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Definitions/ Descriptions of Various Coastal Structures
Types of Breakwaters
Rubble Mound Breakwater Design
Layout Options for Rubble Mound Breakwaters and Jetties
General Description
Design Wave
Water Levels and Datums
Design Parameters
Design Concept/ Procedure
Structure Elevation, Run-up and Overtopping
Crest/Crown Width
Armor Unit Size and Stability
Underlayer Design
Bedding and Filter Design
Toe Structures
Low Crested Breakwaters
Slope and Foundation stability
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Definitions/ Descriptions of Various Coastal Structures
Breakwater - a structure that protects the area in its lee from wave attack. Breakwaters
can be connected to the shoreline (attached breakwater) or completely isolated
from the shore (detached breakwater). (rubble mound structure or composite)
Bulkhead, seawall, revetment - structures built to separate the land from the water to
prevent erosion and other damage primarily due to wave action.
Waves
groin
Waves
island
bay
shoreline
jetty
island
detached
breakwater
Waves
Waves
harbor/marina
shoreline
shoreline
attached
breakwater
Types of Breakwaters
Rubble Mound Breakwater (Structure) - consist of interior graded layers of stone and an
outer armor layer. Armor layer may be of stone or specially shaped concrete units.
Layering provides better economy (large stones are more expensive) and the
structure does not typically fail catastrophically (i.e. protection continues to be
provided after damage and repairs may be made after the storm passes).
Readily repaired.
Armor units are large enough to resist wave attack, but allow high wave
energy transmission (hence the layering to reduce transmission). Graded
layers below the armor layer absorb wave energy and prevent the finer soil in
the foundation from being undermined.
Sloped structure produces less reflected wave action than the wall type.
Composite Breakwater
(low mound)
Sheet-pile walls and sheet-pile cells of various shapes are in common use.
Reflection of energy and scour at the toe of the structure are important
considerations for all vertical structures.
If forces permit and the foundation is suitable, steel-sheet pile structures may
be used in depths up to about 40 feet.
When foundation conditions are suitable, steel sheet piles may be used to form
a cellular, gravity-type structure without penetration of the piles into the
bottom material.
Floating Breakwaters - potential application for boat basin protection, boat ramp
protection, and shoreline erosion control.
Composite
Vertical
Low mound
High mound
Advantages
Disadvantages
1.
2.
3.
1.
2.
e. Overtopped breakwater
i. Crest elevation may be set by the design wave height that can be expected
during the period the harbor will be used (especially true in colder climates).
ii. Overtopped structures are more difficult to design because their stability
response is strongly affected by small changes in the still water level.
3. Submerged Breakwater
a. Example: A detached breakwater constructed parallel to the coastline and designed to
dissipate sufficient wave energy to eliminate or reduce shoreline erosion.
b. Advantages:
i. Less expensive to build.
ii. May be aesthetically more pleasing (do not encroach on any scenic view)
c. Disadvantages:
i. Significantly less wave protection is provided
ii. Monitoring the structure's condition is more difficult.
iii. Navigation hazards may be created.
4. Single or Double.
a. Jetties: Double parallel jetties will normally be required to direct tidal currents to
keep the channel scoured to a suitable depth. However, there may be instances where
coastline geometry is such that a single updrift jetty will provide a significant amount
of stabilization. One disadvantage of single jetties is the tendency of the channel to
migrate toward the structure.
b. Breakwaters: Choice of single or double breakwaters will depend on such factors as
coastline geometry and predominant wave direction. Typically, a harbor positioned in
a cove will be protected by double breakwaters extended seaward and arced toward
each other with a navigation opening between the breakwater heads. For a harbor
constructed on the open coastline a single offshore breakwater with appropriate
navigation openings might be the more advantageous.
5. Weir Section. Some jetties are constructed with low shoreward ends that act as weirs.
Water and sediment can be transported over this portion of the structure for part or all of a
normal tidal cycle. The weir section, generally less than 500 feet long, acts as a
breakwater and provides a semi-protected area for dredging of the deposition basin when
it has filled. The basin is dredged to store some estimated quantity of sand moving into
the basin during a given time period. A hydraulic dredge working in the semi-protected
waters can bypass sand to the downdrift beach.
6. Deflector Vanes. In many instances where jetties are used to help maintain a navigation
channel, currents will tend to propagate along the ocean-side of the jetty and deposit their
sediment load in the mouth of the channel. Deflector vanes can be incorporated into the
jetty design to aid in turning the currents and thus help to keep the sediments away from
the mouth of the channel. Position, length, and orientation of the vanes can be optimized
in a model investigation.
