Romanian Wind Code CR1-1-4

MINISTRY OF REGIONAL
DEVELOPMENT AND TOURISM

GOVERNMENT OF ROMANIA
www.mdrt.ro
1. ------IND- 2012 0249 RO- EN- ------ 20120430 --- --- PROJET
ORDER
Noof
for approval of the technical regulation
"Design code. Assessment of wind action on structures, code CR 1-1-4/2012
In accordance with the provisions of Article 10 and Article 38(2) of Law No 10/1995
regarding quality in constructions, with its subsequent modifications, the provisions of Article 2(3) and
(4) of the Rules regarding the types of technical regulations and costs for regulatory activity in the field of
constructions, town planning, landscaping, and habitat, approved by Government Decision No 203/2003,
with its subsequent modifications and supplementation, and the provisions of Government Decision No
1016/2004 regarding measures for organising and carrying out the exchange of information in the field of
technical standards and regulations, as well as the rules regarding information society services between
Romania and the EU Member States, as well as the European Commission, with the subsequent
modifications,
in light of Approval Report No 43/2011 of the Specialist Technical Committee No 4 Actions
on structures,
on the grounds of Article 5(II)(e) and Article 13(6) of Government Decision No 1631/2009
concerning the organisation and operation of the Ministry of Regional Development and Tourism, with its
subsequent modifications and supplementation,
the Ministry of Regional Development and Tourism hereby issues the following
ORDER:
Article 1. - Technical regulation Design code. Assessment of wind action on structures, code
CR 1-1-4/2012, drawn up by the Technical University of Bucharest, stipulated in the annex*) that is an
integrated part of this order, is hereby approved.
Article 2. - The present order shall be published in the Official Journal of Romania, Part I and
shall come into force 30 days after its date of publication.
Article 3. - On the date the present order comes into force, technical regulation Design code.
Design basis and actions on structures. Wind action, code NP 082-04, approved by Order No
165/15.02.2005 of the Ministry of Transport, Constructions, and Tourism, with its subsequent
modifications and supplementation, shall be repealed.
This technical regulation was adopted in accordance with the notification procedure No RO/ ......
of ............... stipulated by Directive 98/34/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 June
1998, laying down a procedure for the provision of information in the field of technical standards and
regulations, published in the Official Journal of the European Communities L 204 of 21 July 1998,
amended by Directive 98/48/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 July 1998,
published in the Official Journal of the European Communities L 217 of 5 August 1998.
MINISTER
CRISTIAN PETRESCU
*)
The Order and its annex shall also be published in the Constructions Journal edited by the URBAN-INCERC National
Institute for Research and Development in the field of Constructions, Town Planning, and Sustainable Territorial Development,
which is coordinated by the Ministry of Regional Development and Tourism.
Annex
to Order No./2012 of the Ministry of Regional Development and Tourism
DRAFT
DESIGN CODE
ASSESSMENT OF WIND ACTION ON STRUCTURES
Code CR 1-1-4/2012
CONTENTS
1 GENERAL ASPECTS6
1.1 Purpose and scope............................................................................................................6

1.2 Normative references.......................................................................................................7
1.3 Hypotheses..................................................................................................................7
1.4 Design assisted by testing................................................................................................8
1.5 Definitions and symbols..................................................................................................8
1.6 Combination of wind action with other actions.............................................................13
2
WIND VELOCITY. DYNAMIC WIND PRESSURE.............................................................................14
2.1 General aspects...............................................................................................................14

2.2 Reference values of the wind velocity and dynamic pressure......................................14
2.3 Ground roughness. Mean wind velocity and dynamic pressure....................................17
2.4 Wind turbulence. Peak wind velocity and dynamic pressure....................................19
3
WIND ACTION ON BUILDINGS AND OTHER STRUCTURES.......................................................22
3.1 General aspects...............................................................................................................22

3.2 Wind pressure on surfaces..............................................................................................25
3.3 Wind forces...................................................................................................................26
3.4 Dynamic response coefficient of a structure.................................................................28
3.4.1 General information................................................................................................28
3.4.2 Assessment of the dynamic response coefficient...................................................28
4 AERODYNAMIC PRESSURE/SUCTION AND FORCE COEFFICIENTS............................................31
4.1 General information......................................................................................................31

4.2 Buildings....................................................................................................................33
4.2.1
General information...........................................................................................33
4.2.2 Vertical walls of rectangular plane buildings..........................................................34
4.2.3 Flat roofs.................................................................................................................37
4.2.4
Single pitch roofs...............................................................................................39
4.2.5 Double-pitched roofs...............................................................................................42
4.2.6 Quad pitched roofs..................................................................................................44
4.2.7 Multispan roofs.....................................................................................................45
4.2.8 Cylindrical roofs and domes...................................................................................47
4.2.9
Internal pressure.................................................................................................49
4.2.10 Pressure on exterior walls or roofs with several skins.......................................51
4.3 Canopies....................................................................................................................53
4.4 Free-standing walls, parapets, fences, and advertising boards..................................60
4.4.1
Free-standing vertical walls and parapets..........................................................60
4.4.2 Shelter factors for walls and fences........................................................................61
4.4.3
Advertising boards.............................................................................................62
4.5 Friction coefficients...................................................................................................63
4.6 Structural elements with a rectangular cross-section................................................64
4.7 Structural elements with cross-sections that have sharp edges.................................66
4.8 Structural elements with a regular polygonal cross-section......................................67
4
4.9 Circular cylinders......................................................................................................68

4.9.1
Aerodynamic external pressure/suction coefficients..........................................68
4.9.2
Aerodynamic force coefficients.........................................................................70
4.9.3
Aerodynamic force coefficients for vertical cylinders arranged in line.............72
4.10 Spheres.........................................................................................................................73
4.11 Lattice structures and scaffolding.................................................................................75
4.12 Flags.............................................................................................................................78
4.13
Effective slenderness and end-effect factor ..................................................79
5 PROCEDURES FOR DETERMINING THE DYNAMIC RESPONSE COEFFICIENT........................82
5.1
5.2
5.3
Wind turbulence.........................................................................................................82
Detailed procedure for determining the dynamic response coefficient.....................83
Simplified procedure for determining the dynamic response coefficient for buildings
...................................................................................................................................85
5.4 Displacements and accelerations corresponding to the service limit state of a
structure................................................................................................................................87
5.5 Comfort criteria.........................................................................................................88
6 AEROELASTIC INSTABILITY PHENOMENA GENERATED BY VORTICES...................................90
6.1 General information......................................................................................................90

6.2 Consideration of the effects of vortex shedding........................................................90
6.3 Main vortex shedding parameters.............................................................................90
6.3.1 The critical wind velocity vcrit,i................................................................................90
6.3.2 Strouhal number, St.................................................................................................91
6.3.3 Scruton number, Sc..................................................................................................93
6.3.4 Reynolds number, Re..............................................................................................93
6.4 Action caused by vortex shedding.............................................................................94
6.5 Calculation of the cross-wind displacement amplitude.............................................94
6.6 Vortex effects on vertical cylinders arranged in line or grouped...............................99
ANNEX A (NORMATIVE)
ANNEX B ( (NORMATIVE)
B.1
B.2
B.3
B.4
EFFECTS OF THE TERRAIN..................................................................114
Transition between roughness categories 0, I, II, III, and IV..................................114

Numerical calculation of the orography factor........................................................114
Neighbouring buildings and/or structures...............................................................117
Displacement height of the zero-elevation plane.....................................................118
ANNEX C (INFORMATIVE)
C.1
C.2
C.3
C.4
C.5
C.6
ZONING OF WIND ACTION IN ROMANIA...........................................102
DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF STRUCTURES.........................119
General aspects........................................................................................................119
Fundamental natural frequency...............................................................................119
Fundamental natural vector.....................................................................................121
Equivalent mass.......................................................................................................122
Logarithmic decrement of damping........................................................................123
Dynamic characteristics of bridge structures..........................................................125
5
ANNEX D (NORMATIVE)
WIND ACTION ON BRIDGES....................................................................129
D.1 General elements.....................................................................................................129

D.2 Choosing the procedure for calculating the wind action response..........................131
D.3 Aerodynamic force coefficients...............................................................................131
D.3.1 Aerodynamic force coefficients in direction x (general method)....................131
D.3.2 Wind forces on bridge decks in direction x Simplified method....................134
D.3.3 Wind forces on bridge decks in direction z......................................................135
D.3.4 Wind forces on bridge decks in direction y......................................................136
D.4 Bridge piles..............................................................................................................137
D.4.1 Wind directions and design situations..............................................................137
D.4.2 The effect of wind on bridge piles...................................................................137
GENERAL ASPECTS
1.1
Purpose and scope
(1) The code contains the principles, application rules, and databases needed for the wind
design of structures in Romania, harmonised with standard SR EN 1991-1-4, by taking into
consideration the meteorological information concerning the annual maximum values of the
mean wind velocity.
(2) The code regulates the way in which wind action and the structural response to this action
are determined in order to design buildings and other structures. The provisions of the code
refer to the entire structure of the building, as well as to its structural or non-structural
elements (e.g. curtain walls, parapets, fixings, etc.).
The code presents practical methods and procedures for assessing the pressures/suction forces
and/or wind forces applied to buildings and other usual structures, which are based on wind
action representations in accordance with SR EN 1991-1-4.
(3) The code shall apply to the design and inspection of:
-
buildings and other structures with heights up to 200 m (also see (4));
bridges with a span of no more than 200 m (also see (4)), which comply with the
dynamic response requirements stipulated in (D.2).
(4) The code does not contain provisions regarding the following aspects:
-
assessment of wind action on lattice towers with non-parallel chords (for this situation,
see SR EN 1993-3-1);
assessment of wind action on guyed masts and guyed chimneys;
assessment of combined wind-rain, wind-frost and wind-ice action (for these

situations, see SR EN 1993-3-1);
assessment of wind action during execution (see SR EN 1-1-4, Article 2(3) and
SR EN 199-1-6);
calculation of torsional vibrations, e.g. tall buildings with a central core;
calculation of bridge deck vibration generated by transverse wind turbulence;
assessment of wind action on cable supported bridges;
considering the influence of upper vibration modes in the assessment of the dynamic
structural response.
(5) The code does not include provisions regarding assessment of the effects of tornadoes on
buildings and their structural or non-structural elements.
7
(6) The provisions of the code are aimed at investors, design engineers, contractors as well as
inspection and control bodies (inspection and/or surveying of the designs, inspection, control,
and/or surveying of the construction works, as applicable).
1.2
Normative references
(1) The following normative references contain provisions which, by means of references
made in the present text, constitute provisions of this code:
Ite
m
No
1.
Ite
m
No
Legislative documents
Design code. Basis of structural

design, Code CR 0-2012
Publication
Notified draft technical regulation
Standards
Name
SR EN 1990:2004/A1:2006
Eurocode: Basis of structural design - Bridges
SR EN
1990:2004/A1:2006/NA:2009
Eurocode: Basis of structural design. Annex A2:

Application for bridges. National Annex
SR EN 1991-1-4:2006
SR EN 1991-1-4:2006/NB:2007
SR EN 1991-1-4:2006 /AC:2010
SR EN 1991-1-6:2005
SR EN 1991-1-6:2005/NB:2008
SR EN 1991-2:2004
SR EN 1991-2:2004/NB:2006
10
SR EN 1993-3-1:2007
11
SR EN 1993-3-1:2007/NB:2009
Eurocode 1: Actions on structures. Part 1-4:

