MODULE:

FUNDAMENTALS OF PIPELINE ENGINEERING

PPE 801.2:

PIPELINE HYDRAULIC ANALYSIS & DEFECT

ASSESSMENT ON PIPELINES

Course Lecturer:

AKHIGBEMIDU Chris, Ph.D.,

R.Eng.(8057)

February 23-27, 2015

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page

NOTATIONS

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

iii

1 Introduction

2 Important Thermo-Fluid Concepts

3 Review of Thermodynamics Principles

3.1 The Laws of Thermodynamics

3.1.1

First Law of Thermodynamics

3.1.2

Second Law of Thermodynamics

3.1.3

Isoprocess

4 Pipeline Flow Calculations

4.1 Basic Principles of Fluid Flow in Pipes

9
9

4.1.1

Conservation of Mass Principle

4.1.2

Work-Energy principle

10

4.1.3 Principle of Impulse-Momentum

12

4.2 Reynolds Number

14

4.3 Darcy-Weisbach Pipe Friction Equation

15

4.4 Minor Energy Loses

18

4.5 Flow properties in pipelines

19

4.6 Basic Flow Calculations for Gases

20

4.7 Problems caused by changes in flow conditions

22

5 Definition and Types of Defects in Pipelines

5.1 Failure Statistics and Relative Causes of Pipeline Failures

23
24

6 Failure Modes and Description of how Pipelines Fail

26

6.1 Effect of Manufacturing and Installation Defects

27

6.2 Effect of Corrosion

29

6.3 Effect of Operational Pressure Surges

29
ii

6.4 Influence of Ground Movement on Pipelines

30

6.5 Effect of Environmental Activities and Pipeline Intrusion

30

7 Defect Assessment
7.1 Design Code and Standard Requirements

32
33

7.1.2 Pipeline Defect Assessment Manual (PDAM)

33

7.1.2 The API 579-1/ASME FFS-1 Standard

36

7.1.3 RSTRENG and the Modified B31G criteria

39

8. Introduction to Pipeline Engineering Critical Assessment (ECA)

46

REFERENCES

48

APPENDIX I:

GLOSSARY OF TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

50

iii

Introduction

In Course PPE 801.1, we defined a pipeline as an assembly of linepipes

continuously strung together by welding (or other such means of joining)
and devices such as pumps, compressors, valves, swivels, metering
stations, regulator stations, manifolds, risers, pig launchers/receivers and
other accessories for conveying a fluid from one point to another. We
stated that the driving force in a pipeline is by virtue of the pressure
differential that is generated by pumps and compressors between the inlet
and outlet.
We surmised that not every hollow piping system used in fluid
transportation could be classified as a pipeline in the strict sense of ASME
B31 code which is the basis of pipeline design, operation and maintenance,
amongst other similar codes.
Factors affecting design of a pipeline were outlined. We emphasized that
maintaining the structural integrity of a pipeline throughout its design life
is crucial in its design, installation and operation.
We equally identified flow computations/simulations and determination of
power requirements as part of the critical design tasks in a typical pipeline
project, hence the need for hydraulic analysis.
We concluded that pipelines are usually classed as part of a nations
critical infrastructure and that an extensive pipeline network goes hand-inhand with a high standard of living and technological progress of a nation.

We observed that Nigeria has not had a good history of safety in the
management of its pipeline infrastructure and that cases of incessant
failures of pipeline assets have been dominant in the last decade, traced
partly to ageing assets, corrosion flaws, poor operation and maintenance
practices, and partly to illegal activities of vandals resulting in
environmental pollution, monumental waste of human and material
resources.
Hydraulic analysis and assessment of defects in pipeline systems in order
to understand how flows are analyzed, defects assessed and failures
prevented are at the core of this module.

2 Important Thermo-Fluid Concepts

A system is an arbitrary collection of matter of fixed identity.
The surroundings of a system implies everything external to the system.
The boundary of a system implies an imaginary surface which separates
the system from its surroundings.
The system and the surroundings together are called the Universe.
An open system is that which exchanges both matter and energy with its
surroundings.
A closed system is that which exchanges energy, but not matter, with its
surroundings.
An isolated system is that which does not exchange matter or energy
with its surroundings.
Control volume is an arbitrary volume fixed in space, through which
fluid flows. As fluid moves through the control volume, the mass
entering the control volume is equal to the mass leaving the control
volume.
Control Surface bounds the control volume and is always a closed
surface which may be finite or infinite.
The state of a system is its condition or configuration, described in
sufficient details so that one state may be distinguished from all other
states.
A property of a system is any observable characteristic of that system
such as location, speed, direction, pressure, density, temperature etc. A
listing of a sufficient number of independent properties that constitute a
complete definition of the state of a system.

 Process is a change of state, described in part by the series of states

passed through by the system and often, some by same sort of
interaction between the system and its surroundings.
A cycle is a process wherein the initial and final states of the system are
identical. For this to be true, therefore, the initial and final properties of
the system must be have identical values.
A fluid as a substance which deforms continuously under the action of
external shearing forces (Rajput, 2008). Fluids have no definite shape
and they thus conform to the shape of the containing vessel. A small
amount of shear force exerted on a fluid causes it to undergo continuous
deformation as long as the force continue to be applied.
An ideal fluid is one that has no viscosity and surface tension and is
incompressible.

3 Review of Thermodynamics Principles

Thermodynamics is the study of energy which treats the relations among heat,
work and the properties of the systems in equilibrium.

According to Braestrup et al. (2005), thermodynamic simulations have to be

performed in each segment of a pipeline in order to evaluate the conditions
of the flowing medium (i.e. oil, gas etc.). For instance, in a gas pipeline,
such analysis could predict liquid dropouts and hydrate formation
phenomena which if not contained can lead to serious operational problems.
While for a liquid pipeline, dissolved gases in oil could lead to capacity
reduction, air pockets, cavitations problems etc. Wax formation, ice
formation, hydrate formation and associated problems due to sudden
changes in apertures, valve throttling etc. can also be resolved through
thermodynamic analysis. Typically, thermodynamic systems are grouped
into open, closed or isolated systems.
3.1 The Laws of Thermodynamics
The laws of thermodynamics deals with systems and their surroundings as
they respectively pass through equilibrium states. These interactions may be
divided into:
Work Interaction and
Heat Interaction
3.1.1

First Law of Thermodynamics

The First Law of Thermodynamics states that energy can be changed from
one form to another, but it cannot be created or destroyed. The total amount
of energy and matter in the universe remains constant, merely changing
from one form to another. Therefore, energy is always conserved, it cannot
5

be created or destroyed, it is only converted from one form into another.

Consequently, the amount of work done by any system in going from one
state to another does not depend on the course of states passed through by
the system nor on the manner of work interaction, so long as the system and
surroundings are equal in temperature at each step of the process.
Corollary: The amount of work done during an equal temperature process
depends only on the end-states and not on the intermediate series of states.
E W

(3.1)

Where
E internal energy required to do work = Initial (E1) - Final (E2).

