The number of
tests required is estimated at a maximum of 10, but this depends on results from
earlier WPs.

2.4.3 Exposure conditions

Inside the container, the conditions are similar to those in the 6 (b) test, see sec-
tion 2.1.3. Differences are:
• high blast pressure in the case of a mass explosion, probably comparable in
energy to a 1000 kg TNT explosion but with lower peak pressures;
• The duration of the exposure to high temperatures is in the order of 100 s.

Outside the container instrumentation can be exposed to blast pressure, a jet flame
and thermal radiation. There is also a risk of impact of fireworks projections and
debris from the container.

2.4.4 Required information and envisioned instrumentation

2.4.4.1 Internal process

• Location, sequence and number of ignited articles.
As validation of WP7 outcomes.
The instrumentation is likely to be the same as in WP7. Instrumentation will be
refined using experience gained in the project to date.
;

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• Flame spread.
As validation of WP7 and WP8 outcomes.
The instrumentation is likely to be the same as in WP7 or WP8.
;
• Pressure build up in the storage building.
As validation of WP7 and WP8 outcomes, for comparison with conditions in
6 (b) test in WP6.
The instrumentation is likely to be similar to that in WP7 or WP8.
;
• Pressure build-up in packages.
As validation of WP7 and WP8 outcomes; depends on ignition method.
The instrumentation is likely to be similar to that in WP6 or WP8.

• Multipoint temperature measurements;

• Characterisation of confinement of containers and storage buildings (pressurisa-
tion and depressurisation rate, burst pressure and failure mode).
This gives the level of confinement in realistic transport and storage conditions,
which can be used in WP10 for the development of testing methodology.
Measured e.g. with pressure gauges and normal speed video from several an-
gles.

2.4.4.2 Explosion effects

It should be noted that it is not an objective per se of the CHAF project to charac-
terise the hazards from a fireworks explosion. However, we propose to include
some measurements of explosion effects as they require relatively little effort
(except the debris search, which is not included in WP9 and will be carried out by a
subcontractor to HSL) and produce much information.
• External blast effects.
This gives a quantification of the blast hazard.
It can be measured with standard blast pressure measurements.
• Heat radiation and flame effects.
This gives a quantification of the jet flame, fire ball, fiery projections and heat
radiation.
It can be measured with standard normal speed visualisation and thermal radia-
tion measurements.
• Debris hazard (mass, terminal velocity, distribution).
This gives a quantification of the hazard from debris from the container or stor-
age building.
It can be deduced from:
− a debris search after the test;
− measurement of number, velocity and trajectory of debris in flight by visu-
alisation.

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2.4.4.3 Environmental effects of tests at this scale

• Qualitative and quantitative estimation of release products that create environ-
mental risks.
This information can be used to estimate the environmental impact of large-
scale fireworks (classification) tests and fireworks accidents.
A theoretical approach is possible. The amount of release products is estimated
from the quantity of pyrotechnic substance in the fireworks, taking decomposi-
tion processes into account. Alternatively, the environmental impact may be es-
timated by carrying out a combination of theoretical analysis, gas(and aerosol)
sample analysis in WP8, plume and downwind gas (and aerosol) sample analy-
sis in WP9.
According to consulted specialists, a theoretical approach is likely to give more
accurate results that a (purely) experimental approach in this case. To be de-
cided.

2.4.4.4 Visualisation
• Experiment visualisation.
This serves many purposes, which are already mentioned above. In addition,
visualisation is important for reporting and presentation purposes. Note that for
the latter purpose also the pre-test phase and the post-test phase needs to be re-
corded.
Visualisation can be done with still photography, normal speed video and high
speed cine and video. All need to be in colour.
Visualisation will certainly be included, but the extent is yet to be decided.

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2.4.5 Instrumentation requirements of full-scale tests

2.4.5.1 Internal pressure

type of measurement internal pressure measurement

information confinement pressure

initiation time, reaction rate
explosion effect
physical parameter to be reflected or incident pressure
measured:
range: 0-700 bar
bandwidth: 100 kHz
resolution:
accuracy: ±1%
duration of measurements: 100 s
test conditions that the sensor heat, fire, explosion effects
and cables are exposed to:
allowable space and position of to be determined
the sensor and cable:

2.4.5.2 Temperature

type of measurement temperature

information flame position

heat load on articles
reaction of articles
physical parameter to be temperature
measured: possibly heat radiation
range: 0 – 2000 °C
bandwidth: 1 Hz to 10 kHz, depending on required
information
resolution:
accuracy: ±5%
duration of measurements: 100 s
test conditions that the sensor fire, heat, explosion effects
and cables are exposed to:
allowable space and position of to be determined
the sensor and cable:

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2.4.5.3 Initiation time

type of measurement initiation time of article

information initiation time

physical parameter to be trigger wire
measured: air pressure
light
range: to be determined
bandwidth: 100 kHz
resolution: 4 bit
accuracy: 10 %
duration of measurements: 300 s
test conditions that the sensor Heat/fire, pressure, explosion effects
and cables are exposed to:
allowable space and position of to be determined
the sensor and cable:

2.4.5.4 Flame position

type of measurement flame position

information position of reaction products

physical parameter to be Temperature
measured: Ionisation
light, heat radiation
range: to be determined
bandwidth: 1 kHz
resolution: to be determined
accuracy: to be determined
duration of measurements: 300 s
test conditions that the sensor Fire, heat, explosion effects
and cables are exposed to:
allowable space and position of to be determined
the sensor and cable:

2.4.5.5 External blast

type of measurement external blast

information Reaction rate of the fireworks articles

evidence of a violent detonation, deflagration
or explosion
physical parameter to be incident air pressure (gauge or absolute)
measured:
range: 50 - 550 kPa absolute
bandwidth: 100 kHz
resolution:
accuracy: ± 1x %
duration of measurements: 300 s typical, 2000 s maximal
test conditions that the sensor Heat radiation
and cables are exposed to:
allowable space and position of not applicable
the sensor and cable:

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2.4.5.6 Heat radiation

type of measurement Heat radiation

information Evidence of thermal effects

physical parameter to be
measured:
range: 0-8000 W/m²
bandwidth: 1 Hz
resolution:
accuracy: 5%
duration of measurements: 300 to 2000 s
test conditions that the sensor none
and cables are exposed to:
allowable space and position of not applicable
the sensor and cable:

2.4.5.7 Visualisation

type of measurement visualisation

information evidence of thermal effects (fireball, jet

flame, fiery projections and heat radiation)
evidence of projection effects
evidence of explosion
physical parameter to be light
measured:
range: not applicable
bandwidth: 50 Hz
resolution: not applicable
accuracy: not applicable
duration of measurements: 300 s to 2000 s
test conditions that the sensor none
and cables are exposed to:
allowable space and position of not applicable
the sensor and cable:

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3 Conclusion

The objective of WP5 is to determine the diagnostic instrumentation that is best

suited for the experiments to be carried out in WP6, WP7, WP8 and WP9. The
work was divided into three tasks, with the first task being to define the quantita-
tive information required from the different experiments.
Chapter 2 lists that information and has as end product lists of requirements for the
various measurements. Many of the measurements are very similar in the different
tests, with only the range of measurement or the exposure conditions varying.
In the next task, different instruments and measurement methods will be catego-
rised and cost-benefits, reliability, accuracy and achievability of each system will
be evaluated.

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4 References

Dirkse, M.W.L.,
Meetresultaten van stralingsmetingen aan klein vuurwerk en kruit, november 1990
en mei 1991,
TNO Prins Maurits Laboratorium, PML 1992-IN18, Rijswijk, augustus 1992.

UN,
Recommendations on the transport of dangerous goods. Manual of tests and crite-
ria, Third revised edition,
United Nations, ST/SG/AC.10/11/Rev.3, New York, 1999.

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5 Authentication

C.J. de Ruiter R.M.M. van Wees

Project leader Author

dr. L.H.J. Absil

Group leader

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SUMMARY: SUMMARY:

CHAF (Quantification and Control of Hazards associated with the Transport and Storage of Fireworks) is
an EU 5th framework project by HSL (UK), TNO (The Netherlands) and BAM (Germany). Its aims are to
obtain a better understanding of the conditions that give rise to explosions in packaged fireworks under
transport and storage conditions and to improve classification methods for fireworks. A large number of
instrumented tests form the core of the project. Work package 5 aims to determine the instrumentation
that is best suited for the tests.
This report is on the first task in that work package which defines the quantitative information required
from the different tests. Lists of requirements for the various measurements were produced. It should be
noted that many of the measurement requirements are very similar in the different tests, with only the
range of measurement or the exposure conditions varying.
CHAF (Quantification and Control of Hazards associated with the Transport and Storage of Fireworks) is
an EU 5th framework project by HSL (UK), TNO (The Netherlands) and BAM (Germany). Its aims are to
obtain a better understanding of the conditions that give rise to explosions in packaged fireworks under
transport and storage conditions and to improve classification methods for fireworks. A large number of
instrumented tests form the core of the project. Work package 5 aims to determine the instrumentation
that is best suited for the tests.
This report is on the first task in that work package which defines the quantitative information required
from the different tests. Lists of requirements for the various measurements were produced. It should be
noted that many of the measurement requirements are very similar in the different tests, with only the
range of measurement or the exposure conditions varying.

TNO Prins Maurits Laboratory TNO Prins Maurits Laboratory

Report no.: PML 03D2/699 Report no.: PML 03D2/699

Assignment no(s): 014.13567.01.05 Assignment no(s): 014.13567.01.05
Date: March 2003 Date: March 2003
Title: CHAF WP5, Instrumentation development D5-1, Quantitative Title: CHAF WP5, Instrumentation development D5-1, Quantitative
overview of the information needed to be met by instrumentation overview of the information needed to be met by instrumentation
Author: R.M.M. van Wees (TNO) A. von Oertzen (BAM) J.H.G. Author: R.M.M. van Wees (TNO) A. von Oertzen (BAM) J.H.G.
Scholtes (TNO) S. Myatt (HSL) C.J. de Ruiter (TNO) Scholtes (TNO) S. Myatt (HSL) C.J. de Ruiter (TNO)
Descriptor(s): Fireworks Hazardous goods Transport classifica- Descriptor(s): Fireworks Hazardous goods Transport classifica-
tion Explosions tion Explosions