General actions. Wind actions
General actions Wind actions. National Annex
General actions Wind actions
General actions - Actions during execution
General actions. Actions during execution.
National Annex
Eurocode 1: Actions on structures. Part 2: Traffic
loads on bridges
Eurocode 1: Actions on structures. Part 2: Traffic
loads on bridges. National Annex
Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures. Part 3-1:
Towers, masts and chimneys. Towers and masts
Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures. Part 3-1:
Towers, masts and chimneys. Towers and masts.
National Annex
(2) This code includes text adopted from national standards SR EN 1991-1-4:2006 and
SR EN 1991-1-4:2006/NB:2007, identified by means of a vertical line at the side and/or
reference [3] given in the table above.
8
1.3
Hypotheses
(1) The general hypotheses presented in CR 0 shall also be valid for the present code.
1.4
Design assisted by testing
(1) The wind action on structures and their response can also be assessed using the results of
wind tunnel tests and/or digital methods, using suitable models of the structure and wind
action.
(2) In order to carry out wind tunnel experimental tests, the wind action must be modelled so
that (i) the mean wind velocity profile and (ii) the turbulence characteristics on site are
complied with.
1.5
Definitions and symbols
(1) The following definitions are given to enable use of the design code:
-
reference wind velocity - the characteristic wind speed averaged over a period of 10
minutes, with a 2 % annual exceedance probability (mean recurrence interval, MRI =
50 years), regardless of the direction of the wind, determined at a height of 10 m in
open terrain;
mean wind velocity - wind velocity averaged over a period of 10 minutes, with a 2 %
annual exceedance probability regardless of the direction of the wind, determined at a
height z above ground, by taking into consideration the effects of the ground
roughness and site orography;
peak wind velocity - maximum expected wind velocity over a period of 10 minutes,
regardless of the direction of the wind, determined at a height z above ground, by
taking into consideration the effects of the ground roughness, site orography, and
wind turbulence;
aerodynamic pressure/suction coefficient - the aerodynamic external

pressure/suction coefficient characterises the effect of the wind on the exterior
surfaces of buildings; the aerodynamic internal pressure/suction coefficient
characterises the effect of the wind on the interior surfaces of buildings. Aerodynamic
external pressure/suction coefficients can be divided into global coefficients and local
coefficients. Local coefficients are aerodynamic pressure/suction coefficients for
upwind surfaces less than or equal to 1 m 2, which are used, for example, to design
small elements and fixings. Global coefficients are aerodynamic pressure/suction
9
coefficients for upwind surfaces larger than 10 m2. The resultant (total) aerodynamic
pressure coefficients characterise the resultant effect of the wind on a structure, a
structural element or a component, expressed per surface unit;
-
aerodynamic force coefficient - the aerodynamic force coefficient characterises the

global effect of the wind on a structure or its elements (considered as a whole),
including air friction on the surfaces (unless specified otherwise);
quasi-static response factor - factor used to assess the correlation of wind pressures
on the surface of the structure;
resonant response factor - factor used to assess the effects of the dynamic
amplification of the structural response, caused by the frequency content of the wind
turbulence in quasi-resonance with the fundamental vibration frequency of the
structure;
characteristic (pressure / force) value also see CR 0.
(2) The code uses the following symbols:
Latin upper-case letters

-
A area (surface)
Afr area (surface) exposed to wind
Aref reference area
B2 quasi-static response factor
C wind load factor for bridges
E Youngs modulus
Ffr resultant frictional force
Fj vortex exciting force applied to a point j of the structure
Fw resultant wind force
H height of an orographic element
Iv turbulence intensity
K mode shape factor; shape parameter
Kiv interference factor for vortex shedding
Krd reduction factor for parapets
Kw correlation length factor
L length of the span of a bridge deck; turbulence scale length
Ld actual length of a downwind slope

10
Le effective length of an upwind slope
Lj correlation length
Lu actual length of an upwind slope
N number of cycles caused by vortex shedding
Ng number of load cycles for gust response
R2 resonant response factor
Re Reynolds number
Rh, Rb
Sc Scruton number
SL unilateral and normalised power spectral density
St Strouhal number
Ws weight of the structural elements which contribute to the stiffness of a

chimney
Wt total weight of a chimney.
aerodynamic admittance
Latin lower-case letters

-
b width of the structure (cross-wind dimension, unless specified otherwise)

cz > 1000m
altitude factor
cd dynamic response coefficient of the structure
cdir directional factor
ce exposure factor
cf aerodynamic force coefficient
cf,0 aerodynamic force coefficient for structures or structural elements

without free-end air flow
cf,l lift force coefficient
cfr friction coefficient
clat aerodynamic force coefficient in a direction transversal to the wind
cM aerodynamic moment coefficient
cp aerodynamic pressure/suction coefficient
cp,net
cr roughness factor for wind velocity
cr2 roughness factor for dynamic wind pressure
aerodynamic resultant (total) pressure coefficient
11
cpv gust factor for wind velocity
cpq gust factor for dynamic wind pressure
co orography factor
cs size factor
d length of the structure (dimension parallel to the wind direction, unless

specified otherwise)
e force eccentricity or distance to the edge
fL non-dimensional frequency
h height of the structure
hmed
height of the obstacle
hdepl
displacement height of the plane with zero elevation
k equivalent roughness
kp peak factor
me equivalent mass per unit length
ni natural frequency of the structure in vibration mode i
n1,x fundamental frequency of along-wind vibration
nl,y fundamental frequency of cross-wind vibration
no ovalling frequency
p annual probability of exceedance
qb reference value of dynamic wind pressure
qm mean value of dynamic wind pressure
qp peak value of dynamic wind pressure
radius
factor; coordinate
averaged time of the reference wind velocity; plate thickness
vb reference wind velocity
vcrit critical wind velocity for vortex shedding
vm mean wind velocity
vp peak wind velocity
w wind pressure
x horizontal distance from the site to the top of a crest
length of a horizontal structure
12
ymax
maximum cross-wind amplitude at critical wind velocity
zmedaverage height
z0 roughness length
ze, zi
zmaxmaximum height
zmin minimum height
zs reference height for determining the dynamic response factor of the

structure.
height above ground
reference height for external/internal wind action
Greek upper-case letters

-
upwind slope
1,xfundamental along-wind mode shape

Greek lower-case letters
Iw factor of importance exposure to wind action
logarithmic decrement of damping
a logarithmic decrement of aerodynamic damping
d logarithmic decrement of damping caused by special devices
s logarithmic decrement of structural damping
solidity ratio; blockage coefficient
slenderness coefficient
opening ratio; permeability of an envelope (skin)
kinematic viscosity
torsional rotation angle
air density
v standard deviation of the fluctuation of instantaneous wind velocity in the

region of mean velocity
a,x
mcreduction factor for multi-bay canopies
standard deviation of along-wind acceleration of the structure
13
r reduction factor of force coefficient for square sections with rounded

corners
reduction factor of force coefficient for structural elements with endeffects
s shelter factor for walls and fences
exponent of mode shape.
end-effect factor for circular cylinders
Indices
-
b reference
crit
e external; exposure
fr friction
internal; mode number
current number of incremental area or point of a structure
m mean
p peak
x along-wind direction
y cross-wind direction
z vertical direction.
critical
1.6
Combination of wind action with other actions
(1) Characteristic values of wind action on buildings and other structures shall be obtained by
applying the provisions of this code.
(2) The effects that wind actions can have on a building structure shall be grouped together
with the structural effects of permanent and variable actions with design relevance, in
accordance with CR 0.
(3) The fatigue phenomenon caused by the effects of wind action on fatigue-sensitive
structures shall be taken into consideration.
14
WIND VELOCITY. DYNAMIC WIND PRESSURE
2.1
General aspects
(1) The instantaneous values of wind velocity and dynamic wind pressure shall contain a
mean component and a fluctuating component.
(2) Both wind speed and dynamic wind pressure shall be modelled as random values. Their
mean component shall be modelled as a random variable; the fluctuating component shall be
modelled as a stationary random process, normal and of zero mean value.
(3) The mean values of the dynamic wind pressure and velocity shall be determined on the
basis of their reference values (described in Point 2.2) and of the ground roughness and
orography (described in Point 2.3).
(4) The fluctuating component of the wind velocity shall be represented by the turbulence
intensity defined in Point 2.4, which is used to define the peak wind velocity and dynamic
pressure.
2.2
Reference values of the wind velocity and dynamic pressure
(1) The reference value of wind velocity (reference wind velocity), vb is the characteristic
wind velocity averaged over a period of 10 minutes, calculated at a height of 10 m, regardless
of the wind direction, in open country terrain (terrain of category II with a conventional
roughness length, z0 = 0.05 m), which has an annual exceedance probability of 0.02 (which
corresponds to a value with the mean recurrence interval MRI = 50 years).
(2) The wind action shall be considered to be horizontal and directional. If expressed
directionally, the reference value of the wind velocity, vb shall be multiplied by a directional
factor, cdir which takes into account the wind speed distribution in different horizontal
directions. In the absence of directional wind speed measurements, the directional factor shall
be considered equal to 1.0.
(3) The reference value of the dynamic wind pressure (reference wind pressure), qb is the
characteristic value of the dynamic wind pressure, calculated using the reference value of the
wind velocity:
qb
1
vb2
2
(2.1)
15
where is the air density, which varies with altitude, temperature, latitude, and season. For
standard air (=1.25 kg/m3), the reference pressure (expressed in Pascals) shall be determined
with the relationship:
q b Pa 0,625 v b2 m/s
(2.2)
(4) The reference values of the dynamic wind pressure in Romania are shown on the zoning
map given in Figure 2.1. Table A.1 of Annex A contains the reference values of the dynamic
wind pressure for 337 towns and cities in Romania.
(5) The zoning map with the reference values of the dynamic wind pressure given in Figure
2.1 shall be valid for altitudes of up to 1 000 m. The reference value of the dynamic wind
pressure for a site located at an altitude z higher than 1 000 m can be determined with
relationship (A.1) given in Annex A.
(6) For the south-western areas of Banat region (where the reference values of the dynamic
wind pressure are higher than or equal to 0.7 kPa see Figure 2.1) and the mountain areas
located at an altitude higher than 1 000 m, recent primary data recorded by the National
Meteorological Administration, ANM, should be used. Also, if the directional factor cdir needs
to be determined, recent primary data supplied by ANM should be used.
(7) The reference wind velocity for a site shall be obtained from the reference value of the
dynamic wind pressure corresponding to the respective site (taken from the zoning map
shown in Figure 2.1 or directly from Table A.1), using relationship (A.3) given in Annex 3.
16
SCALE
Figure 2.1 Zoning of the reference values of dynamic wind pressure, qb in kPa, where MRI = 50 years
NOTE. For altitudes higher than 1 000 m, the values of the dynamic wind pressure shall be corrected using relationship (A.1) given in Annex A
17
2.3
Ground roughness. Mean wind velocity and dynamic pressure
(1) The roughness of the ground surface shall be aerodynamically modelled by the roughness
length, z0, expressed in metres. This represents a conventional measurement of the turbulent
wind vortices on the ground surface. Table 2.1 presents the classification of the terrain
categories as a function of the roughness length, z0.
Table 2.1. Roughness length, z0, in metres, for various terrain categories [3] 1), 2), 3)
Terrain
z0,
Terrain description
category
m
0
Sea or coastal areas exposed to winds blowing from the sea
0.003
Lakes or flat and horizontal areas with negligible vegetation and
I
0.01
without obstacles
Open terrain - areas with grass and/or isolated obstacles (trees,
II
buildings) located at distances of at least 20 times the height of the 0.05
obstacle
Areas with uniform cover of vegetation, buildings, or isolated
III
obstacles located at distances of no more than 20 times the height of 0.3
the obstacle (e.g. villages, suburban terrain, forests)
Areas where at least 15 of the surface is covered with buildings
IV
1.0
more than 10 m high (e.g. urban areas)
zmin,
m
1
1
2
5
10
1)
Lower values of the roughness length z0 shall lead to higher values of the mean wind velocity
To be included in terrain categories III and IV, the respective terrain must cover a distance of at least 500 m
and 800 m, respectively, in the vicinity of the structure.
2)
(2) The variation of mean wind velocity with the height above ground level caused by the
roughness of the surface shall be represented by a logarithmic profile. The mean wind
velocity, vm(z) at a height z above ground level depends on the ground roughness and the
reference wind speed, vb (without taking into consideration the site orography):
v m z cr z v b
(2.3)
where cr(z) is the roughness factor for wind velocity.
(3) The roughness factor for wind velocity, cr(z) models the variation of the mean wind
velocity with the height z above ground level for various terrain categories (with a roughness
length z0), as a function of the reference wind velocity:
z
z0
cr z
k r z 0 ln
pentru z min z z max 200 m
c r z z min
pentru z z min
(2.4)
18
where the ground factor kr is given by relationship
k r z 0 0,189
z0
0,05
0, 07
(2.5).
The values z0 and zmin are given in Table 2.1. The values kr(z0) are given in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2. The kr(z0) and kr2(z0) factors for different terrain categories
Terrain
category
kr(z0)
kr2(z0)
II
III
IV
0.155
0.024
0.169
0.028
0.189
0.036
0.214
0.046
0.233
0.054
(4) The logarithmic velocity profile shall be valid for moderate and strong winds (mean
velocity > 10 m/s) in a neutral atmosphere (where the vertical thermal convection of the air
can be ignored).
Although the logarithmic profile is valid for the entire height of the limit atmospheric
stratum, its use is especially recommended for the first 200 m from the ground surface
(representing approximately 10 % of the height of the limit atmospheric stratum).
(5) If the terrain orography (isolated hills, cliffs) increases the wind velocity by more than
5 % of the value calculated without taking into consideration the orographic effects (the
orography factor co is higher than 1.05), the mean velocity calculated with relationship (2.3)
shall be multiplied by the orography factor co (see relationship 2.6). Annex B presents a
procedure for calculating the orography factor c0.
The effects of orography may be neglected when the average slope of the upwind terrain
(compared to the direction of air flow) is less than 3. The upwind terrain may be considered
up to a distance equal to 10 times the height of the isolated orographic element.
If the orographic effects cannot be neglected, the mean wind velocity, vm(z) at a height z
above ground level shall be determined with relationship:
v m z co c r z v b
(2.6)
(6) If the building/structure being analysed is/will be located in the vicinity of another
structure that is at least twice as high as the average height of the neighbouring structures,
then it can be exposed (depending on the geometry of the structure) to increased wind
velocities for certain wind directions. Annex B presents a method for considering this effect.
(7) The effect of neighbouring buildings (located at small distances away) may also be taken
into account when assessing the mean wind velocity. Annex B presents an approximate
method for considering this effect.
19
(8) The mean dynamic wind pressure, qm(z) at a height z above ground level (without taking
into consideration the orography of the site) shall depend on the ground roughness and the
reference value of the dynamic wind pressure, qb and shall be determined with relationship:
qm z cr2 z qb
(2.7)
where cr2(z) is the roughness factor for dynamic wind pressure.
If the orographic effects cannot be neglected, the mean dynamic wind pressure, qm(z) at a
height z above ground level shall be determined with relationship:
qm z co2 cr2 z qb
(2.8)
(9) The roughness factor for dynamic wind pressure, cr2(z) models the variation of the mean
wind pressure with the height z above ground level for various terrain categories (with a
roughness length z0), as a function of the reference value of the dynamic wind pressure:
c r2
k r2
z0
z
ln
z0
c2 z z
min
r
pentru z z min
(2.9)
The values kr2(z0) for the five terrain categories are given in Table 2.2.
2.4
Wind turbulence. Peak wind velocity and dynamic pressure
(1) The wind turbulence intensity, Iv shall characterise the fluctuation of the instantaneous
wind velocity in the region of the mean velocity. The turbulence intensity at a height z above
ground level shall be defined as the ratio between the standard deviation v of the fluctuation
of the instantaneous wind velocity, v(z,t) and the mean wind velocity at a height z, vm(z):
I v z
v
vm z
(2.10)
(2) The turbulence intensity at a height z shall be determined with relationship:
2,5 ln z
z
Iv z
0
I v z z min
pentru z z min
(2.11)
20
(3) The values of the factor of proportionality shall vary with the ground roughness (z0, m)
and can be considered, in a simplified way, to be independent of the height z above ground
level:
4,5 4,5 0,856 ln z 0 7,5
(2.12)
The values
are given in Table 2.3, so that they can be used in relationship (2.11).
Table 2.3.
Terrain category
0
2.74
values, depending on the terrain category