The actual work done is

Q E W

(3.2)

In differential form
Q dE W

(3.3)

From (3) we obtain the first law for a cycle thus

Q W

(3.4)

Where
dE an increment of a property of the system (i.e. internal energy).

E & W small amounts of quantities which are not properties of the

system.
Eq.( 3.4) implies that the algebraic net heat received by system during a
cycle is equal to the algebraic net done by the system during the cycle.
3.1.2

Second Law of Thermodynamics

The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that in all energy exchanges, if

no energy enters or leaves the system, the potential energy of the state will
always be less than that of the initial state. This is also commonly referred
to as entropy.
Entropy is the subject of the second law, while energy is the subject of the
first law.
6

Entropy is a property of thermodynamical systems. In a thermodynamic

system, pressure differences, density differences, and temperature
differences all tend to equalize over time. The dispersal of energy from
warmer to cooler regions always results in a net increase in entropy. Thus,
when the system of the room and ice water system has reached temperature
equilibrium, the entropy change from the initial state is at its maximum. The
entropy of the thermodynamic system is a measure of how far the
equalization has progressed. Entropy represents the unavailability of a
system's thermal energy for conversion into mechanical work, often
interpreted as the degree of disorder or randomness in the system.
In a reversible process thermodynamic cycle
Q
0
rev

(3.5)

Eq. (3.5) implies that going from a given state (1) to (2) by two processes
(both of which are reversible) the integral of
processes and we say the

Q
T

Q
will be the same for both
T

depends on the end states and not on the

intermediate series of steps.

Thus, the quantity

Q
for a reverisble infinitesimal process is therefore an
T

exact differential of a thermodynamic property called the entropy defined

by
Q
Q
ds

T rev T rev

(3.6)

Qrev Tds

(3.7)

Now, for internal energy and entropy, which are both properties of a fluid in
a given system, Rajput (2008) holds that it is more convenient and useful to
express the properties in specific values (i.e. the values per unit mass) thus
e

E
m

(3.7)

S
m

(3.7)

and

Where
E

internal energy for the entire system

entropy for the entire system

specific internal energy or internal energy per unit mass

specific entropy or entropy energy per unit mass

3.1.3

Isoprocess

An ISOPROCESS is one in which one of the thermodynamic variable

(state) is kept constant. The can be pressure, temperature or volume,
respectively known as
(i)

Isobaric process

(ii)

Isothermal process

(iii) Isochoric process

4 Pipeline Flow Calculations

Essentially a pipe is a closed conduit of circular section through which the
fluid flows filling the complete cross-section. Such a flow is termed a pipe
flow only when the fluid completely fills the cross section and there is no
free space in the pipe. Thus, a partially filled pipe is not regarded as a
pipeline and may only be treated as an open channel or closed drain.
4.1 Basic Principles of Fluid Flow in Pipes
In the hydraulics of pipe flows, there are three fundamental principles of viz:
The principle of conservation of mass (generally referred to as the
continuity equation in the case of steady incompressible flow).
The work-energy principle (modified classical Bernoulli equation).
The principle of Impulse-Momentum.
4.1.1

Conservation of Mass Principle

The continuity equation is based on the principle of conservation of mass. It

states that if no fluid is added or removed from the pipe in any length (such as
illustrated in Figure 1), then the mass passing across different sections remains
unchanged i.e.
Mass of fluid entering the CV per unit time = Mass of fluid leaving the CV per unit time .

Control Volume

A2
V2
2

A1
V1
1

z2
z1
Datum

Fig. 1: Idealization of fluid flow in Pipe

9

Thus from Figure 1,

1 A1V1 2 A2V2

(4.1)

Where
1, 2 = density of fluid entering and exiting the CV respectively.
A1, A2 = cross-sectional area of entry and exit respectively
V1, V2 = entry and exit velocity of fluid into the CV respectively
Equation (4.1) is applicable for both compressible and incompressible flows.
For the case of an incompressible flow, the density of the fluid is constant and
thus eq. (4.1) reduces to,
A1V1 A2V2

(4.2)

Now the discharge, Q is defined as Q AV and thus

Q1 Q2

(4.3)

Note: the continuity equation can be similarly derived for two-dimensional and
three-dimensional flows and could be expressed in Cartesian and polar
coordinates, depending on the type of flow being analyzed.
4.1.2 Work-Energy principle

Recall that in the previous Course we stated that the driving force in a pipeline
is by virtue of the pressure differential that is created between the outlet and
inlet (Breastrup et al., 2005). The latent energies in the fluid creates the
pressure differential which in turn results in the flow of the fluid from one
point to another. These energies (or heads) at play in the flowing can be
classified into the following:
(i)

Potential Head/Energy

(ii) Velocity Head or Kinetic Energy

10

(iii) Pressure Head or Energy

(iv) Accumulated (sum) head loss per unit weight between inlet and
outlet of the pipe or energy gain due to mechanical energy per unit
weight added to the flow by say an export pump (+ve if energy is
added to system and negative if energy is extracted from the system)
Now, for an ideal incompressible one-dimensional flow, the classical
Bernoulli's equation states that the total energy (head) of the fluid is constant
along a flow stream i.e.
z

V2 P
constant
2g w

(4.4)

However, because all fluids are real (and not ideal), hence losses are created
due to friction, viscosity, and thus eq. (4.4) is
V12 P1
V22 P2
z1
z2
hL
2g w
2g w

(4.5)

Where the terms

z
V2
2g

= potential energy or elevation head.

= the velocity head or kinetic energy.

P
w

= the pressure head.

hL

= accumulated energy (loss and gain) due to friction effects and

energy added due to hydraulic power machinery.

11

4.1.3

Principle of Impulse-Momentum

The momentum equation relates the sum of the forces acting on a fluid element
to its acceleration or rate of change momentum in the direction of the resultant
force. The equation is one of the basic tools (the other being continuity and
work-energy equations) for the solution of flow problems.
This principle derives from Newton's second law of motion. Recall, in
mechanics, the force acting on a particle or an object is defined as the product
of its mass and its acceleration
F = ma

(4.6)

Where
m

= mass of the particle

= acceleration of the particle in the direction of F.