7. Arrowhead Breakwaters. When a breakwater is constructed parallel to the coastline
navigation conditions at the navigation opening may be enhanced by the addition of
arrowhead breakwaters. Prototype experience with such structures however has shown
them to be of questionable benefit in some cases.
Arrowhead Breakwaters
General Description
Multi-layer design. Typical design has at least three major layers:
1. Outer layer called the armor layer (largest units, stone or specially shaped
concrete armor units)
2. One or more stone underlayers
3. Core or base layer of quarry-run stone, sand, or slag (bedding or filter layer
below)
Design Wave
1. Usually H1/3, but may be H1/10 to reduce repair costs (Pacific NW) (USACE
recommends H1/10)
2. The depth limited breaking wave should be calculated and compared with the
unbroken storm wave height, and the lesser of the two chosen as the design
wave. (Breaking occurs in water in front of structure)
3. Use Hb/hb ~ 0.6 to 1.1
4. For variable water depth, design in segments
Breaking Wave Considerations (SPM, Chapter 7)
The design breaker height (Hb) depends on the depth of water some distance
seaward from the structure toe where the wave first begins to break. This depth
varies with tidal stage.
Therefore, the design breaker height depends on the critical design depth at the
structure toe, the slope on which the structure is built, incident wave steepness,
and the distance traveled by the wave during breaking.
Assume that the design wave plunges on the structure
Hb
ds
m p
Water Levels and Datums. Both maximum and minimum water levels are needed for the
designing of breakwaters and jetties. Water levels can be affected by storm surges,
seiches, river discharges, natural lake fluctuations, reservoir storage limits, and
ocean tides.
High-water levels are used to estimate maximum depth-limited breaking wave
heights and to determine crown elevations.
Low-water levels are generally needed for toe design.
a. Tide Predictions, The National Ocean Service (NOS) publishes tide height
predictions and tide ranges. Figure 2-l shows spring tide ranges for the continental
United States. Published tide predictions are sufficient for most project designs;
however, prototype observations may be required in some instances.
b. Datum Planes. Structural features should be referred to appropriate low-water
datum planes. The relationship of low-water datum to the National Geodetic
Vertical Datum (NGVD) will be needed for vertical control of construction. The
low-water datum for the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts is being converted to mean
lower low water (MLLW). Until the conversion is complete, the use of mean low
water (MLW) for the Atlantic and Gulf Coast low water datum (GCLWD) is
acceptable. Other low-water datums are as follows:
Pacific Coast: Mean lower low water (MLLW)
Great Lakes: International Great Lakes Datum (IGLD)
Rivers: River, low-water datum planes (local)
Reservoirs: Recreation pool levels
Design Parameters
h
hc
R
ht
B
Bt
b
t
W
crown/cap
crest
armor layer, W
R
DHW
hc
SWL
ht
first underlayer
b
second underlayer
toe
core/base
Bt
H s Lm
Ru H S a m
Ru H S b
c
m
a
1.12
0.96
0.86
0.77
0.47
b
1.34
1.17
1.05
0.94
0.60
c
0.55
0.46
0.44
0.42
0.34
SWL
Ru H S d
d
2.58
1.97
1.68
1.45
0.82
Run-up = Ru
Run-down = Rd
Run-up
SWL
Run-down
SWL
Reduction factors are applied to the Run-up formula to account for roughness,
oblique waters and overtopping
RuR H S Ru H S i
Roughness Reduction Factors are:
Reduction factor ()
Smooth impermeable (including smooth
concrete and asphalt)
1.0
0.8
Gravel
0.7
0.5-0.6
Overtopping occurs if water level exceeds the freeboard (R), depends on relative
freeboard, R/Hs, wave period, wave steepness, permeability, porosity, and surface
roughness. Usually overtopping of a rubble structure such as a breakwater or jetty
can be tolerated only if it does not cause damaging waves behind the structure.
Owen (1980, 1982)
H
R sm
Rm*
sm s
H s 2 , where
Lm
mean overtopping discharge ( Q in m3/s/m or ft3/s/ft):
Q gH s Tm a exp b Rm*
use run-up reduction factors, , above
for straight smooth slopes (no berms), non-depth limited waves
Slope
a
b
1:1
0.008
20
1:1.5
0.010
20
1:2
0.013
22
1:3
0.016
32
1:4
0.019
47
Q 0.01 m 3 /s/m
Pedestrians
Q 0.05 m 3 /s/m
Concrete Caps - considered for strengthening the crest, increasing crest height,
providing access along crest for construction or maintenance. Evaluate by
calculating cost of cap vs. cost of increasing breakwater dimensions to
increase overtopping stability
Crest/ Crown Width (note: crown may extent above the breakwater crest)
Depends on degree of allowed overtopping. Not critical if no overtopping is
allowed. Minimum of 3 armor units or 3 meters for low degree of overtopping.