I
II
III
2.74
2.66
2.35
IV
2.12
(4) The peak wind velocity, vp(z) at a height z above ground level, caused by gusts of wind,
shall be determined with relationship:
v p z c pv z v m z
(2.13)
where cpv(z) is the gust factor for the mean wind velocity.
(5) The gust factor for the mean wind velocity, cpv(z) at a height z above ground level shall be
defined as the ratio between the peak wind velocity (caused by gusts of turbulent wind) and
the mean value (averaged over 10 minutes) at a height z of the wind velocity:
c pv z 1 g I v z 1 3,5 I v z
(2.14)
where g is the peak factor whose recommended value is g=3.5
(6) The peak dynamic wind pressure, qp(z) at a height z above ground level, caused by gusts
of wind, shall be determined with relationship:
q p z cpq z q m z
(2.15)
(7) The gust factor for the mean dynamic wind pressure, cpq(z) at a height z above ground
level shall be defined as the ratio between the peak dynamic wind pressure (caused by gusts
of wind) and the mean dynamic wind pressure (caused by the mean wind velocity) at a height
z, namely:
c pq z 1 2 g I v z 1 7 I v z
(2.16)
(8) The peak dynamic wind pressure, qp(z) at a height z above ground level can be expressed
as a function of the reference value of the dynamic wind pressure, qb (at 10 m, in open
country terrain terrain category II):
21
qp z cpq z qm z cpq z cr2 z qb

(2.17)
(9) The exposure (or combined) factor, ce(z) shall be defined as the product between the gust
factor, cpq(z) and the roughness factor, cr2(z):
ce z cpq z cr2 z
(2.18)
The exposure factor variation for various terrain categories is shown in Figure 2.2.
(10) If the orographic effect cannot be neglected, the exposure factor, ce(z) shall also take into
consideration the factor c02 (see relationship 2.8) as follows:
ce z c02 cr2 z cpq z

(2.19)
(11) Using relationships (2.17) and (2.18), the peak dynamic wind pressure at a height z
above ground level, qp(z) can be expressed in summary as a function of the exposure factor,
ce(z) and the reference value of the dynamic wind pressure, qb:
q p z ce z q b
Height above ground level z, m
(2.20)
Terrain of category
IV
Terrain of category
III
Terrain of category
II
Terrain of category
I
Terrain of category
0
Exposure factor, ce(z)
Fig. 2.2 Exposure factor, ce(z)
22
WIND ACTION ON BUILDINGS AND OTHER STRUCTURES
3.1
General aspects
(1) Chapter 3 presents the main elements and methods used to assess the action and effects of
wind on buildings and other common structures.
(2) The equivalent static wind action shall be defined as an action which, when applied
statically to the structure or its elements, causes the expected maximum values of the
displacement and effort induced by the actual wind action.
(3) The wind action shall be represented by the pressures applied by the wind to the surfaces
of buildings and structures, or by the forces applied by the wind on buildings and other
structures. Wind actions are variable over time and act both directly, as pressure/suction on
the exterior surfaces of enclosed structures and buildings, as well as indirectly, on the interior
surfaces of enclosed structures and buildings, due to the porosity of the exterior surfaces. The
pressure/suction can also act directly on the interior surfaces of open structures and buildings.
The pressure/suction shall act on the surface of the structures, creating normal forces on their
surfaces. In addition, when large structural surfaces are exposed to the wind, the horizontal
frictional forces that act tangentially to the respective surfaces can have significant effects.
(4) Wind action shall be classified as a fixed variable action; wind actions assessed in the
form of pressure/suction or forces shall be represented by their characteristic values.
(5) Wind actions on structures with a dynamic along-wind response shall be represented, in a
simplified way, by a set of pressures/suctions or equivalent static forces which shall be
obtained by multiplying the peak values of the pressure/suction or forces that act on the
structure with the dynamic response coefficient.
(6) The total response in the direction of turbulent wind shall be determined as the sum
between:
i.
the component which displays a static action, and
ii.
the fluctuating resonant component, caused by those fluctuations of turbulent

excitation whose frequency is close to the vibration frequencies of the structure.
The provisions stipulated in this code shall enable assessment of the dynamic along-wind
response caused by the frequency content of the turbulent wind in resonance with the
fundamental frequency of along-wind vibration.
(7) The assessment of the effects of the wind on buildings/structures that are unusual in terms
of type, complexity and dimensions, structures with a height (buildings, antennas) or spans
(bridges) above 200 m, anchored antennas, and suspension bridges shall require special wind
engineering studies.
23
(8) for very flexible structures, such as cables, antennas, towers, chimneys, and bridges, the
wind-structure interaction can lead to their aeroelastic response. Chapter 6 includes simplified
rules for assessing the aeroelastic response.
(9) In accordance with the provisions of CR 0, structures can be divided into importanceexposure classes depending on the human and economic consequences that can be caused by
a major natural and/or anthropic hazard, as well as their role in the post-hazard response
activities carried out by the community (Table 3.1).
(10) To enable assessment of the wind action on structures, each importance-exposure class
(I-IV) shall be associated with an importance - exposure factor, Iw applied to its characteristic
value. The values of the importance - exposure factor, Iw for wind actions are:
-
Iw =1.15 for structures belonging to importance-exposure classes I and II;

Iw =1.00 for structures belonging to importance-exposure classes III and IV.
Table 3.1 Importance-exposure classes for structures
Importance
-exposure
class
Class I
Buildings
Engineering structures
Structures that are essential for the community

(a) Hospitals and other health buildings
(a) Water tanks, water treatment,
equipped with emergency services and
purification, and pumping stations
operating theatres
(b) Power transformer substations
(b) Fire-fighting stations, police stations,
(c) Structures which contain
and garages for the vehicles used by
radioactive materials
various types of emergency services
(c) Stations for the production and
distribution of power and/or which
provide essential services to the other
categories of structures
(d) Buildings which contain toxic gases,
explosives, and other dangerous
substances
(e) Centres for communication and
coordination of emergency situations
(f) Emergency shelters
(d) Structures with functions that are

essential for public order and
national defence and security
(e) Telecommunication towers
(f) Air and sea traffic control towers
(g) Pillars for electric power
transmission and distribution lines
and other structures of the same type
(g) Buildings with functions that are

essential for public administration
24
(h) Buildings with functions that are

essential for public order and national
defence and security
(i) Very tall buildings, regardless of their
function (buildings with a total aboveground height of 45 m or higher)
and other buildings of the same type
Class II
Structures which, in the event of an emergency, may pose a major threat to

human life
(a) Hospitals and other health buildings,
other than those belonging to class I,
which have a capacity of over 100
persons in the total exposed area
(b) Schools, high-schools, universities, or
other education buildings, which have
a capacity of over 250 persons in the
total exposed area
(c) elderly care homes, creches,
nurseries, and other care facilities,
which have a capacity of over 150
(d) Residential, office or commercial
buildings, which have a capacity of
over300 persons in the total exposed
area
(e) Conference, theatre and exhibition
halls, with a capacity of over 200
(f) Buildings belonging to the national
cultural patrimony, museums, etc.
(g) Mall-type buildings, with a capacity
of over 3 000 persons in the total
exposed area
(h) Prisons
25
(a) Stadium stands or sports halls

(b) Structures which are used to store
explosives, toxic gas, and other
dangerous substances
(c) Underground and above-ground
tanks used to store flammable
materials (gas, liquids)
(d) Water towers
(e) Cooling towers for thermal power
stations, industrial parks
and other structures of the same type
(i) Buildings which directly serve the

following facilities: electrical
substations, water treatment,
purification and pumping stations,
power production and distribution
stations, telecommunication centres
(j) Tall buildings, regardless of their
function (buildings with a total aboveground height between 28 m and 45
m)
and other buildings of the same type
Class III
All other structures, except for those belonging to classes I, II and IV
Class IV
Temporary structures, agricultural structures, warehouse buildings, etc. which are

characterised by a low risk of human life loss
3.2
Wind pressure on surfaces
(1) The wind pressure/suction which acts on the exterior rigid surfaces of a building/structure
shall be determined with the relationship:
we Iw c pe q p z e
(3.1)
where:
qp(ze) is the peak dynamic wind pressure determined at a height ze;
ze
is the reference height for external pressure (see Chapter 4);
cpe
is the aerodynamic pressure/suction coefficient for exterior surfaces (see

Chapter 4);
Iw
is the importance exposure factor.
(2) The wind pressure/suction which acts on the interior rigid surfaces of a building/structure
shall be determined with the relationship:
wi Iw c pi q p z i
(3.2)
where:
26
qp(zi) is the peak dynamic wind pressure determined at a height zi;

zi
is the reference height for internal pressure (see Chapter 4);
cpi
is the aerodynamic pressure/suction coefficient for interior surfaces (see

Chapter 4);
Iw
(3) The resultant (total) wind pressure on a structural element shall be the difference between
the pressure (towards the surface) and suction (away from the surface) on the two faces of the
element; the pressure and suction shall be considered with their sign. The pressure shall be
considered with the (+) sign and the suction shall be considered with the sign (-) (see Figure
3.1).
neg
neg
Win
d
Positive
internal
pressure
pos
pos
neg
neg
neg
Win
d
pos
Negative
internal
pressure
pos
neg
Win
d
neg
neg
Win
d
Figure 3.1 Pressure/suction on surfaces [3]
3.3
Wind forces
(1) The wind force that acts on a building/structure or structural element can be determined in
two ways:
i.
as a global force, using the aerodynamic force coefficients, or
ii.
by adding up the pressures/suctions which act on the (rigid) surfaces of the

building/structure, using the aerodynamic pressure/suction coefficients.
(2) The wind force shall be assessed for the most unfavourable wind direction for the
building/structure.
27
(3) The global along-wind force Fw, which acts on a structure or structural element with a
reference area Aref positioned perpendicular to the wind direction, shall be determined with
the general relationship:
Fw Iw c d c f q p z e Aref
(3.3)
or by vectorial composition of the forces for the individual structural elements, using
relationship:
Fw Iw cd
q p z e Aref
elemente
(3.4)
In relationships (3.3) and (3.4):

qp(ze) is the peak dynamic wind pressure determined at a height ze;
cd
is the dynamic response coefficient of the structure (see Chapter 5);
cf
is the aerodynamic force coefficient for the building/structure or the structural

element, which shall include the frictional effects (see Chapter 4);
Aref
is the reference area, positioned perpendicular to the wind direction, for

buildings/structures (relationship (3.3)) or their elements (relationship (3.4));
Iw
(4) The global along-wind force, Fw which acts on a building/structure or structural element
can be determined by vectorial composition of the forces Fw,e, Fw,i, calculated based on the
external and internal pressure/suction with relationships (3.5) and (3.6)
- forces due to pressure/suction being applied to exterior surfaces
Fw,e cd
w z A
e
ref
sup rafete
(3.5)
- forces due to pressure/suction being applied to interior surfaces
Fw,i
w z A
i
ref
sup rafete
(3.6)
with the frictional forces, Ffr created by the friction of the air parallel to the exterior surfaces
and calculated with relationship (3.7):
F fr Iw c fr q p z e A fr
(3.7)
In relationships (3.5), (3.6) and (3.7):

cd
is the dynamic response coefficient of the structure (see Chapter 5);
we(ze) is the wind pressure which acts on an individual exterior surface at a height ze;
28
wi(zi) is the wind pressure which acts on an individual interior surface at a height zi;
Aref
is the reference area of the individual surface;
cfr
is the friction coefficient (see Point 4.5);
Afr
is the area of the exterior surface, parallel to the wind direction (see Point 4.5);
Iw
(5) The effects generated by air friction on the surfaces can be neglected when the total area
of the surfaces parallel to the wind direction (or slightly inclined from the wind direction)
shall represent less than 1/4 of the total area of all exterior cross-wind surfaces. The effects
generated by air friction on the surfaces shall not be neglected when performing a test at the
limit state of static equilibrium, ECH (see CR 0).
(6) The general torsional effects caused by oblique wind action or non-correlated wind gusts
on quasi-parallelepipedal buildings/structures can be estimated, in a simplified way, by taking
into consideration the force Fw applied with an eccentricity e = b /10, where b is the
dimension of the side of the cross-section of the structure, positioned (quasi)-perpendicular to
the wind direction (also see Point 4.1.8).
3.4
Dynamic response coefficient of a structure
3.4.1 General information