But a

dV
.
dt

Substituting a into eq. (4.6),

F m

dV d mV

dt
dt

F .dt d mV

(4.7)
(4.8)

Equation (4.7) is the momentum principle, while eq. (4.8) is the impulse
momentum equation in which dV is the change of momentum in the direction
of F.
In a flowing fluid the momentum equation implies that net force acting on a
mass of fluid is equal to change in momentum of flow per unit time in that
direction. For steady, incompressible, one-dimensional flow through a pipe,
the component momentum equation along the direction of flow in the control
12

volume in Figure 1, the rate at which momentum exits the CV across 2 may be
defined as 2 A2V2 and 1 A1V1 at flow entry. Therefore, the rate of change of
momentum across the control volume is
2 A2V2 .V2 1 A1V1.V1 m (V2 V1 )

(4.9)

Where
m AV

= the fluid mass flow, kgs-1

The increase of momentum per unit time will be caused by a force, F acting on
the fluid element in the CV in the direction of motion thus
V2 V1
F m

(4.10)

Equation (4.8) is for one-dimensional flow, the 2D and 3D flows can be

similarly developed.
Note: Flow is described as one-dimensional flow if the factors or parameters,
such as velocity, pressure and elevation, describing the flow at any given
instant vary along the direction of flow and not across the cross-section at any
point. Typically in 1-D flows, the flow parameters are functions of time and
one-space co-ordinate only. An example of such flow is that in a pipeline.
The total quantity of fluid flowing per unit time past any cross section of the
stream is called the discharge or flow at that section. It may be measured in
terms of mass in which case it is referred to as the mass flow rate (kg/s) or in
terms of volume, known as volume rate of flow Q(m3/s).
Q AV

(4.11)

Where
V

= mean velocity.
13

Loses of energy in a pipe are due to frictional resistance to flow and shock
from the disturbance of the normal flow due to bends or sudden changes of
section etc.
4.2 Reynolds Number
Broadly, fluid flows can be divide into Turbulent (disorderly) flow and
Laminar (streamline or orderly) flow. Turbulent flow in pipes is characterized
by randomized, irregular and haphazard movement of fluid particles. The
nature of flow in a pipeline is determined by velocity of flow, density,
viscosity, size of pipe etc. The Reynolds number relates these fluid-pipeline
interface properties empirically thus
Re

VD VD

(4.12)

Where
Re

Reynolds number

= density,

= velocity,

= pipe diameter,

= viscosity,

= kinematic viscosity =

Reynolds number is essentially a ratio of the inertia force to the viscous force.
In equation (1) if:

Re < 2100

=>

flow is classified as viscous (laminar);

2100 Re 4000 =>

flow is classified as unpredictable;

Re > 4000

flow is turbulent.

=>

14

4.3 Darcy-Weisbach Pipe Friction Equation

Viscosity is a property of a fluid which determines its resistance to shearing
stresses. A fluid at rest has no shear forces acting, while a fluid in motion has
shear forces set up due to viscosity and turbulence which oppose motion, thus
producing frictional effect.
When a fluid flows in a pipeline, it experiences some resistance to its motion
due to which its velocity and ultimately the head (energy) available to transmit
its contents is reduced. These loss of head may be classified into:
Major energy losses due to friction.
Minor energy losses due to sudden changes in size of pipe (enlargement
or contraction), bends, internal obstructions, pipe fittings etc.
In a typical pipeline design, it is important to calculate these losses in order to
determine the proper size of pipes, bends, branches, capacity of the
pumps/compressors and other appurtenances required.
The loss of head due to friction could be calculated using the Darcy-Weisbach
equation as now discussed.
1

2
Control length, L

p1

p2

Fig. 2: Idealization of Friction in a Pipeline

15

Considering the control volume enclosed between sections 1 and 2 in Figure 2,

the driving force between the two points is
F = (p1-p2) x A

(4.13)

'

Let f be a non-dimensional factor whose value depends on the material and

nature of the pipe, the frictional resistance force
'

R= f LV

(4.14)

Therefore, under equilibrium and steady flow conditions

'

(p1-p2) x A = f PLV

(4.15)

Dividing eq. (3) by weight density, w yields

'
p1 p2 f P 2

LV
w w A

Multiplying eq. (4) x

(4.16)

2g
yields the loss of head (energy lost per unit volume)
2g

due to friction as
hf

2g ' P V 2
f L
w A 2g

(4.17)

Let A m => hydraulic mean depth (hydraulic radius) and 2 g f ' = constant =
w

f; then,
2
2
1 V
L V
hf f L
f
m 2g
m 2g

(4.18)

D
Now for a pipeline, the hydraulic depth, m = A 4 D and thus
2

substituting m into eq. (6) yields

16

hf

L V2
.
D 4 2g

4 fL V 2
.
D 2g

(4.19)

Where
p1, p2 =

inlet and outlet pressure

cross-sectional area of pipe

perimeter cross-section, wetted perimeter.

mean velocity of flow

g = weight density (or specific weight)=weight per unit volume.

gravitational acceleration.

Darcy-Weisbach coefficient of friction which is a general

function the Reynolds Number and the relative roughness of
the pipe thus:

0.0791

16
Re

Re

1
4

for Re varying between 4000 to 106

for Re < 2000.

Eq. (7) is the Darcy-Weisbach equation and holds good for all types of flows
provided a proper value of f is known.
f is usually estimated from a standard Moody chart (refer to standard text
books) which relates a logarithmic plot of f vs Re for a range of k/D values
(relative roughness ratio) for a fully developed flow. k being the size of the
wall roughness (also called grain roughness) as typified in Table 1.

17

Table 1: Wall Roughness Factor of Common Pipeline Materials

Material
PVC pipes
Commercial Welded Steel
Cast Iron
Galvanized Iron

K(mm)
0.0015
0.045
0.26
0.15

By suitable parameter manipulation, equation (4.19) can be recast and in terms

of flow rate thus

hf

fLQ 2
3D 5

(4.20)

Where
Q = discharge, m3/s
4.4 Minor Energy Loses
Minor losses arising from pipeline expansion/contraction, flow obstructions,
bends, valves etc. can be computed as follows (Douglas et al., 2005 and
Rajput, 2008):
i).

The head loss due to sudden enlargement is

he

V12 V22
2g

(4.21)

ii). The head loss due to sudden contraction is

hc

p12 p22 V12 V22

*
w
2g

(4.22)

iii). Head loss due to obstruction is

2

V 2
A
h0
1
cc ( A a ) 2 g

(4.23)

iv). Head loss at the entrance of a pipe

V
hn 0.5
2g

(4.24)

18

v). Head loss at the exit of a pipe

V
hx
2g

(4.25)

vi). Head loss due to pipe bend

V
hb k b
2g

(4.26)

vii). Head loss due to various pipe fittings - tees, O' lets etc.
hf k f

V
2g

(4.27)

Where
V1

mean velocity before enlargement

V2

mean velocity after enlargement

p1

inlet pressure prior to contraction

p2

outlet pressure after contraction

cross-sectional area of pipe

maximum area of obstruction

cc

coefficient of contraction

kb

coefficient of bend

kf

coefficient depending on the type of fitting.