W
B 3k
a
1/ 3
Civil Engineers, Waterways and Harbors Division, Vol. 85, NO. WW3, Paper No.
2171.
W = median weight of armor unit
D = diameter of armor unit
a = unit weight of armor (gen. a = 2.65 for quarry stone, 2.4 for shapes)
H = design wave height (note affect of cubic power on armor wt.)
KD = stability coefficient (Table 1 below, from SPM)
SG = a/w
= slope angle from the horizontal
Rough analysis of forces give formula for a "dimensionless wave height"
or stability number
H
H
Ns
1/ 3
SG 1 D
SG 1 W
a
Experiments related the stability number to the face slope and armor unit
shape
1/ 3
N s K D cot
Combining give Hudson's equation for required armor unit weight
W
aH 3
K D SG 1 cot
3
breakwater slope and sea bottom are a critical stability area and should be
thoroughly evaluated in the design.
The weight of armor units in the secondary cover layer, between -1.5H
and -2H, should be approximately equal to one-half the weight of armor units in
the primary cover layer (W/2). Below -2H. the weight requirements can be
reduced to approximately W/l5 . When the structure is located in shallow water,
where the waves break, armor units in the primary cover layer should be extended
down the entire slope.
The above-mentioned ratios between the weights of armor units in the
primary and secondary cover layers are applicable only when stone units are used
in the entire cover layer for the same slope. When pre-cast concrete units are used
in the primary cover layer, the weight of stone in the other layers should be based
on the equivalent weight of stone armor.
For example:
tetrapods armor design
conditions: 20 foot non-breaking wave attack on a structure trunk
a = 150 lbf/ft3 for tetrapods SG = 150/64 = 2.34
slope = lV:2H
KD = 8.0 for tetrapod armor
KD = 4.0 for rough angular stone
W
for tetrapod:
aH 3
K D SG 1 cot
3
1/ 3
Na
P
nk 1
A
100
2/3
H/HD=0, where HD=0 is the design wave height corresponding to 0-5 % damage
(no-damage condition)
See Table 3 below for H/HD=0 values
Table 1, Stability Coefficient, KD (breaking occurs before the wave reaches the structure)
Structure Trunk
(b)
KD
Non-breaking
wave
Structure Head
KD
Breaking Non-breaking
Wave
wave
Slope
Armor units
n(a)
Placement
Breaking
Wave
Quarry stone
Smooth rounded
Smooth rounded
Rough angular
2
>3
1
Random
Random
Random (d)
1.2
1.6
(d)
2.4
3.2
2.9
1.2
1.4
(d)
1.9
2.3
2.3
1.5 to 3.0
(c)
(c)
Rough angular
Random
2.0
4.0
1.9
1.6
1.3
3.2
2.8
2.3
1.5
2.0
3.0
Rough angular
Rough angular
Parallelepiped (f)
>3
2
2
Special (e)
Special (e)
Random
2.2
5.8
7.0 - 20.0
4.5
7.0
8.5 - 24.0
2.1
5.3
--
4.2
6.4
--
(c)
(c)
(c)
Tetrapod and
Quadripod
Random
7.0
8.0
5.0
4.5
3.5
6.0
5.5
4.0
1.5
2.0
3.0
Tribar
Random
9.0
10.0
8.3
7.8
6.0
9.0
8.5
6.5
1.5
2.0
3.0
Dolos
Random
15.0 (g)
31.0 (g)
8.0
7.0
16.0
14.0
2.0 (h)
3.0
Modified Cube
Random
6.5
7.5
--
5.0
(c)
Hexapod
Random
8.0
9.5
5.0
7.0
(c)
Toskanes
Random
11.0
22.0
--
--
(c)
Tribar
Uniform
12.0
15.0
7.5
9.5
(c)
Quarrystone (KRR)
Graded angular
--
Random
2.2
2.5
--
--
--
cot
(a)
NOTE : Breaking wave stability coefficients for stone and dolos were developed using a 1V:10H foreslope.