(1) The dynamic response coefficient of a structure, cd takes into consideration the
amplification of the wind action effects due to structural vibrations that are quasi-resonant
with the frequency content of atmospheric turbulence, as well as the reduction of the wind
action effects due to the non-simulated occurrence of peak wind pressure on the surface of the
structure.
(2) The more flexible and lighter the structure, and the lower its level of damping, the higher
the structural response amplification shall be. The larger the structural surface exposed to
wind action, the more accentuated the structural response reduction due to the nonsimultaneous occurrence of peak wind pressures shall be.
3.4.2 Assessment of the dynamic response coefficient
3.4.2.1 Simplified assessment procedure
(1) The dynamic response coefficient, cd can be determined in a simplified way, as follows:
in accordance with the provisions stipulated in Sub-chapter 5.3, for parallelepipedal
buildings with a height of up to 30 m and planar dimensions of up to 50 m;
cd =1 for facades and roof elements with a natural vibration frequency higher than 5
Hz; the natural vibration frequencies of facades and roof elements can be determined
29
using the provisions stipulated in Annex C; normally, glass-covered openings smaller

than 3 m shall have natural frequencies higher than 5 Hz;
cd = 1 for chimneys with a circular cross-section and a height h < 60 m, which comply
with the condition h < 6.5d, where d is the chimney diameter.
(2) If the situation does not match the conditions specified in 3.4.2.1(1), the assessment
procedure detailed in 3.4.2.2 shall be used.
3.4.2.2 Detailed assessment procedure

(1) In general, the dynamic response coefficient, cd shall be determined with the following
relationship:
cd
1 2 kp I v zs B 2 R 2
1 7 I v zs
(3.8)
where:
zs
is the reference height for determining the dynamic response coefficient; this height
shall be determined in accordance with Figure 3.2; for situations that are not shown in
Figure 3.2, zs can be considered equal to h, the height of the structure;
kp
is the peak factor for the maximum extreme response of the structure; the calculation
for the peak factor, kp is given in Chapter 5;
Iv
is the wind turbulence intensity, as defined in Sub-chapter 2.4;
B2
is the non-resonant (quasi-static) response factor, which determines the correlation of

the wind pressure on the surface of the structure (determines the non-resonant
response component); the detailed calculation for the non-resonant response factor, B2
is given in Chapter 5;
R2
is the resonant response factor, which determines that dynamic amplification effects of
the structural response, caused by the frequency content of the turbulence in quasiresonance with the fundamental natural vibration frequency of the structure
(determines the resonant response component); the detailed calculation for the
resonant response factor, R2 is given in Chapter 5.
(2) Relationship (3.8) is based on the hypothesis that only the along-wind vibrations of the
structure, which corresponds to its fundamental natural vibration mode, are important.
30
zS = 0.6 . h zmin
a) vertical structures,
buildings.
z s h1
h
zmin
2
b) structures which vibrate in the

horizontal plane, girders
z s h1
h
zmin
2
c) (advertising) board type

structures
Figure 3.2. Reference height zs for the dynamic wind calculation of parallelepipedal structures
[3]
(3) For tall or flexible buildings (height h 30 m or natural vibration frequency n1 1 Hz)
the maximum along-wind displacement and acceleration of the building must be checked, the
former assessed at a height z = zs and the latter assessed at a height z = h. A method for
determining these response values is given in Chapter 5.
(4) For slender buildings (h/d > 4) and chimneys (h/d > 6.5) positioned in pairs or groups, the
increase of the wind effects due to turbulent backwater shall be considered (see Chapter 6).
(5) The effects of turbulent backwater on a building or chimney can, in a simplified way, be
considered negligible if at least one of the following requirements is complied with:
-
the distance between two buildings or chimneys is 25 times longer than the size of the
structure or chimney located upwind from the direction of the air flow, measured
perpendicular to the wind direction;
the fundamental natural vibration frequency of the building or chimney (for which the
effects of backwater turbulence are assessed) is higher than 1 Hz.
(6) If the requirements stipulated in 3.4.2.2(5) are not met, wind tunnel tests must be carried
out.
31
AERODYNAMIC PRESSURE/SUCTION AND FORCE COEFFICIENTS
4.1
General information
(1) The wind effects on the rigid surfaces of buildings and structures can be assessed in two
ways: (i) using aerodynamic pressure/suction coefficients, and (ii) using aerodynamic force
coefficients.
(2) In general, aerodynamic coefficients shall depend on: the geometry and dimensions of the
structure, the wind approach angle, the roughness category of the ground within the site
where the structure is located; the Reynolds number, etc.
(3) The provisions of this chapter refer to determining the aerodynamic coefficients required
in order to assess wind action on the rigid surfaces of buildings and structures. Depending on
the element or building/structure for which the wind action needs to be assessed, the
aerodynamic coefficients used can be:
-
aerodynamic external and internal pressure/suction coefficients, cpe(i), see 4.1 (4);
aerodynamic external (total) pressure coefficients, cp, net, see 4.1 (5);
friction coefficients, cfr, see 4.1 (6);
aerodynamic force coefficients, cf, see 4.1 (7).
(4) The aerodynamic external pressure/suction coefficients shall be used to determine the
wind pressure/suction on the exterior rigid surfaces of buildings and structures; the
aerodynamic internal pressure/suction coefficients shall be used to determine the wind
pressure/suction on the interior rigid surfaces of buildings and structures.
Aerodynamic external pressure/suction coefficients can be divided into global coefficients
and local coefficients. Local coefficients are aerodynamic pressure/suction coefficients for
exposed areas of 1 m2 and shall be used to design small elements and fixings. Global
coefficients are aerodynamic pressure/suction coefficients for exposed areas larger than 10 m 2
and shall be used to design buildings/structures or their elements with exposed areas larger
than 10 m2.
The aerodynamic internal and external pressure/suction coefficients shall be determined for:
-
buildings, using the provisions stipulated in 4.2, both for internal pressure/suction and
for external pressure/suction,
circular cylinders, using the provisions stipulated in 4.2.9, for internal

pressure/suction, and the provisions stipulated in 4.9.1, for external pressure/suction.
(5) The resultant (total) pressure coefficients shall be used to determine the resultant wind
pressure/suction on the rigid surfaces of buildings/structures or their components.
The resultant pressure/suction coefficients shall be determined for:
32
canopies, using the provisions stipulated in 4.3;
free-standing walls, parapets, advertising boards and fences, using the provisions
stipulated in 4.4.
(6) The friction coefficients shall be determined for walls and the surfaces defined in 3.3 (4)
and (5), using the provisions stipulated in 4.5.
(7) The aerodynamic force coefficients shall be used to determine the global wind force
applied to the structure, structural element or component, which shall also include friction,
unless this is explicitly excluded.
The aerodynamic force coefficients shall be determined for:
- boards, using the provisions stipulated in 4.3;
- structural elements with a rectangular cross-section, using the provisions stipulated in 4.6;
- structural elements with a sharp edge cross-section, using the provisions stipulated in 4.7;
- structural elements with a regular polygonal cross-section, using the provisions stipulated in
4.8;
- circular cylinders, using the provisions stipulated in 4.9.2 and 4.9.3;
- spheres, using the provisions stipulated in 4.10;
- lattice structures and scaffolding, using the provisions stipulated in 4.11;
- flags, using the provisions stipulated in 4.12.
(8) If instantaneous wind fluctuations on the rigid surfaces of a structure can lead to
significant asymmetric loads and the shape of the structure is sensitive to such loads (e.g.
symmetric buildings with a single central core subjected to torsion), then their effect must be
taken into consideration. Therefore, the pressure/suction distribution shown in Figure 4.1
shall be used for torsionally sensitive rectangular structures, in order to represent the torsional
effects caused by a non-perpendicular incident wind or a lack of correlation between the peak
wind pressures which act on different points of the structure.
(9) If ice or snow alters the geometry of the structure and changes its shape and/or reference
area, the latter shall be those corresponding to the surface of the snow or ice layer.
33
cpe area E
cpe area D
V
Figure 4.1 Wind pressure/suction distribution for considering torsional effects [3]
NOTE: The areas and values for cpe are given in Table 4.1 and Figure 4.5
4.2
Buildings
4.2.1 General information

(1) The aerodynamic external pressure/suction coefficients, cpe, for buildings and individual
parts of buildings shall depend on the size of the exposed area - A. These are given in tables,
for exposed areas, A of 1 m2 and 10 m2, for typical building configurations, with the notations
cpe,1 for local coefficients and cpe,10 for global coefficients.
NOTE 1: The exposed area is the area of a structure through which the wind action is transmitted to
the section taken into consideration in the calculations.
NOTE 2: For other values of the exposed area, the variation of aerodynamic coefficients can be
obtained from Figure 4.2.
(2) The values cpe,1 shall be used to design small elements and fixings with an area per
element of up to 1 m2 (e.g. facade or roof elements). The values cpe,10 shall be used to design
elements with an area per element of up to 10 m2 or the supporting structure of a building.
(3) The values cpe,10 and cpe,1 given in Tables 4.1 4.5 are given for the orthogonal wind
directions of 00, 900 and 1800.
NOTE: The values given in Tables 4.1 4.5 shall only apply to buildings.
34
NOTE:
A 1m2
1m2 < A < 10m2
A 10m2
cpe = cpe,1
cpe = c pe,1 + (c pe,10 - c pe,1) log10A
cpe = cpe,10
Figure 4.2 Variation of the aerodynamic external pressure/suction coefficient with the
dimensions of the area exposed to wind A [3]
(4) For cornices, the pressure on the underside of the cornice shall be equal to the pressure
corresponding to the wall area adjacent to the cornice; the pressure on the back of the cornice
shall be equal to the pressure corresponding to the adjacent roof area (see Figure 4.3).
pressure on the back of the
cornice
cornice
pressure on the underside of
the cornice
Figure 4.3 - Pressures on the roof cornice [3]
4.2.2 Vertical walls of rectangular plane buildings

(1) The reference heights, ze, used to determine the profile of the wind pressure applied to the
along-wind vertical walls of rectangular plane buildings (area D, Figure 4.5), shall depend on
the h/b ratio and are given in Figure 4.4 for the following three situations:
- for buildings where height h is lower than b, only one area shall be considered;
35
- for buildings where height h is higher than b, but lower than 2b, two areas shall be
considered: a lower area which extends from ground level to a height equal to b and an upper
area;
- for buildings where height h is higher than 2b, several areas shall be considered as follows:
a lower area which extends from ground level to a height equal to b; an upper area which
extends from the top of the building downwards, for a height b; a middle area, located
between the previous two areas, which is divided into horizontal strips with a height hstrip, as
shown in Figure 4.4.
To determine the profile of the wind pressure/suction on the side walls and the back wall
(areas A, B, C, and E, see Figure 4.5), the reference height, ze, shall be equal to the height of
the building.
Facade
Reference
height
Shape of the wind pressure

profile on the surface
qp(z)=qp(ze)
qp(z)=qp(h)
qp(z)=qp(b)
36
qp(z)=qp(h)
hstrip
ze=zstrip
qp(z)=qp(zstrip)
qp(z)=qp(b)
Figure 4.4 Reference heights ze and the corresponding wind pressure profile as a function of h
and b
NOTE: The wind action direction shall be perpendicular to the plane delimited by h and b [3]
(2) Areas A, B, C, D, and E for which the aerodynamic external pressure/suction coefficients
cpe,10 and cpe,1 are defined are given in Figure 4.5. The values of the aerodynamic external
pressure/suction coefficients cpe,10 and cpe,1 are given in Table 4.1, as a function of the h/d
ratio. The intermediary values can be obtained by linear interpolation. The values given in
Table 4.1 can also be used for the walls of buildings with single- or double-pitched roofs.
Table 4.1 Values of the aerodynamic external pressure/suction coefficients for the vertical
walls of rectangular plane buildings [3]
Area
h/d
5
1
0.25
A
cpe,10
-1.2
-1.2
-1.2
B
cpe,1
-1.4
-1.4
-1.4
cpe,10
-0.8
-0.8
-0.8
C
cpe,1
-1.1
-1.1
-1.1
cpe,10
D
cpe,1
-0.5
-0.5
-0.5
cpe,10
+0.8
+0.8
+0.7
E
cpe,1
+1.0
+1.0
+1.0
cpe,10
cpe,1
-0.7
-0.5
-0.3
NOTE: For buildings with h/d > 5, the total wind force shall be directly assessed, based on the
rules given in 4.64.8 and 4.9.2 for aerodynamic force coefficients.
37
e = b or 2h,
whichever is smaller
b: dimension of the side perpendicular to the wind direction
Elevation for e < d