4.5 Flow Properties in flow in pipelines

In the analysis of compressible fluids, the relevant properties are:

density,
pressure,
shear stress,
velocity,
coefficient of viscosity,
temperature
internal energy (enthalpy),
entropy,
coefficient of thermal conductivity

19

4.6

Basic Flow Calculations for Gases

All fluids are compressible to varying degrees, but gases are more
compressible than liquids.
The analyses of compressible fluids must necessarily begin (either directly or
indirectly) with statements of the four basic physical laws governing such
motions:
Law of conservation of mass
Newton's law of motion
The first law of Thermodynamics
The second law of Thermodynamics
In addition to these fundamental principles, depending on the nature of the
particular fluid, it is usually necessary to bring into an analysis certain
subsidiary laws relating to the particular fluid e.g. the equation of state of a
perfect gas, the proportionality law between shear stress and rate of
deformation in a Newtonian fluid etc.
For instance, in order to predict the pressure drop, the properties of the gas
must be calculated along the pipeline length to reflect the changes with
pressure and temperature (Mohitpour, 2000).
The input parameters used for gas flow include operating pressure, temperature
and internal roughness. The steady-state hydraulic analysis involves reviewing
flows and pressure drops, determining capacity, pipeline diameters, pipeline
loop lengths and overall compressor station power requirements in the design
process. It begins with creation of a demand and forecast by examining all
20

existing and potential customers and creating a projection of their demand

requirements over a predetermined period.
As an example, consider a gas pipeline segment which transports gas at steady
gas flow from point (1) to (2) as illustrated in Figure 3
1

A1
p1
1
m1

______ . __________ . ________

A2
p2
2
m2

Fig. 3: Gas flow through a pipe Segment

Under steady flow state
dm
0
dt

=> rate of change of mass is constant.

From eq.(4.9) the mass flow rates of gas at point (1) and point (2) are
respectively
m 1 1 A1V1

(4.28a)

m 2 2 A2V2

(4.28b)

Where
= gas density
p= gas pressure
A = cross sectional area of pipeline
V = gas velocity
m = mass of gas flowing in the system
t = time
21

Since dm/dt is constant

1 A1V1 2 A2V2

(4.29)

Assuming the diameter of the pipe is constant, then

1V1 2V2

m AV

Now by definition from thermodynamics,

(4.30)
1
v

Where v = the gas specific volume

Now let

V C = a constant
C

V
v

(4.31)

Hence eq. (4.30) becomes

m A

V
v

(4.32)

The impulse-momentum principle can then be used to formulate the acting

force on the gas.
4.7

Problems caused by changes in flow conditions

Inlet or supply pressures and outlet (demand) flows may vary with time,
leading to several problems. For instance, in gas pipelines, liquid dropouts and
hydrate formation which if not contained can lead to serious operational
problems. For a liquid pipeline, pumping excessive gas dissolved in oil could
lead to air pockets, capacity reductions, cavitations problems etc. Wax
formation, ice formation, hydrate formation and associated problems due to
sudden changes in apertures, valve throttling etc can resolved through thermofluid analysis.
Exercise: Identify and explain the effect of fluid and flow conditions on
(a) Crude Oil Pipelines
(b) Gas pipelines
22

5 Definition and Types of Defects in Pipelines

ASME B31.8 (2012) defines a defect as a physically examined anomaly with
dimensions or characteristics that exceed acceptable limits, while API 5L
(2004) defines a defect as imperfection of sufficient magnitude to warrant
rejection of the product based on the stipulations of the applicable
specification. Therefore, defect is relative to the code or specification under
which an item is being studied. An item regarded as defective in one
circumstance may not necessarily be classified as defective in another.
Generally, a defect may, therefore, be viewed as an anomaly/irregularity
which may have a deleterious effect on the structural integrity of the pipeline
and consequently its ability to contain or transmit internal pressure and hence
failure.
O Connor (1992) has broadly defined failure as the termination of the ability
of an item to perform a required function. Matthew (2001) posits that
although failure in the strict sense of mechanical engineering means a
condition in which a component exhibits irreversible plastic deformation;
failure would also include such events as damage in which some deformation
has occurred relative to the as new condition of the component, which
renders the component unable to perform the service for which it was
designed. In pipelines, failure can be said to have occurred when there is an
unintentional release of process fluids from a pipeline transmission system into
the surrounding environment. Unintentional meaning the operator/owner did
not carryout actions that should activate a release.

23

McAllister (2002) has broadly classified defects causing failures in pipelines

into:
Manufacturing defects
Environmentally caused defects
Construction defects and defects caused by outside forces.
Thus, defects in pipelines could be due to latent imperfections in the parent
material (i.e. defects in the linepipe itself incurred during manufacturing), the
filler

metal, welding procedures or wrong practices

used during

transportation, installation and operation, as well as external damage (third

party activities) and deterioration(wear, erosion, corrosion etc.) of the
pipeline over time.
5.1

Failure Statistics and Relative Causes of Pipeline Failures

According to Yo-Essien (2008), compared to other parts of the world,

pipeline sabotage is currently the major cause of oil spills and pipeline fire
outbreaks in Nigeria. The crude oil and product pipelines have been the
major target of intrusion-induced failures. Between 2005 and 2008, there
were 11,503 reported cases of failure in Nigerian National Petroleum
Corporation (NNPC) pipeline network as detailed in Table 2, out of which
11,350 cases were attributed to intrusive vandalism. The trend is still
continuing with 3,570 line breaks reported in 2013 in NNPCs pipeline
network, out of which 3,305 were allegedly due to illegal intrusions and 34
cases of pipeline fires reported (NNPC Annual Statistical Bulletin, 2013).

24

Table 2: NNPC Product Pipeline Failure Data

Year

Total No. Line

Breaks Recorded

2005
2006
2007
2008
Total

2,258
3,683
3,244
2,318
11,503

Causes
No. Attributed
No. Attributed to
to vandalism
Rupture/Others
2,216
21
3,625
18
3,224
20
2,285
33
11,350
92

No. of Fire
Outbreaks
117
39
18
25
199

(Source: Compiled from NNPC Annual Statistical Bulletin, 2005-2008)

Table 3 is a ten-year failure/spill history for Shell Petroleum Development

Company of Nigeria (SPDC). 70% of the spills were allegedly due to illegal
intrusions, while the balance was attributed to equipment failure, corrosion,
obsolescence, wear and tear, human factors etc.
Industry wide, pipeline intrusions is on the increase and seems to be
continuing unabated. Ogbeifun (2007) estimates that there were 46 fire
incidents in 2000 and 117 in 2005. Shell is only one of the five major oil
and gas producing companies, pipelines of other companies are not spared.
Table 3: Shell (Nigeria) Oil Spill Data
Volume in
Equivalent Volume
Barrels (bbl)
(m3)
1995
235
31,000
4,928.61
1996
326
39,000
6,200.50
1997
240
80,000
12,718.98
1998
248
50,000
7,949.37
1999
320
20,000
3,179.75
2000
330
30,100
4,785.52
2001
302
76,960
12,235.66
2002
262
19,980
3,176.57
2003
221
9,916
1,576.52
2004
236
8,317
1,322.30
2005
224
11,921
1,895.29
Total
2,944
377,194
59,969.06
1barrel = 42 US gallon = 158.9873 litres =0.158983 m3
(Source: Shell Annual Report Adapted from Ogbeifun, 2007)

Year

No of Spills

Foregoing statistics shows that pipeline failure is a contemporary problem

besetting the pipeline industry in Nigeria, with vandalism as the major
cause.