Layer Thickness
Coefficient, k
1.00
1.00
1.04
0.95
1.15
1.10
1.02
1.13
1.03
0.94
Porosity
Percent
38
37
50
49
47
47
54
47
52
56
Underlayers Design
Armor Layer provides structural stability against external forces (waves)
Underlayers prevent core or base material from escaping.
Requirements:
1. Prevent fine material from leaching out.
2. Allow for sufficient porosity to avoid excessive pore pressure build-up
inside the breakwater that could lead to instability or liquefaction in
extreme cases
Note: requirements are in conflict, Eng. must provide an optimum solution
Based on spherical shape geometry , core material cannot escape the cover
layer if the diameter ratio of the cover material (D) to the core material (d) is
less than six. (i.e. D/d < 6)
D15
5
d
85
For sorted material (e.g. quarry stones) under static (calm) load :
Under dynamic load (i.e. wave forces), more restrictive rules apply:
D50
W
2.5 to 3
15 to 25
d 50
, which gives wbase
(assumes W D3)
Weight Ratio
W/1
W/10
W/200
W/4000
will settle into the sand until it reaches the depth below which the sand will
not be disturbed by the currents. Large amounts of rubble may be required to
allow for the loss of rubble because of settlement. This, in turn, can provide a
stable foundation.
Criteria for granular filter design:
D15
4 to 5
d
85
To prevent material from leaching out:
d85 = dia. exceeded by the coarsest 15% of the base mat'l
D15 = dia. exceeded by the coarsest 85% of the filter mat'l
(important in breakwater design)
D15
4 to 5
To prevent pore pressure build-up: d15
(important for embankment design)
D60
10
D
10
To maintain filter layer internal stability:
(i.e. well sorted
material is preferred). Poorly sorted material is not suitable for filters
D60
20
D10
(internally unstable too much washes out)
Stability against wave attack of the exposed bedding material has been found to
be analogous to the stability of the armor layer of a rubble mound structure, with
the exceptions that the slope of the seaward face () vanishes from the problem
and the local wavelength (L) is considered. The required median weight (W50) can
be calculated from the following equation:
50 H 3
W50
3
2
1.34 10 5 SG50 1 1 L
Bedding Layer should extend 5 feet horizontally beyond the toe cover stone.
Geotextile filter fabric may be used as a substitute for a bedding layer or filter blanket,
especially for bank protection structures.
When a fabric is used, a protective layer of spalls or crushed rock (7-inch
maximum to 4-inch minimum size) having a recommended minimum thickness of
2 feet should be placed between the fabric and adjacent stone to prevent puncture
of the fabric. Filter criteria should be met between the protective layer of spalls
and adjacent stone.
Advantages: uniform properties and quality.
Disadvantage: susceptible to weathering, tearing, clogging and flopping.
Toe Structures
No rigorous criteria. Design is complicated by interactions between main
structure, hydrodynamic forces and foundation soil. Design is often ad hoc or
based on laboratory testing. Toe failure often leads to major structural failure.
Functions of toe structure:
1. support the armor layer and prevent it from sliding (armor layer is
subject to waves and will tend to assume the equilibrium beach profile
shape)
2. protect against scouring at the toe of the structure
3. prevent underlying material from leaching out
4. provide structural stability against circular or slip failure
Toe Structure Functions
EBP
weak soil
ht
H1/ 3
f N s 0.22
h
SG 1 D50
ht
H1/ 3
0.253
h
SG 1 D50
Return flow
and vortex formation
ds
Generally:
ds
f 0.5 to 1.0
H
, with 1.0 at ~ 2.7
The following design equations are based on preventing or minimizing scour in front of
vertical structures
Toe Apron Width (Bt) - width should be the maximum of Bt = 2H or Bt = 0.4h
Toe Stone Weight
Wt
aH 3
N s2 SG 1 cot
3
1 K 2 ht
1 K ht
N s 1.3
1
.
8
exp
1
.
5
1/ 3
K 1/ 3 H
K H
or
Ns = 1.8
2kht
sin 2 kBt
sinh 2kht
N s*
Use a modified stability number
H 2 / 3 L1 / 3
1/ 3
SG 1 W
a
a H L
2
SG 1 3 N s* 3
L is the wave length at the structure depth and is calculated using peak
period (Tp) for random waves.
AS
D502 , where A = area of damage (see
Damage Level (S) is defined as:
s
diagram) and D50 = median stone size of the breakwater
S
hc
2.1 0.1S exp 0.14 N s*
h
As = area of structure
profile from which stone
has been removed/lost
hc