Wind
direction
Wind
direction
Wind
direction
Elevation
Elevation for e 5d
Elevation for e d
Wind
direction
Wind
direction
Wind
direction
Wind
direction
Figure 4.5 Notations for vertical walls [3]

(3) When the wind force applied to building structures is determined by simultaneously
applying the aerodynamic pressure/suction coefficients cpe to the (exposed) front area and the
(non-exposed) back area (areas D and E) of the building, the lack of correlation of the wind
pressures between the two areas can be considered as follows: for buildings where h/d 5,
the resultant force shall be multiplied by 1; for buildings where h/d 1, the resultant force
shall be multiplied by 0.85; for intermediary h/d values, linear interpolation shall be used.
4.2.3 Flat roofs

(1) Roofs shall be considered to be flat if the slope is within the range -50< <50.
(2) Roofs shall be divided into exposure areas in accordance with Figure 4.6.
38
(3) The reference height for flat roofs and roofs with curved eaves shall be considered to be h.
The reference height for flat roofs that have an attic (with parapets) shall be considered to be
h + hp, see Figure 4.6
(4) The aerodynamic pressure/suction coefficients for each area are given in Table 4.2.
(5) The resultant aerodynamic pressure coefficient on the attic/parapet shall be determined
using the provisions stipulated in 4.4.
Eaves limit
ze = h + hp
ze = h
attic (parapet)
curved or mansard eaves

reference height:
ze = h
e=b or 2h
b - dimension of the side
perpendicular to the wind direction
Wind
directio
n
Figure 4.6 - Notations for flat roofs [3]
39
Table 4.2 Values of the aerodynamic external pressure / suction coefficients for flat roofs [3]
Area
F
Type of roof
Curved
eaves
Mansard
eaves
cpe,10
cpe,1
cpe,10
cpe,1
cpe,10
cpe,1
-1.8
-2.5
-1.2
-2.0
-0.7
-1.2
hp/h = 0.025
-1.6
-2.2
-1.1
-1.8
-0.7
-1.2
hp/h = 0.05
-1.4
-2.0
-0,9
-1.6
-0.7
-1.2
hp/h = 0.10
-1.2
-1.8
-0.8
-1.4
-0.7
-1.2
r/h = 0.05
-1.0
-1.5
-1.2
-1.8
-0.4
r/h = 0.10
-0.7
-1.2
-0.8
-1.4
-0.3
r/h = 0.20
-0.5
-0.8
-0.5
-0.8
-0.3
= 30
-1.0
-1.5
-1.0
-1.5
-0.3
= 45
-1.2
-1.8
-1.3
-1.9
-0.4
= 60
-1.3
-1.9
-1.3
-1.9
-0.5
Straight edges
With
parapets
cpe,10
cpe,1
+0.2
-0.2
+0.2
-0.2
+0.2
-0.2
+0.2
-0.2
+0.2
-0.2
+0.2
-0.2
+0.2
-0.2
+0.2
-0.2
+0.2
-0.2
+0.2
-0.2
NOTE 1. For roofs with parapets or curved eaves, linear interpolation can be used for the
intermediary values of hp/h and r/h.
NOTE 2. For roofs with mansard eaves, linear interpolation between = 30, 45 and = 60 can be
used. For > 60, linear interpolation can be used, between the values for = 60 and the values for
flat roofs with straight edges.
NOTE 3. The values with both signs shall be taken into consideration for area I.
NOTE 4. For mansard eaves, the aerodynamic external pressure coefficients are given in Table 4.4a
Aerodynamic external pressure/suction coefficients for double-pitched roofs (wind
direction = 0), Areas F and G, by taking into consideration the angle of the mansard eaves.
NOTE 5. The aerodynamic external pressure coefficients for curved eaves shall be obtained by linear
interpolation along the curve between the values for the walls and the values for the roof.
NOTE 6. For mansard eaves with a horizontal dimension less than e/10, the values corresponding to
straight edges shall be used.
(6) For long roofs, the air friction forces along the building shall be taken into consideration.
4.2.4 Single pitch roofs
(1) The roof shall be divided into exposure areas in accordance with Figure 4.7.
40
(2) The reference height, ze shall be considered equal to h.

(4) For long roofs, the air friction forces shall be taken into consideration.
upper eaves
wind
upper eaves
wind
lower eaves
lower eaves
(a) general case
reference height:
ze = h
Wind
directio
n
e=b or 2h
b - side dimension
perpendicular to wind direction
(b) wind direction = 00 and = 1800
upper eaves
Fuppe
r
Wind
direction
Flowe
r
lower eaves
(c) wind direction = 900

Figure 4.7 Notations for single pitch roofs [3]
41
Table 4.30a Values of the aerodynamic external pressure/suction coefficients for single pitch
roofs [3]
Slope
angle
5
15
30
45
60
75
Areas for wind direction = 0

F
G
H
cpe,10
cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1
-1.7 -2.5 -1.2 -2.0 -0.6 -1.2
0
0
0
-0.9 -2.0 -0.8 -1.5
-0.3
+0.2
+0.2
+ 0.2
-0.5 -1.5 -0.5 -1.5
-0.2
+0.7
+0.7
+0.4
0
0
0
+0.7
+0.7
+0.6
+0.7
+0.7
+0.7
+0.8
+0.8
+0.8
Areas of wind direction = 180

F
G
H
cpe,10
cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10
cpe,1
-2.3
-2.5 -1.3 -2.0 -0.8
-1.2
-2.5
-2.8
-1.3
-2.0
-0.9
-1.2
-1.1
-2.3
-0.8
-1.5
-0.6
-1.3
-0.5
-0.7
-0.5
-0.5
-1.0
-1.0
-0.5
-0.5
-0.5
-0.5
-0.8
NOTE 1. For = 0 (see Table 4.3a), the pressure shall vary rapidly between the positive values and
the negative values on the upwind slope, for a slope angle from +5 to +45, so that both the positive
values and the negative values are given. Two situations must be taken into consideration for these
roofs: one with all positive values and the other with all negative values. Negative and positive values
cannot be considered simultaneously for the same face.
NOTE 2. For intermediary slope angles, linear interpolation between values with the same sign can be
used. Values equal to 0.0 are given in order to enable interpolation.
Table 4.30b Values of the aerodynamic external pressure/suction coefficients for single pitch
roofs [3]
Slope
angle
5
15
30
45
60
75
Fupper
cpe,10
cpe,1
-2.1
-2.6
-2.4
-2.9
-2.1
-2.9
-1.5
-2.4
-1.2
-2.0
-1.2
-2.0

Flower
G
H
cpe,10
cpe,1
cpe,10
cpe,1
cpe,10
-2.1
-2.4
-1.8
-2.0
-0.6
-1.6
-2.4
-1.9
-2.5
-0.8
-1.3
-2.0
-1.5
-2.0
-1.0
-1.3
-2.0
-1.4
-2.0
-1.0
-1.2
-2.0
-1.2
-2.0
-1.0
-1.2
-2.0
-1.2
-2.0
-1.0
42
I
cpe,1
-1.2
-1.2
-1.3
-1.3
-1.3
-1.3
cpe,10
cpe,1
-0.5
-0.7
-1.2
-0.8
-1.2
-0.9
-1.2
-0.7
-1.2
-0.5
4.2.5 Double-pitched roofs

(1) The roof shall be divided into exposure areas in accordance with Figure 4.8.
(4) For long roofs, the air friction forces shall be taken into consideration.
wind
upwind slope
downwind slope
(a) general case

upwind
slope
Crest or eaves
downwind
slope
(b) wind direction = 00
Wind
direction
upwind slope
downwind slope
Negative slope angle
Positive slope angle
Wind
direction
wind
e = b or 2h
crest
or eaves
b - side dimension
perpendicular to wind direction
(c) wind direction = 900

Figure 4.8 Notations for double-pitched roofs [3]
43
Table 4.40a Values of the aerodynamic external pressure/suction coefficients for doublepitched roofs [3]
Slope
angle
-45
-30
-15
F
cpe,10
cpe,1
-0.6
-1.1
-2.0
-2.5
-2.8
-5
-2.3
5
15
30
45
60
75
-2.5
-1.7
-2.5
0
-0.9
-2.0
+0.2
-0.5
-1.5
+0.7
0
+0.7
+0.7
+0.8

G
H
I
cpe,10
cpe,1
cpe,10
cpe,1
cpe,10
cpe,1
-0.6
-0.8
-0.7
-0.8
-1.5
-0.8
-0.6
-1.3
-2.0
-0.9
-1.2
-0.5
+0.2
-1.2
-2.0
-0.8
-1.2
-0.6
-1.2
-2.0
-0.6
-1.2
-0.6
0
0
-0.8
-1.5
-0.3
-0.4
+0.2
+0.2
0
-0.5
-1.5
-0.2
-0.4
+0.7
+0.4
0
0
0
-0.2
+0.7
+0.6
0
+0.7
+0.7
-0.2
+0.8
+0.8
-0.2
J
cpe,10
cpe,1
-1.0
-1.5
-0.8
-1.4
-0.7
-1.2
+0.2
-0.6
+0.2
-0.6
-1.0
-1.5
0
0
-0.5
0
-0.3
0
-0.3
-0.3
NOTE 1. For = 0 the pressure shall vary rapidly between the positive values and the negative
values on the upwind slope, for a slope angle from +5 to +45, so that both the positive values
and the negative values are given. For these roofs, four exposure situations shall be considered,
where the highest or the lowest values for areas F, G, and H are combined with the highest or the
lowest values for areas I and J. Negative and positive values cannot be considered simultaneous ly
for the same exposed face.
NOTE 2. For intermediary slope angles, linear interpolation between values with the same sign
can be used. (For slope angles between = +5 and = -5, the values shall not be interpolated,
and the slope roof data given in 4.2.3 shall be used instead). Values equal to 0.0 are given in order
to enable interpolation.
Table 4.40b Values of the aerodynamic external pressure/suction coefficients for doublepitched roofs [3]
Slope angle
-45
-30
-15
-5
5
15
30
F
cpe,10
-1.4
-1.5
-1.9
-1.8
-1.6
-1.3
-1.1
cpe,1
-2.0
-2.1
-2.5
-2.5
-2.2
-2.0
-1.5

G
H
cpe,10
cpe,1
cpe,10
cpe,1
-1.2
-2.0
-1.0
-1.3
-1,2
-2.0
-1.0
-1.3
-1.2
-2.0
-0.8
-1.2
-1.2
-2.0
-0.7
-1.2
-1.3
-2.0
-0.7
-1.2
-1.3
-2.0
-0.6
-1.2
-1.4
-2.0
-0.8
-1.2
44
I
cpe,10
-0.9
-0.9
-0.8
-0.6
cpe,1
-1.2
-1.2
-1.2
-1.2
-0.6
-0.5
-0.5
Slope angle
F
cpe,10
-1.1
-1.1
-1.1
45
60
75
cpe,1
-1.5
-1.5
-1.5

G
H
cpe,10
cpe,1
cpe,10
cpe,1
-1.4
-2.0
-0.9
-1.2
-1.2
-2.0
-0.8
-1.0
-1.2
-2.0
-0.8
-1.0
I
cpe,10
cpe,1
-0.5
-0.5
-0.5
4.2.6 Quad pitched roofs

(1) The roof shall be divided into areas in accordance with Figure 4.9.
(4) For long roofs, the frictional forces shall be taken into consideration.
Wind
direction
Wind
direction
reference height:
ze = h
e = b or 2h
b - dimension of the side

perpendicular to the wind direction
Wind
Wind
(a) wind direction = 00
(b) wind direction = 900
Figure 4.9 Notations for quad pitched roofs [3]
Table 4.5 Values of the aerodynamic external pressure/suction coefficients for quad pitched
roofs [3]
45
Slope angle
Areas for wind direction = 0 and = 90
0 for
= 0
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
90for
= 90 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1
5
15
30
-1.7 -2.5 -1.2 -2.0 -0.6 -1.2