25

6 Failure Modes and Description of how Pipelines Fail

Though pipelines are meticulously designed to provide the safest means
of hydrocarbons transportation, there have been recurrence of serious
pipeline failure incidents in Nigeria resulting in spillages, loss of lives
and properties, and destruction of vast acreages of the environment, most
times irreversibly.
Chuan and Loong (2009) has identified some common modes of piping
failure as static stress rupture, fatigue failure, creep rupture, stability
failure, as well as some variants of these modes of failure.
Two possible failure modes, brittle and plastic collapse are often
considered for girth welds containing welding defects. However, in
modern pipelines the possibility of brittle fracture is often less likely
because modern linepipes have proven high material toughness
properties. Mohitpour et al (2000) have outlined where an otherwise
ductile material becomes brittle and thereby leading to failure. Thus, even
when a ductile linepipe becomes brittle, it is usually by ductile fracture
whereby the fracture initiates and propagates in the pipeline material with
significant plastic deformation at the fracture surface.
There are several reasons why pipeline structures fail. However, these
could

be

loosely

grouped

depending

on

the

initiating

mechanism/phenomenon causing the failure as now discussed.

26

6. 1 Effect of Manufacturing and Installation Defects

API classifies and defines various types of defects which lead to pipeline
failures as abridged in Table 4.
In Nigeria, seamed pipelines are gradually being phased out with
seamless linepipes. There are still a number of operators using seamed
piping in their in-plot piping facilities, especially those installed prior to
1975.
Table 4: API Classification of Defects in Line pipes
Class of Defect
A. General Defects

Type

Defect Description

A defect emanating at and extending radially inward from

the outside surface but not entirely through the wall of the
pipe.
A defect emanating at and extending radially outward
from the inside surface but not entirely through the wall of
I.D. defect
the pipe.
A defect emanating in the interior of the pipe wall but not
General
Interior
of sufficient radial extent to be connected with either the
defect
inside or the outside surface.
A defect which was initially an O.D. defect, but which has
Leaking
O.D. defect grown through the wall to become a leak.
A lap, crevice, pit, group of pits, metallurgical anomaly, or
plain dent (i.e. without scratches, gouges, or cracks) which
Superficial
is of insufficient extent to reduce the effective strength
defect
level of the pipe below 100 percent of SMYS.
B. Defects originating from pipe manufacture
Fold of metal which has been rolled or otherwise worked
against the surface of rolled metal, but has not fused into
Lap
sound metal.
A depression resulting from the removal of foreign
Pit
material rolled into the surface during manufacture.
A foreign metallic body rolled into the metal surface,
1. Defects not
Rolled-in
usually not fused.
necessarily in
slugs
the seam weld
Crevice in rolled metal which has been more or less
(primarily in the Seam
closed by rolling or other work but has not been fused into
body of the
sound metal.
body of the pipe
An area in the pipe with a hardness level considerably
higher than that of surrounding metal: usually caused by
Hard spot
localized quenching.
A stress-induced separation of the metal which, without
any other influence, is insufficient in extent to cause
Crack
complete rupture of the material.
2. Defect which Incomplete
Lack of complete coalescence of some portion of the
occur in the
metal in a weld joint.
fusion
O.D. defect

27

seam weld

A condition where weld metal does not continue through

the full thickness of the joint.
Under-cutting on submerged-arc-welded pipe is the
reduction in thickness of the pipe wall adjacent to the
Under-cut
weld where it is fused to the surface of the pipe
A crack that occurs in the weld deposit, the fusion line, or
the heat-affected-zone. (Crack is a stress-induced
Weld area
separation of the metal which, without any other
crack
influence, is sufficient in extent to cause complete rupture
of the material.)
Metal separation, resulting from imperfections at the edge
Upturned
of the plate, parallel to the surface, which turns toward the
fiber
I.D. or O.D. pipe surface when the edges are upset during
imperfection
welding.
A localized spot of incomplete fusion.
Penetrator
A metallurgical term generally indicating a lack of
adequate weld bonding strength of the abutting edges, due
Cold weld
to insufficient heat and/or pressure. A cold weld may or
may not have separation in the weld line.
(Source: Abridged from McAllister, 2000; BS 499 Part I, 1991)
Incomplete
penetration

At the installation phase, the most common method of field joining

remains the shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) process. Although the
process has undergone several improvements over the years, lots of
manufacturing imperfections are still found in such welded joints, which
eventually lead to field failures. Construction defects including a girth
weld anomalies, arc strikes, grindings, partial buckling, ovalizations,
dents, gouges etc. are some of the defects incurred during installation.
Also, during construction, pipelines are usually made to fit-the-ditch
and more often this practice is a source of several problems ranging from
residual stress failures to stress-induced corrosion, amongst others.
BS 499 Part I (1991): Welding Terms and Symbols (Glossary for
welding, brazing and thermal cutting) provides a comprehensive list and
description of defects in welded structures (including pipelines).

28

6.2 Effect of Corrosion

The combination of corrosion and stress acting together leads to stresscorrosion cracks. Hydrogen stress cracking appears in hard spots attacked
by hydrogen emitted from sulfate reducing bacteria (SRB) acting
externally on the walls of the pipe. The attack commences chemically
when the iron ferrous ions liberate small quantities of hydrogen, while the
bacteria live by catalyzing the reaction, thereby removing the hydrogen.
This permits dissolution of the iron, whilst the liberated sulfide ions react
with the pipe to form ferrous sulfide, thus transforming the entire pipe
wall thickness to weak and porous ferrous sulfide, and as such, cracking
and eventual rupture of the line occurs.
6.3 Effect of Operational Pressure Surges
Fluid flowing in a pipeline undergoes a number of transient, or unsteady
flow-state conditions caused by such events as prime movers starting and
stopping, valves opening and closing and flows either in or out of the
pipeline resulting in pressure surges (SIPM, 1991). Acting together with a
corrosion defect, operational surges can lead to very serious problems.
Manifold valves, export pumps, compressors etc. due to frequent
community unrests and other factors are indiscriminately opened and
closed, often times against high pressure, which adversely reduces the
pipelines

ability

to

contain

internal

pressure,

especially

at

corroded/eroded points.