0
-0.9 -2.0 -0.8 -1.5

+0.2
+0.2
-0.5 -1.5 -0.5 -1.5
-0.3
-0.6
-0.6
-1.2 -2.0 -0.6 -1.2
-0.4
-0.5
-1.0 -1.5 -1.2 -2.0 -1.4 -2.0 -0.6 -1.2
-0.3
-0.4
-0.7 -1.2
-0.5
-1.4 -2.0 -0.8 -1.2
-0.2
-0.3
-0.6
-0.3
-1.3 -2.0 -0.8 -1.2
-0.2
0
-0.3
+0.2
-0.2
+0.5
+0.7
+0.4
+0.7
+0.7
+0.6
60
+0.7
+0.7
+0.7
-0.3
-0.6
-0.3
-1.2 -2.0
-0.4
-0.2
75
+0.8
+0.8
+0.8
-0.3
-0.6
-0.3
-1.2 -2.0
-0.4
-0.2
45
NOTE 1. For = 0, the pressure shall vary rapidly between the positive values and the negative values on
the upwind slope, for a slope angle from +5 to +45, so that both the positive values and the negative
values are given. Two situations must be taken into consideration for these roofs: one with all positive
values and the other with all negative values. Negative and positive values cannot be considered
simultaneously for the same face.
NOTE 2. For intermediary slope angles, linear interpolation between values with the same sign can be used.
Values equal to 0.0 are given in order to enable interpolation.
NOTE 3. The values of the aerodynamic pressure/suction coefficients shall be determined as a
function of the upwind slope angle.
4.2.7 Multispan roofs

(1) The aerodynamic pressure/suction coefficients for wind directions 0, 90, and 180 on
each span of a multispan roof can be calculated as a function of the aerodynamic
pressure/suction coefficient for each individual span.
The modifying factors for (local or global) pressures for wind directions 0, 90, and 180 on
each span shall be calculated:
-
from the provisions of Point 4.2.4 for single pitch roofs, modified for their position in
accordance with Figure 4.10a and b;
from the provisions of Point 4.2.5 for double-pitched roofs for < 0, modified for
their position in accordance with Figure 4.10c and d.
(2) Areas F/G/J shall only be taken into consideration for the upwind slope. Areas H and I
shall be taken into consideration for each span of a multiple roof.
46
(3) The reference height, ze shall be considered to be the height of the structure, h. see Figure
4.10.
(4) If no resultant horizontal force applied to the roof is determined, each span shall be
0,05 q p z e Ades
, where Ades is the planar
wall
wall
wall
wall
wall
wall
wall
wall
wall
wall
designed for a minimum horizontal force equal to

area of each span of the roof.
47
NOTE 1. In configuration b) two cases should be considered, depending on the sign of the
aerodynamic pressure/suction coefficient cpe on the first roof.
NOTE 2. In configuration c, the first and the last cpe shall correspond to cpe a single pitch roof,
whilst the second and all the other cpe shall correspond to cpe a double-pitched roof.
Figure 4.10 Notations for multispan roofs [3]

4.2.8 Cylindrical roofs and domes
(1) The roof shall be divided into areas in accordance with Figure 4.11 and Figure 4.12.
(2) The reference height, ze shall be considered to be: ze = h + f.
(3) The values cpe,10 and cpe,1 for different areas are given in Figures 4.11 and 4.12.
reference height: ze = h
NOTE: In area A, for 0 < h/d < 0.5, cpe,10 shall be obtained by linear interpolation.
In area A, for 0.2 f/d 0.3 and h/d 0.5, two values shall be considered for c pe,10;
the diagram does not apply to flat roofs.
Figure 4.11 Aerodynamic external pressure/suction coefficients cpe,10

48
for cylindrical roofs with a rectangular plane shape [3]
cpe,10 shall be constant

along each plane
NOTE. cpe,10 shall be constant along circular arcs, sphere intersections, and planes
perpendicular to the wind direction; as a first approximation, cpe,10 can be determined by linear
interpolation between the values in areas A, B, and C along the circular arcs that are parallel
with the wind. In the same way, the values cpe,10 in area A can be obtained, by linear
interpolation in Figure 4.12, if 0 < h/d < 1 and the values in area B or C can be obtained if 0 <
h/d < 0.5.
Figure 4.12 Aerodynamic external pressure/suction coefficients cpe,10

for dome roofs with a planar circular shape [3]
(2) The aerodynamic pressure/suction coefficients for the walls of rectangular plane buildings
and cylindrical roofs can be determined in accordance with Point 4.2.2.
49
4.2.9 Internal pressure

(1) Internal and external pressure shall be considered to act at the same time
(simultaneously). The most unfavourable combination of external and internal pressures shall
be considered for every possible combination of openings and air leakage paths.
(2) The aerodynamic internal pressure/suction coefficient, cpi, shall depend on the size and
distribution of the openings in the building envelope. When on at least two sides of the
building (facades or roof) the total area of the openings on each side is more than 30 % of the
area of that side, the actions on the structure shall not be calculated using the rules given in
this sub-chapter, but using the rules stipulated in Sub-chapters 4.3 and 4.4.
Note. The openings of a building include small openings (such as: open windows, ventilators,
chimneys, etc.) as well as background permeability (which includes air leakage around doors,
windows, technical equipment and the building envelope). The background permeability is
typically between 0.01 % and 0.1 % of the area of the respective face.
(4) A face of a building can be considered dominant when the area of all openings on that
face is at least twice the area of the gaps and openings on all of the other faces of the
respective building.
(5) For a building with a dominant face, the internal pressure shall be taken as a percentage of
the external pressure which acts on the openings on the dominant face. The values given by
relationships (4.1) and (4.2) shall be used.
When the area of the openings on a dominant face is twice the area of the openings and gaps
on the other faces of the building, then
cpi = 0.75 . cpe
(4.1)
When the area of the openings on a dominant face is at least three times the area of the
openings and gaps on the other faces of the building, then
cpi = 0.90 . cpe
(4.2)
where cpe is the aerodynamic external pressure/suction coefficient at the openings in the
dominant face. When these openings are located in areas with different values of external
pressure, an area-weighted average coefficient cpe shall be used.
When the area of the openings on a dominant face is between 2 and 3 times the area of the
openings in the remaining faces of the building, linear interpolation can be used to calculate
cpi.
(6) For buildings without a dominant face, the aerodynamic internal pressure/suction
coefficient cpi is given in Figure 4.13 and shall be determined as a function of the ratio
between the height and the width of the building h/d, as well as the opening ratio for each
wind direction , which shall be determined with relationship (4.3):
50
ariilor golurilor unde c este negativ sau zero

ariilor tu turor golurilor
pe
(4.3)
NOTE 1. This relationship shall apply to the facades and roofs of buildings with or without
internal partitions.
NOTE 2 When it is not possible, or not considered justified to estimate the value for
particular cases, then cpi shall be taken as +0.2 sau 0.3 (the value that leads to the most
unfavourable effects shall be taken into consideration).
Figure 4.13 Aerodynamic internal pressure/suction coefficients, cpi for uniformly distributed
openings [3]
NOTE. Linear interpolation can be used for values between h/d = 0.25 and h/d = 1.0
(7) The reference height, zi, for internal pressures shall be considered equal to the reference
height, ze for external pressure/suction on the facades which, through their openings,
contribute to the creation of internal pressure. If there are several openings, the highest value
of ze shall be used to determine zi.
(8) The aerodynamic internal pressure/suction coefficient for open silos and chimneys shall
be:
cpi = -0.60
(4.4)
The aerodynamic internal pressure/suction coefficient for a vented tank with small openings
shall be:
cpi = -0.40
(4.5)
The reference height zi shall be equal to the height of the structure.
51
4.2.10 Pressure on exterior walls or roofs with several skins

(1) For exterior walls or roofs with more than one skin, the wind force shall be calculated
separately for each skin.
(2) The permeability of the skin shall be defined as the ratio between the total area of the
openings and the total area of the envelope. An envelope shall be defined as impermeable if
the value is lower than 0.1 %.
(3) If a skin is permeable, then the wind force on the impermeable skin shall be calculated as
the difference between the external pressure and the internal pressure, as described in Point
3.2(3). If several skins are permeable, then the wind force on each skin shall depend on:
-
the relative rigidity of the skins;
the external and internal pressures;
the distance between the skins.
The wind pressure on the most rigid skin shall be calculated as the difference between the
external pressure and the internal pressure.
In cases where the airflow between the layers of the envelope is blocked (Figure 7.14(a)) and
the free distance between the skins is less than 100 mm (the thermal insulation material is
included in one of the skins and there is no airflow through the insulation), the following
rules should be applied:
-
for walls and roofs with uniformly distributed openings, which have an impermeable
skin on the inside and a permeable skin on the outside, the wind force on the outside
skin can be calculated with cp,net = (2/3)cpe for pressure and cp,net = (1/3)cpe for suction.
The wind force on the inside skin can be calculated with cp,net = cpe - cpi;
for walls and roofs with an impermeable skin on the inside and a more rigid, impermeable
skin on the outside, the wind force on the outside skin can be calculated with cp,net = cpe cpi;
for walls and roofs with a permeable skin on the inside and with uniformly distributed
openings and an impermeable skin on the outside, the wind force on the outside skin
can be calculated with cp,net = cpe - cpi. The wind force on the inside skin can be
calculated with cp,net = 1/3cpi;
for walls and roofs with an impermeable skin on the outside and an impermeable more
rigid skin on the inside, the wind force on the outside skin can be calculated with cp,net
= cpe. The wind force on the inside skin can be calculated with cp,net = cpe - cpi.
These rules shall not apply if the air inlets allow the air layer to pass through to faces of the
building other than the face on which the wall is located (Figure 4.14(b)).
52
(a) the extremity of the air layer is closed
(b) the extremity of the air layer is open

Figure 4.14 Corner detail for exterior walls with several skins [3]
4.3
Canopies
(1) Canopies are roofs of structures which do not have permanent vertical enclosures, such as
petrol stations, agricultural barns, etc.
(2) The degree of air blockage under a canopy is shown in Figure 4.15. It depends on the
blockage coefficient , which shall be defined as the ratio between the area of possible
obstructions under the canopy and the area under the canopy, both areas being normal to the
wind direction ( = 0 corresponds to a canopy which covers an empty space, and = 1
corresponds to a canopy which covers a fully blocked space (but is not a closed building)).
(3) The global aerodynamic force coefficients, cf, and the resultant aerodynamic pressure
coefficients cp,net, are given in Tables 4.6, 4.7 and 4.8 for = 0 and = 1; these values take
into consideration the combined effect of the wind acting both on the back and on the
underside of the canopy, for all wind directions. The intermediary values shall be obtained by
linear interpolation.
(4) Behind the position of maximum blockage (from the wind direction), the values cp,net shall
be used for = 0.
(5) The global aerodynamic force coefficients shall be used to determine the resultant force.
The aerodynamic resultant pressure coefficients shall be used to determine the maximum
local pressure for all wind directions and to design the roof elements and fixings.
53
Canopy which covers an empty space ( = 0)
Canopy blocked by the goods stored in its area (

= 1)
Figure 4.15 Airflow in the area of a canopy [3]

(6) Canopies shall be designed for the following test situations, as follows:
-
for single pitch canopies (Table 4.6), the load shall be applied to the centre of pressure
located at d/4 (d = dimension corresponding to the wind direction, Figure 4.16);
for double-pitched canopies (Table 4.7), the load shall be applied to the centre of
pressure located in the centre of each pitch (Figure 4.17); in addition, a doublepitched canopy must be able to take over a load situation in which one of the pitches
takes over the maximum load and the other pitch is unloaded;
for multi-bay double-pitched canopies, each opening shall be calculated by applying

the reduction factors mc given in Table 4.8, to the aerodynamic resultant pressure
coefficients cp,net given in Table 4.7.
For canopies with two skins, the load on the impermeable skin and its fixings shall be
calculated with cp,net and the load on the permeable skin and its fixing shall be calculated with
1/3 cp,net.
(7) The air friction forces shall also be taken into consideration (see 4.5).
(8) The reference height, ze shall be considered equal to h, as shown in Figures 4.16 and 4.17.
54
Table 4.6 - Global aerodynamic force coefficients, cf and aerodynamic resultant pressure
coefficients, cp,net for single pitch canopies [3]
Resultant pressure coefficients, cp,net
wind
Canopy
slope
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Blockage coefficient,
Maximum, for any