29

6.4

Influence of Ground Movement on Pipelines

Pipelines can be affected by a number of ground movement events

leading to a wide range of ground loading conditions which may
sometimes result to catastrophic failures. According to Leach and Young
(1999), the nature and form of ground disturbance, properties of the soil
surrounding the pipeline, depth of cover, as well as the restraints imposed
longitudinally and laterally have strong influence on failure during
ground movements.
There are several types of ground movements that can lead to pipeline
failures in Nigeria e.g. erosion (mostly in the hilly eastern and middle
belts), floods, the uncontrolled use of mining explosives near pipeline
Right of Way (ROW) due to illegal mining activities, river shoring etc. A
landslide was very recently reported in Benue state (The Guardian,
Thursday, November 11, 2010). This shows that Nigeria is not immune to
natural or manmade earth faults as has been erroneously assumed over
the years.
6.5 Effect of Environmental Activities and Pipeline Intrusion
Dents and gouges and a combination of gouge-in-dent resulting from
human activities and external encroachment by mechanical excavating
equipment and other kinds of earth working equipment around the
pipeline Right of Way (ROW), have often been reported as reasons for
pipeline failures. For sea lines, the major hazards are ships anchors and
trawling.

30

Closely associated with accidental damage is the phenomenon of

deliberate and malicious intrusion into pipelines through such illegal
activities

as

pipeline

harvesting,

flowlines

and

outright

sabotage/vandalism for socio-political and economic reasons. The result

has been devastating and vast acreages of the environment have been
irreversibly destroyed. Post spill remediation measures adopted by the
operators of these pipelines have often failed to restore such
environments to pre-spill conditions.

31

Defect Assessment

Defect assessments (DA) are quantitative engineering evaluations that are

performed to demonstrate the structural integrity of an in-service component
that may contain a flaw or damage. The primary aim of DA is to detect,
locate, quantify, predict the residual life of the structure and arrest
progression of the damage. Damage assessment standard provides a rational
basis to determine whether or not a damaged component can continue to
operate until a replacement or repair programme can be implemented.
ASME B31.8 (2012) defines engineering assessment as a documented
assessment using engineering principles of the effect of relevant variables
upon service or integrity of a pipeline system and conducted by or under
supervision of a competent person with demonstrated understanding of and
experience in the application of engineering and risk management principles
related to the issue being assessed.
Defect assessment methods are required to determine the severity of defects
in pipelines in order to carry out repairs or replacements before they result
in failures. Defects occurring during the fabrication of a pipeline are usually
assessed against code compliant and proven quality assurance and control
through rigorous use of process and personnel qualification procedures such
as PQR and WPS. In spite of such controls, however, a pipeline will
inevitably experience some defects at some stage during its design life, thus
necessitating the need for assessment in order to determine whether or not to
repair the pipeline.

32

Defect assessment is usually a broad based multidisciplinary effort. A

typical defect assessment team would involve several engineering
disciplines in stress analysis, fracture mechanics, metallurgy/materials
engineering, corrosion, non-destructive examination, plant operations etc.,
because it requires collecting and analyzing crucial data from a number of
expert sources (Anderson, 2007). Defect Assessment may also involve
sophisticated computer simulations, including finite element analysis and
scomputational fluid dynamics in order to demonstrate that the equipment in
question is fit for continued service.
7.1 Design Code and Standard Requirements
7.1.1

Pipeline Defect Assessment Manual (PDAM)

Prior to the API 579-1/ASME FFS-1 (2007), a joint industry Pipeline Defect
Assessment Manual (PDAM) project sponsored by several pipeline holding
companies to produce a document specifying the best methods for assessing
defects in pipelines was issued in 2003. The PDAM provided the pipeline
industry with best practices for the assessment of a wide range of pipeline
defects in a detailed manual. It described the best method for assessing a
particular type of defect, the necessary input data, gives the limitations of
the method, and defines an appropriate factor to account for the model
uncertainty. The types of defects considered under PDAM are:

defect-free pipe

corrosion

gouges
33

plain dents

kinked dents

smooth dents on welds

smooth dents containing gouges

smooth dents containing other types of defects

manufacturing defects in the pipe body

girth weld defects

seam weld defects

cracking

environmental cracking

guidance on the treatment of the interaction between defects (leading

to a reduction in the burst strength), and the assessment of defects in
pipe fittings (pipework, fittings, elbows, etc.).

guidance on predicting the behaviour of defects upon failing,

including both leak or rupture, and fracture propagation.

The method utilizes internal pressure, external pressure, axial force and
bending moment or some combinations as the type of loading in the
development of the guidance.
A PDAM in the fitness-for-purpose assessment of a defect in a pipeline is
typified in Figure 4.

34

35

7.1.2

The API 579-1/ASME FFS-1 Standard

Prior to PDAM, damage assessments were undertaken by individual asset

holders and such efforts were thus non-standardized. In 2000 API published
the API 579 which later metamorphosed into the API 579-1/ASME FFS-1
in 2007 as a comprehensive guidance document for fitness-for-service
methodology for pressure equipment (pressure vessels, piping systems and
pipelines). It defines fitness-for-service as the ability to demonstrate the
structural integrity of an in-service component containing a damage or flaw.
This publication was intended to supplement industry codes by:
(i)

ensuring safety of plant personnel and the public while older

equipment continues to operate;

(ii)

providing technically sound fitness-for-service assessment procedures

to ensure that different service providers furnish consistent life
predictions; and

(iii)

helping optimize maintenance and operation of existing facilities to

maintain the availability of older plants and enhance their long term
economic viability.

The assessment procedures could be used for fitness-for-service evaluation

and re-rating of pressure transmitting equipment designed and constructed
to the ASME and API codes and standards based on the present integrity of
the equipment given a current state of damage and the projected remaining
life. As illustrated in Figure 5, typically the procedure uses Levels 1, 2 and
3 and Failure Assessment Diagrams (FAD) as assessment techniques and
acceptance criteria.

36

37

For example, in order to determine if a crack may cause a structural failure,

the failure assessment diagram method uses two ratios: brittle fracture and
plastic collapse. The plastic collapse ratio is computed using the reference
stress, while the brittle fracture ratio is computed from the crack stress
intensity as illustrated in Figure 6. Where the stress intensity ratio/fracture
toughness (Kr) is plotted against the ratio of reference stress/yield stress ( Lrp ).