Minimum, for = 0
Minimum, for = 1
Maximum, for any
Minimum, for = 0
Minimum, for = 1
Maximum, for any
Minimum, for = 0
Minimum, for = 1
Maximum, for any
Minimum, for = 0
Minimum, for = 1
Maximum, for any
Minimum, for = 0
Minimum, for = 1
Maximum, for any
Minimum, for = 0
Minimum, for = 1
Maximum, for any
Minimum, for = 0
Minimum, for = 1
Global
force
coefficient
s, cf
+ 0.2
- 0.5
- 1.3
+ 0.4
- 0.7
- 1.4
+ 0.5
- 0.9
- 1.4
+ 0.7
- 1.1
- 1.4
+ 0.8
- 1.3
- 1.4
+ 1.0
- 1.6
- 1.4
+ 1.2
- 1.8
- 1.4
Area A
Area B
Area C
+ 0.5
- 0.6
- 1.5
+ 0.8
- 1.1
- 1.6
+ 1.2
- 1.5
- 1.6
+ 1.4
- 1.8
- 1.6
+ 1.7
- 2.2
- 1.6
+ 2.0
- 2.6
- 1.5
+ 2.2
- 3.0
- 1.5
+ 1.8
- 1.3
- 1.8
+ 2.1
- 1.7
- 2.2
+ 2.4
- 2.0
- 2.6
+ 2.7
- 2.4
- 2.9
+ 2.9
- 2.8
- 2.9
+ 3.1
- 3.2
- 2.5
+ 3.2
- 3.8
- 2.2
+ 1.1
- 1.4
- 2.2
+ 1.3
- 1.8
- 2.5
+ 1.6
- 2.1
- 2.7
+ 1.8
- 2.5
- 3.0
+ 2.1
- 2.9
- 3.0
+ 2.3
- 3.2
- 2.8
+ 2.4
- 3.6
- 2.7
NOTE. The sign + indicates a downward resultant wind action

The sign - indicates an upward resultant wind action.
55
Figure 04.16 Position of the centre of pressure for a single pitch canopy [3]
56
Table 04.7 - Global aerodynamic force coefficients, cf and aerodynamic resultant pressure
coefficients, cp,net for single pitch canopies [3]
Canopy
slope
- 20
- 15
- 10
- 5
+ 5
+ 10
+ 15
+ 20
+ 25
+ 30
Blockage
coefficient,
Maximum, for any

Minimum, for = 0
Minimum, for = 1
Maximum, for any
Minimum, for = 0
Minimum, for = 1
Maximum, for any
Minimum, for = 0
Minimum, for = 1
Maximum, for any
Minimum, for = 0
Minimum, for = 1
Maximum, for any
Minimum, for = 0
Minimum, for = 1
Maximum, for any
Minimum, for = 0
Minimum, for = 1
Maximum, for any
Minimum, for = 0
Minimum, for = 1
Maximum, for any
Minimum, for = 0
Minimum, for = 1
Maximum, for any
Minimum, for = 0
Minimum, for = 1
Maximum, for any
Minimum, for = 0
Minimum, for = 1
Global force
coefficients, cf
Area A
+ 0.8
- 0.9
- 1.5
+ 0.6
- 0.8
- 1.6
+ 0.6
- 0.8
- 1.6
+ 0.5
- 0.7
- 1.5
+ 0.6
- 0.6
- 1.3
+ 0.7
- 0.7
- 1.3
+ 0.9
- 0.9
- 1.3
+ 1.1
- 1.2
- 1.4
+ 1.2
- 1.4
- 1.4
+ 1.3
- 1.4
- 1.4
+ 0.7
- 0.7
- 1.3
+ 0.5
- 0.6
- 1.4
+ 0.4
- 0.6
- 1.4
+ 0.3
- 0.5
- 1.3
+ 0.3
- 0.6
- 1.3
+ 0.4
- 0.7
- 1.3
+ 0.4
- 0.8
- 1.3
+ 0.6
- 0.9
- 1.3
+ 0.7
- 1.0
- 1.3
+ 0.9
- 1.0
- 1.3
57
Area B
+ 1.6
- 1.3
- 2.4
+ 1.5
- 1.3
- 2.7
+ 1.4
- 1.3
- 2.7
+ 1.5
- 1.3
- 2.4
+ 1.8
- 1.4
- 2.0
+ 1.8
- 1.5
- 2.0
+ 1.9
- 1.7
- 2.2
+ 1.9
- 1.8
- 2.2
+ 1.9
- 1.9
- 2.0
+ 1.9
- 1.9
- 1.8
Area C
+ 0.6
- 1.6
- 2.4
+ 0.7
- 1.6
- 2.6
+ 0.8
- 1.5
- 2.6
+ 0.8
- 1.6
- 2.4
+ 1.3
- 1.4
- 1.8
+ 1.4
- 1.4
- 1.8
+ 1.4
- 1.4
- 1.6
+ 1.5
- 1.4
- 1.6
+ 1.6
- 1.4
- 1.5
+ 1.6
- 1.4
- 1.4
Area D
+ 1.7
- 0.6
- 0.6
+ 1.4
- 0.6
- 0.6
+ 1.1
- 0.6
- 0.6
+ 0.8
- 0.6
- 0.6
+ 0.4
- 1.1
- 1.5
+ 0.4
- 1.4
- 1.8
+ 0.4
- 1.8
- 2.1
+ 0.4
- 2.0
- 2.1
+ 0.5
- 2.0
- 2.0
+ 0.7
- 2.0
- 2.0
Canopy
slope
Blockage
coefficient,
Global force
coefficients, cf
Area A
Area B
Area C
Area D
NOTE. The sign + indicates a downward resultant wind action

The sign - indicates an upward resultant wind action.
(9) The loads on each slope of multispan canopies (see Figure 4.18) shall be determined by
applying the reduction factors mc, given in Table 4.8, to the global force coefficients and the
resultant pressure coefficients corresponding to isolated double-pitched canopies.
58
59
Figure 04.17 Position of the centre of pressure for double-pitched canopies [3]
Table 04.8 Values of the reduction factors, mc for multispan canopies [3]
Number
of spans
Position
1
2
3
End span
Second span
Third and subsequent
spans
Factors mc for any blockage coefficient

for force coefficients
for force coefficients
(applied to a downward
(applied to an upward
action) and pressure
action) and pressure
coefficients
coefficients
1.0
0.8
0.9
0.7
0.7
0.7
Figure 4.18 Multispan canopies [3]
4.4
Free-standing walls, parapets, fences, and advertising boards
(1) The aerodynamic resultant pressure coefficients cp, net for free-standing walls and parapets
shall depend on the blockage coefficient, . For solid walls, = 1; for walls which are 80 %
solid (walls which have 20 % openings), = 0.8. Walls and fences with a blockage
coefficient 0.8 should be considered to be plane lattices, in accordance with 4.11.
In both cases, the reference area shall be considered to be the total area. For the parapets and
noise barriers of bridges, the provisions stipulated in Annex D shall apply.
4.4.1 Free-standing vertical walls and parapets
(1) For free-standing vertical walls and parapets, the aerodynamic resultant pressure
coefficients cp,net, are given for areas A, B, C, and D, in accordance with Figure 4.19.
The aerodynamic resultant pressure coefficients, cp,net for free-standing vertical walls and
parapets are given in Table 4.9 for two values of the blockage coefficient (see 4.4(1)). These
values shall correspond to an oblique wind action on a wall without a corner (see Figure 4.19)
and, in the case of a wall with a corner, shall correspond to the two opposite directions shown
in Figure 4.19. In both cases, the reference area shall be the total area. Linear interpolation
can be used for blockage coefficients between 0.8 and 1.
60
Table 4.9 Aerodynamic resultant pressure coefficients, cp,net for free-standing vertical walls
and parapets [3]
Blockage
coefficient
Area
l/h 3
l/h = 5
l/h 10
with corners with a
length ha
2.3
2.9
3.4
2.1
1.4
1.8
2.1
1.8
1.2
1.4
1.7
1.4
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
without
corners
=1
= 0.8
a
If the length of the corner is between 0.0 and h, linear interpolation can be used
(2) The reference height for vertical walls shall be equal to ze = h, see Figure 4.19. The
reference height for parapets in buildings shall be equal to ze = h + hp, see Figure 4.6.
for l > 4h
for l 4h
for l 2h
Wind approach angle
Without a corner
61
With a corner
Figure 4.19 Notations for free-standing vertical walls and parapets [3]
4.4.2 Shelter factors for walls and fences

(1) If there are along-wind walls or fences with a height equal to or higher than a wall or
fence with the height h, an additional shelter factor shall be used in order to obtain the
aerodynamic resultant pressure coefficient. The value of the shelter factor, s shall depend on
the distance between the walls, x and the value of the blockage coefficient, of the wall or
panel located upwind compared to the direction of airflow. The s values are represented in
Figure 4.20.
The aerodynamic resultant pressure coefficient for the sheltered wall cp,net,s shall be given by
relationship:
cp,net,s = s cp,net
(4.6)
Shelter factor s
(2) The shelter factor shall not be applied in the end areas, for a distance equal to h measured
from the free extremity of the wall.
x/ h
Figure 4.20 Shelter factor, s for free-standing walls and fences
for between 0.8 and 1.0 [3]
62
4.4.3 Advertising boards

(1) For advertising boards installed at a height zg (measured from ground level) higher than
h/4 (see Figure 4.21), the aerodynamic force coefficient shall have the following value:
cf = 1.80
(4.7)
The value obtained with relationship (4.7) shall also be used if zg is lower than h/4 and b/h
1.
(2) The resultant force which is normal to the board shall apply at the height of the board
centre, with a horizontal eccentricity e. The horizontal eccentricity e shall have the following
value:
e = 0.25 b
(4.8)
(3) Advertising boards installed at a height zg (measured from ground level) which is lower
than h/4 and b/h > 1 shall be considered to be edge walls (see 4.4.1).
The possibility of occurrence of aeroelastic phenomena of divergence and flutter shall be
checked.
NOTE 1.Reference height: ze = zg + h/2

NOTE 2. Reference area: Aref = b h
Figure 4.21 Notations for advertising boards [3]
4.5
Friction coefficients
(1) For the situations defined in 3.3(4), the air friction on the exposed surface shall be taken
into consideration.
(2) The friction coefficients, cfr for the surfaces of walls and roofs are given in Table 4.10.
63
(3) The reference area Afr is shown in Figure 4.22. The frictional forces shall be applied to the
exterior surface parallel to the wind direction, located at a distance equal to 2b or 4h,
whichever is lower, from the eaves or corner.
(4) The reference height, ze shall be equal to the height of the building h, see Figure 4.22.
Table 04.10 Friction coefficients, cfr for the surfaces of walls, parapets and roofs [3]
Type of surface
Smooth (e.g. steel, smooth concrete)
Rough (e.g. unfinished concrete, bitumen boards)
Very rough (e.g. ribs, ripples, folds)
Friction coefficient cfr

0.01
0.02
0.04
wind
wind
Reference area
wind
wind
Figure 4.22 Reference area for determining the frictional force [3]
4.6
Structural elements with a rectangular cross-section
(1) The aerodynamic force coefficient, cf for structural elements with a rectangular crosssection on which the wind acts perpendicular to one face shall be determined with
relationship:
cf = cf,0 r
(4.9)
64
where:
cf,0 is the aerodynamic force coefficient for rectangular cross-sections with sharp corners and
no free-end airflow (element with infinite length), Figure 4.23;
r is the reduction factor for square cross-sections with rounded corners, which depends on
the Reynolds number, see NOTE 1;
- the reduction factor for elements with free-end airflow (the reduction occurs due to
additional air leakage paths being provided around an element with finite length), defined in
4.13.
NOTE 1. The approximated upper limits of r (obtained in conditions of reduced turbulence)
are given in Figure 4.24. These values shall be considered to be covering values.
NOTE 2. Figure 4.24 can also be used for buildings with h/d > 5.0.
Figure 04.23 Aerodynamic force coefficients, cf,0 for rectangular cross-sections with sharp
corners
and without free-end airflow [3]
65
Figure 4.24. Reduction factor, r for square cross-sections with rounded corners [3]
(2) The reference area Aref shall be determined with relationship:

Aref = . b
(4.10)
where is the length of the structural element being considered.