Figure 6: Illustration of Failure Assessment Diagram

The scope of API 579/ASME FFS-1 covers assessment of:
existing equipment for brittle fracture
general metal loss
Metal loss due to corrosion / erosion (general, local, and pitting)
hydrogen blisters and hydrogen damage - HIC
weld misalignment and shell distortions
crack-like flaws
components operating in the creep range
fire damage
38

 dents, gouges, and dent-gouge combinations

laminations
7.1.3 RSTRENG and the Modified B31G criteria
Other established methods include the RSTRENG (Remaining Strength) and
the Modified B31G criteria for assessment of corrosion flaws.
The method utilizes corrosion flaw model to assess, analyze, predict and
reduce or eliminate the corrosion risks facing a pipeline. Corrosion Damage
Assessment (CDA) for accurate measurement and characterization of the
corrosion defects is the most important stage of the prediction procedure.
ASME B31G code states that wall thinning in a pipeline due to corrosion or
erosion may be determined by a number of non-destructive examination
(NDE) techniques ranging from visual, radiographic, ultrasonic and other
methods of measurement. A number of NDE high resolution tools and
technique are for In-line Inspection (ILI) of the mechanical condition,
gathering of pipewall data and easy identification of corroded/eroded points
on a pipeline as discussed in Course PPE 801.1.
After the corrosion damage assessment the next step is to model the
geometry of the vicinity of the corroded sections. Mohitpour et al (2000)
has stated that the geometry of the vicinity of a corrosion flaw shape
approximated by the rectangular model or parabolic model is sufficient to
gain understanding of the corrosion interaction within that neighbourhood.
Figure 7 shows typical corroded points on a pipeline, while Figures 8 and 9
shows how the rectangular and parabolic models are derived.

39

corroded points

Longitudinal Length, L

Fig. 7:

Side View of a typical external corrosion defect

Longitudinal axis

Maximum corrosion depth

rectangular model

Fig. 8: Rectangular Corrosion Model

Longitudinal axis

Maximum corrosion depth

parabolic model

Fig. 9: Parabolic Corrosion Model

The two major mathematical models and their variants under this method
for predicting corrosion failures in pipelines [Mohitpour etal, 2000] are:
ASME B31G Criterion/RSTRENG Technique
The Surface Flaw Model
(i)

ASME B31G Criterion/RSTRENG Technique

Under the ASME B31G procedure, the criterion for acceptability for a
corroded length in the model is given as:
40

Lallow = 1.12B Dt
Where:
Lallow =Maximum allowable axial length of defect
2

t
B = d
1
1.1 t 0.15

(8.1)

D = nominal outside diameter of the pipe, mm

t = nominal wall thickness of the pipe, mm
d = maximum defect depth of the corroded area, mm
d/t allowable in B31G is in the range of 0.1 d/t 0.8
The maximum allowable operating pressure (Pmaop) under the B31G is
defined to be less or equal to the maximum allowable design pressure, P.
The safe maximum pressure for the corroded area of the pipe is defined as:

Psafe

2d

1
3 t

1.1P

d
1 2

3 t A 2 1

d
Psafe 1.1P 1
t

for Psafe P and A 4

(8.2a)

for Psafe P and A >4

(8.2b)

Where:
A = 0.893[L/ (Dt) ]
The maximum allowable defect depth, dallow is found by equating the
maximum safe operating pressure, Psafe to the maximum allowable
operating pressure (Pmaop) to obtain:

41

Pmaop

1
3t
1.1P

d allow

Pmaop
2
1

2
1.1P A 1

Pmaop
d allow 1

1.1P

for A 4 (8.3a)

for A > 4

(8.3b)

As can be seen above, the ASME B31 relies on the theoretical design
pressure, P for determination of allowable defect depth due to corrosion.
Due to this strict over specification, the model is overly conservative and
serviceable pipelines are known to have been needlessly decommissioned
leading to waste (Mohitpour, 2000). In 1989, Kiefner et al introduced a
major improvement to reduce the conservatism in the B31G criterion.
Their improvement included new definitions and inclusion of the bulging
factor and the material flow stress, and a more detailed consideration of
the shape of the corrosion defect. This led to the RSTRENG procedure
which was initially released in 1989 and have since been further
enhanced. The basis of the RSTRENG procedure, which is iterative, is
the multiple evaluation of the predicted failure pressure based on an
affected area rather than the total area. Kiefner et al (1989) suggested that
an effective area based upon the maximum length, L and maximum depth
of pitting, d be used, such that the area in equations (8.3a) and (8.3b) will
be given as: A = 0.85 dL.
The modified B31G criteria as pointed out by Kiefner etal also proposed
a new failure pressure (Pf) based on a new Folias factor as follows:
42


d
1 0.85

2 y 68.95t
t

Failure Pressure, (Pf) =

D

d
1 0.85 t M

where:
2
4
2

L' D
L' D
M 1 0.6275 0.003375

D t
D t

(8.4a)

for

L' D
D t 50mm nominal bore

and
2

L' D
M 3.3 0.032
D t

L'
D
for 50mm
D t

(8.4b)

In spite of the modifications by Kiefner et al (1989) which eliminates

some of the conservatism in the criterion, however a number of
ambiguities still remain. For instance, when the corrosion is not
longitudinally oriented, the B31G will tend to underestimate the
remaining strength in the case of spiral corrosion. Also, when the
corrosion pits are closely spaced and where adjacent corrosion pits
interact, errors are introduced into the model. These limitations not
withstanding, it must be stated that for pipelines for oil and gas
transportation, the B31G model suffices since corrosion pits likely to
lead to failures usually need not be so complex due to the high fluid
transmission pressures involved in operating such pipelines. For
pipelines, where operating pressures are low such as municipal water
lines, the model proves to be overly conservative and may lead to

43

unnecessary maintenance interventions if the criterion is used for

corrosion failure prediction.
(ii) The Surface Flaw Model
The Battelle Memorial Institute and the American Gas Association
(Mohitpour et al, 2000) first developed the surface flaw model for
assessing failures in pipes with corrosion features in the early 70s. The
model was itself a modification of the ASME tangential hoop stress
equation incorporating a corrosion factor. In the simplified form it
states that the internal pressure at which a pipeline will fail, called the
Failure Pressure is defined as:
A

1
Ao
St
Pf
A
R
M 1
1
A
o

(8.5)

Where:
S = Strength measure of the pipe called the flow Stress
(has been determined experimentally to be SMYS of the pipe,
y + 68,950 kPa).
t = Pipe wall Thickness, mm
A = Area of metal removed, mm2
Ao = Original Area, mm2
M = The Folias correction factor

L ' 2
L ' 4

2
0.0135 22 2 for L 2R
1 1.255
Rt
R t

L ' 2

2
1 1.61

Rt

for L > 2R

(8.6a)

(8.6b)

44

[The Folias factor is a stress concentration or shape factor that accounts for the
outward bulging that occurs in a thin-walled cylinder when subjected to internal
pressure].

L =

Pipe Radius, mm
Maximum allowable length of the corroded point
projected on the longitudinal axis of the pipe, mm

1.12B Dt
2

dt 0.5

= 1.12
1 Dt
d
1.1 t 0.15

(8.6c)

D = nominal outside diameter of the pipe, mm = 2R

t = nominal wall thickness of the pipe, mm
d = defect depth of the corroded area, mm.

45

8. Introduction to Pipeline Engineering Critical Assessment

ASME B31.8 (2012) defines engineering critical assessment (ECA) as an
analytical procedure

based

upon

fracture

mechanics

that

allows

determination of the maximum tolerable sizes for imperfections, and

conducted by or under supervision of a competent person with demonstrated
understanding of and experience in the application of the engineering
principles related to the issue being assessed in order to prevent defects from
growing to critical sizes. It further states that ECA should also include
consideration for risk to the public, stress level, corrosion growth rate and
Maintenance and inspection methods.
For marine pipelines, engineering critical assessments are increasingly
becoming a routine part of pipeline design to determine tolerable flaw sizes
for pipeline systems in deeper water with increased loadings arising from
responses to thermal and hydrodynamic cyclic loading. Deep water
flowlines operating at high temperatures and pressures need to be designed
against problems such as significant end expansion/pipe walking and lateral
buckling (Olunloyo, 2007), since such pipelines are subject to large thermal
transients particularly during shut down. These thermal transients tend to
vary from ambient temperature and place a large fatigue demand on the
pipelines. The transients typically are very low frequency events with high
amplitudes, which could lead to lateral buckling. The loading rates
associated with the transients are very slow, hence the toughness properties
of the material in environments at low loading rates is important. The
pipelines are also subject to high stress and thus need to have good
46

toughness properties. Riser materials are also subject to significant fatigue

loading, though under conditions different from flow lines. They are
typically pre-loaded and operate under smaller amplitudes of loading and at
higher frequencies associated with wave motion.
Most welding fabrication codes specify maximum tolerable flaw sizes and
minimum tolerable Charpy energy, based on good workmanship, i.e. what
can reasonably be expected within normal working practices. These
requirements tend to be somewhat arbitrary, and failure to achieve them
does not necessarily mean that the structure is at risk of failure. An
Engineering Critical Assessment (ECA) is an analysis, based on fracture
mechanics principles, of whether or not a given flaw is safe from brittle
fracture, fatigue, creep or plastic collapse under specified loading
conditions.
ECA is often used to evaluate defects as it is less conservative than
traditional criteria and can reduce the reject rate of welds considerably. ECA
offers constructive guidance for qualifications such as flaw type, equipment
type, flaw detection uncertainties and flaw sizing

47

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The 26th International Conferenc on Offshore Mechanic and Arctic Engineerng, San
Diego, USA, 10-15 June 2007.
Rajput, R. K. (2008), A Textbook of Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines, S. Chand &
Company Ltd., New Delhi.
Roylance David (2001): Introduction to Fracture Mechanics, Retrieved from:
http://ocw.mit.edu/NR/rdonlyres/Materials-Science-and-Engineering/3-11Mechanics-ofMaterialsFall1999/F34792CC-7AA5-47F0-81AD-13664B5F856C/0/frac.pdf.
Accessed
February, 2009.
Wintle, J.B. editor (2000): Flaw Assessment in Pressure Equipment and Welded Structures,
Professional Engineering Publishing Limited, London.

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APPENDIX I
GLOSSARY OF TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Anomaly: An indication, generated by non-destructive examination of an
irregularity or deviation from sound weld or base parent pipe material, which
may or may not be an actual flaw.
Buckle: A partial collapse of the pipe due to excessive bending sharp internal
diameter reduction.
Construction Defect: Feature that arises during the construction of the
pipeline, including a girth weld anomaly, arc strike and grinding.
Corrosion: Corrosion is the deterioration of a material as a result of reaction
with its environment, especially with oxygen. It is the disintegration of metal
through an unintentional chemical or electrochemical action. It is a
destructive chemical process; most often applied to the conversion of a metal
to one of its compounds, for example, the corrosion of iron by oxygen and
water to produce iron oxides (rust).
Crack: a stress-induced separation of the metal which, without any other
influence, is insufficient in extent to cause complete rupture of the material.
Dent: distortion of the pipe wall resulting in change of internal diameter but
not necessarily resulting in localized reduction of wall thickness.
Flaw: also called a defect or feature, an anomaly which may have a
deleterious effect on the structural integrity of the pipeline and consequently
its ability to contain or transmit internal pressure.
Girth Weld: a complete circumferential butt weld joining pipe or
components.
Gouge: mechanical induced metal loss which causes localized elongated
grooves or cavities.
Hole: where the hydrocarbon are released in diameter of defect exceeding
2cm and equal or less than the diameter of the pipe.
Intelligent Pig: an inspection tool equipped with electronic sensors which
can perform a non-destructive examination.
Metal Loss Defect: An area of pipe wall with a measurable reduction in wall
thickness.
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Mill Defect: A defect that arises during manufacture of the pipe, for instance
a lap, silver, lamination, non-metallic inclusion, roll weld and seam welded
anomaly.
Nominal Pipe Size (NPS): is a dimensionless designator of pipe. It indicates
a standard pipe size when followed by the appropriate number (e.g. NPS 12
means a 12 pipe).
Nominal Outside Diameter: is the as-produced or as-specified outside
diameter of the pipe and may or may not be the same as the NPS (e.g. a
standard NPS 8 pipe has a specified nominal diameter of 8.625
(219.08mm), while an NPS24 pipe has 24.000 (609.60mm) nominal
diameter.
Nominal Wall Thickness: is the wall thickness computed from the nominal
OD of the pipe, subject to tolerances and mathematically satisfying: t = t p+ A
[where tp is the pressure design wall thickness and A are the allowances
added for threading, grooving or corrosion or an increase if used as a
protective measure].
Pipeline: a pipeline transmission system is an assembly of line pipes
continuously strung together by welding (or other such means of joining) and
devices such as pumps, compressors, valves, swivels, meters, manifolds etc.
for transportation of a fluid (even solids!) from one point to another.
Interstate, large bore types longer than 100km are usually called cross
country pipelines. Pipelines are generally classed as part of a nations
infrastructures akin to rail, roads etc.
Pipeline Failure: an unintentional release of process fluids from a pipeline
transmission system into the surrounding environment.
Rupture: where the release of pipeline contents escapes from a defect
diameter which is more than the pipe diameter.
Specified Minimum Yield Strength or Stress (SMYS): a required strength
level that the measured yield stress of a pipe material must exceed, which is a
function of pipe grade. The measured yield stress is the tensile stress required
to produce a total elongation of 0.5 percent of a gage length as determined by
an extensometer during a tensile test.

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Steel Pipes: alloys of predominantly iron and carbon and other measurable
elements - manganese, phosphorus, sulphur etc. Carbon steel derive its
distinctive properties from carbon, while alloy steels owe their properties to
carbon, as well as other elements such as nickel, silicon, chromium.
Weld Defect: defect in the welded joint of a pipeline.

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