(3) The reference height, ze shall be equal to the maximum height above ground level of the
element being considered.
(4) For thin cross-sections (d/b < 0.2), the forces can, at certain wind approach angles,
increase to 25 %.
4.7
Structural elements with cross-sections that have sharp edges
(1) The aerodynamic force coefficient, cf of structural elements with cross-sections that have
sharp edges (e.g. elements with the cross-sections shown in Figure 4.25) shall be determined
with relationship:
cf = cf,0
(4.11)
where:
cf,0 is the aerodynamic force coefficient for rectangular cross-sections with sharp edges and
no free-end airflow;
- the reduction factor for elements with free-end airflow, defined in 4.13.
The recommended value for elements without free-end airflow cf,0 = 2.0. This value shall be
obtained in conditions of reduced turbulence and shall be considered to be a covering value.
66

wind
direction
Figure 4.25 Cross-sections with sharp edges [3]

NOTE. Relationship (4.11) and Figure 4.25 can also be used for buildings with h/d > 5.0.
(2) The reference areas shall be determined as follows (see Figure 4.25):
in direction x:
Aref,x = . b
in direction y:
(4.12)
Aref,y = . d

cross-section being considered.
4.8
Structural elements with a regular polygonal cross-section
(1) The aerodynamic force coefficient, cf for elements with a regular polygonal cross-section
with 5 or more faces shall be determined with relationship:
cf = cf,0
(4.13)
where:
cf,0
is the aerodynamic force coefficient of structural elements without free-end air flow;
- the reduction factor for elements with free-end airflow, defined in 4.13.
The values of the aerodynamic force coefficient, cf,0, obtained in conditions of reduced
turbulence, are given in Table 4.11.
Table 4.11 Aerodynamic force coefficient, cf,0 for regular polygonal cross-sections [3]
Number
Section
Surface and corner finishing

67
Reynolds number, Re(1)
cf,0
of faces
5
6
pentagon
hexagon
octagon
10
decagon
all types
all types
smooth surface
r/b < 0.075 (2)
12
dodecagon
smooth surface
r/b 0.075 (2)
all types
smooth surface (3)
rounded corners
all other types
1618
Hexadecagon
octadecagon
smooth surface (3)

rounded corners
all values
all values
Re 2.4 105
Re 3 105
Re 2 105
Re 7 105
all values
1.80
1.60
1.45
1.30
1.30
1.10
1.30
2 105 < Re < 1.2 106
0.90
Re < 4 105
Re > 4 105
1.30
1.10
similar to
circular
cylinders,
see (4.9)
0.70
Re < 2 105
2 105 Re < 1.2 106
The Reynolds number Re is defined in Sub-chapter 4.9 and shall be determined for vm( ze);
1)
2)
r = corner radius, b = diameter of the circle circumscribed to the cross-section (see Figure 4.26)
3)
In accordance with wind tunnel tests carried out for galvanised steel elements with a cross-section
where b=0.3 m and r=0.06 b
Figure 4.26 Regular polygonal cross-section [3]

(2) For buildings where h / d > 5, cf can be determined using relationship (4.13), as well as
from the data given in Table 4.11 and Figure 4.25.
(3) The reference area Aref shall be obtained with relationship:
Aref = . b
(4.14)
where:
68
is the length of the structural element being considered;

b is the diameter of the circle circumscribed to the cross-section (see Figure 4.26).
cross-section of the element being considered.
4.9
Circular cylinders
4.9.1 Aerodynamic external pressure/suction coefficients

(1) The aerodynamic external pressure / suction coefficients for structures with circular crosssections shall depend on the Reynolds number, Re defined with relationship:
Re
b vp z e
(4.15)
where:
b
is the diameter of the circular cross-section;
is the kinematic viscosity of air ( = 1510-6 m2/s);
vp (ze) is the peak wind velocity defined at a height ze (see 2.4 (5) and NOTE 2 for Figure
4.27).
(2) The aerodynamic external pressure / suction coefficients, cpe for circular cylinders shall be
determined with relationship:
cpe = cp,0 .
(4.16)
where:
cp,0
is the aerodynamic external pressure / suction coefficient for elements without freeend airflow (see (3));
is the end-effect factor (see (4)).
(3) The values of the aerodynamic external pressure / suction coefficient, cp,0 are given in
Figure 4.27 as a function of the angle at various values of the Reynolds number.
(4) The end-effect factor, shall be given by relationship (4.17):
for 0 min
=1

2
(1 ) cos
min
A min
for min < < A

for A 180
where:
69
(4.17)
A defines the airflow separation point (see Figure 4.27);

- the reduction factor for elements with free-end airflow (end-effect factor) (see 4.13).
Figure 4.27 Value distribution of the aerodynamic external pressure / suction coefficients for
circular cylinders, at different values of the Reynolds number and without considering the
end-effect [3]
NOTE 1. The intermediary values can be obtained by linear interpolation.
NOTE 2.
The characteristic values shown in Figure 4.27 are given in Table 4.12. The
data given in the figure and table are obtained using the Reynolds number, calculated using
the peak wind velocity, vp(ze).
NOTE 3. The data shown in Figure 4.27 are based on an equivalent roughness of the cylinder,
k/b smaller than 510-4. Typical roughness values k are given in Table 4.13.
Table 4.12 Typical values for the pressure distribution in circular cylinders without an endeffect, at different values of the Reynolds number [3]
Re
min.
5 105
2 106
107
85
80
75
cp0,min
-2.2
-1.9
-1.5
135
120
105
cp0,h
-0.4
-0.7
-0.8
where
min characterises the position where the minimum pressure is achieved
on the cylinder surface, in []
70
cp0,min is the minimum value of the aerodynamic pressure/suction
coefficient
A is the position of the airflow separation point
cp0,h is the reference aerodynamic pressure/ suction coefficient
(5) The reference area, Aref shall be determined with relationship:
Aref = . b
(4.18)
where is the length of the element being considered.

4.9.2 Aerodynamic force coefficients

(1) The aerodynamic force coefficient cf, for a circular cylinder with a finite height shall be
given by relationship:
cf = cf,0 .
(4.19)
where:
cf,0
is the aerodynamic force coefficient for cylinders without free-end air flow (see
Figure 4.28);
- the end-effect factor (see 4.13).
71
Figure 4.28 Aerodynamic force coefficient cf,0 for circular cylinders without free-end airflow
and for various values of the equivalent roughness k/b [3]
NOTE 1. Figure 4.28 can also be used for buildings with h/d > 5.0.
NOTE 2. Figure 4.28 is based on the Reynolds number calculated using the peak wind
velocity, vp(ze).
(2) Table 4.13 gives values of the equivalent roughness k.

(3) For braided cables (wire strands), cf,0 shall be equal to 1.2 for any values of the Reynolds
number, Re.
Table 4.13 Equivalent roughness, k [3]
Type of surface
Glass
Polished metal
Fine paint
Sprayed paint
Shiny steel
Cast iron
Galvanised steel
Equivalent
roughness, k
[mm]
0.0015
0.002
0.006
0.02
0.05
0.2
0.2
Type of surface
Smooth concrete
Board
Rough concrete
Raw timber
Rust
Masonry
Equivalent
roughness, k
[mm]
0.2
0.5
1.0
2.0
2.0
3.0
(4) The reference area, Aref shall be determined with relationship:

Aref = . b
(4.20)

(6) The assessment of wind action on cylinders located in the vicinity of a flat surface, for
which the ratio between the distances zg/b < 1.5 (see Figure 4.29), requires specialist advice.
Figure 4.29 Cylinder located in the vicinity of a flat surface [3]

72
4.9.3 Aerodynamic force coefficients for vertical cylinders arranged in line

(1) For vertical cylinders arranged in line, the aerodynamic force coefficient cf,0 shall depend
on the direction of the wind action compared to the cylinder line and the ratio between the
distance a and the diameter b (see Table 4.14). The aerodynamic force coefficient cf, for any
circular cylinder can be obtained with relationship:
cf = cf,0 . .
(4.21)
where:
cf,0
is the aerodynamic force coefficient for cylinders without free-end air flow (see
Figure 4.9.2);
is the end-effect factor (see 4.13);
is the factor given in Table 4.14 (for the most unfavourable wind direction).
Table 4.14 Factor for vertical cylinders arranged in line [3]
a/b
2.5 < a/b < 3.5
1.15
3.5 < a/b < 30

a/b > 30
210
a
b
180
1.00
a - distance; b - diameter
4.10 Spheres
(1) The along-wind aerodynamic force coefficient cf,x for spheres shall be determined as a
function of the Reynolds number Re (see 4.9.1) and the equivalent roughness k/b (see
Table 4.13).
NOTE 1. The values cf,x obtained by carrying out measurements in conditions of reduced
turbulence are given in Figure 4.30. The values shown in Figure 4.30 are based on the
Reynolds number calculated using the peak wind velocity, vp(ze).
73
NOTE 2. The values shown in Figure 4.30 shall be valid for the ratio zg > b/2, where zg is the
distance from the sphere to the flat surface and b is the diameter of the sphere (see Figure
4.31). For zg b/2, the force coefficient cf,x shall be multiplied by 1.6.
smooth surface
Figure 4.30 Along-wind aerodynamic force coefficient for spheres [3]
Figure 4.31 Sphere near a flat surface [3]

(2) The aerodynamic force coefficient in a vertical direction, cf,z for spheres shall be
cf,z = 0
cf,z = +0.60
zg
b
2
zg
b
2
for
for
(4.22)
(3) To determine the force along-wind and in vertical direction, the reference area, Aref shall
be given by relationship:
74
Aref
b2
4
(4.23)
(4) The reference height shall be:

ze zg
b
2
(4.24)
4.11 Lattice structures and scaffolding

(1) The aerodynamic force coefficient, cf, for lattice structures and scaffolding with parallel
chords shall be obtained with relationship:
cf = cf,0 .
(4.25)
where:
cf,0
is the aerodynamic force coefficient for lattice structures and scaffolding without freeend airflow; this coefficient is given in Figures 4.334.35 as a function of the
blockage coefficient, (4.11 (2)) and the Reynolds number, Re;
Re
is the Reynolds number which uses the mean diameter bi of the elements (see Figure
4.32); for non-circular cross-sections, the mean value of the dimensions of the upwind
cross-section shall be used;
is the end-effect factor (see 4.13), which depends on the slenderness of the structure,
, calculated with length and width b = d, see Figure 4.32;
NOTE. The values shown in Figures 4.33 to 4.35 are based on the Reynolds number
calculated using the peak wind velocity, vp(ze).
Figure 4.32 - Lattice structures or scaffolding [3]
75
Figure 4.33 Aerodynamic force coefficient, cf,0 for planar lattice structures which contain
elements with sharp edges (e.g. angle plates), as a function of the blockage coefficient [3]
Figure 4.34 Aerodynamic force coefficient, cf,0 for spatial lattice structures which contain
elements with sharp edges (e.g. angle plates), as a function of the blockage coefficient [3]
76
Figure 4.35 Aerodynamic force coefficient, cf,0 for planar or spatial lattice structures which
contain elements with a circular cross-section [3]
(2) The blockage coefficient, shall be determined with relationship:
A
Ac
(4.26)
where:
A
is the sum of the projected areas of the structural elements (bars, gusset plates) on a
A bi i Agk
i
cross-wind plane,
Ac
is the total area of the structure projected in a cross-wind plane, Ac=d ;
is the length of the lattice structure;
is the width of the lattice structure;
77
bi, i is the width and length of the elements i of the structure (see Figure 4.32), projected
normal to the exposed face;
Agk -
area of the gusset plate k.
(3) The reference area Aref shall be determined with relationship:

Aref = A
(4.27)
(4) The reference height, ze shall be equal to the maximum height of the element above
ground level.
4.12 Flags
(1) The aerodynamic force coefficients, cf and the reference areas, Aref for flags are given in
Table 4.15.
(2) The reference height, ze shall be equal to the height of the flag above ground level.
Table 4.15 - Aerodynamic force coefficients, cf for flags [3]

Flags
Fixed flags
Aref
cf
h .
1.8
Force normal to the plane

Free flags
h.
a)
0,02 0,7
b)
0.5.h.
Planar force
78
mf
1, 25
Aref
h
where:
mf is the mass of the area unit of the flag
is the air density (equal to 1.25 kg/m3)
ze is the height of the flag above ground level
NOTE. The calculation relationship given for flags that are not fixed (free) shall
include the dynamic forces caused by the flag fluttering.
4.13 Effective slenderness and end-effect factor

(1) The reduction factor for elements with free-end airflow (end-effect factor), can be
determined as a function of the effective slenderness, .
NOTE. The values of the aerodynamic force coefficients, cf,0 given in points 4.64.12 are
based on the results of measurements carried out on structures without free-end airflow. The
end-effect factor shall take into consideration the reduction of wind action on structures due
to airflow around their free end. The values given in Figure 4.36 and Table 4.16 are based on
the results of measurements carried out in conditions of reduced turbulence.
(2) The effective slenderness, shall be defined as a function of the position and dimensions
of the structure. The values are given in Table 4.16, and the values are given in Figure
4.36 for different blockage coefficients, .
(3) The blockage coefficient, (see Figure 4.37) shall be given by relationship:
A
Ac
(4.28)
where:
A
is the sum of the projected areas of the elements;
Ac
is the total area of the structure, Ac = . b.
79
Table 4.16 Effective slenderness, for cylinders, polygonal cross-sections, rectangular crosssections, structural elements with sharp edges, and lattice structures [3]
No
Position of the structure,

wind perpendicular to the plane of the page
Effective slenderness,
For polygonal cross-sections,
rectangular cross-sections, structural
elements with cross-sections with
sharp edges, and lattice structures:
for 50 m, the lowest value
between the following shall be
chosen: =1.4 /b or =70
for <15 m, the lowest value
chosen: =2 /b or =70
For circular cylinders:

for 50 m, the lowest value
for <15 m, the lowest value
chosen: = /b or =70
For intermediary values of ,

linear interpolation can be used
for 50 m, the highest value

for <15 m, the highest value
chosen: = /b or =70
For intermediary values of ,

linear interpolation can be used
80
Figure 4.36 End-effect factor, as a function of the blockage coefficient,

and the slenderness, [3]
Figure 4.37 Areas used to define the blockage coefficient, [3]
81
5 PROCEDURES FOR DETERMINING THE DYNAMIC RESPONSE COEFFICIENT
5.1
Wind turbulence
(1) The integral turbulence scale length, L(z) represents the mean value of the wind vortices
caused by along-wind air turbulence. For heights z lower than 200 m, the integral turbulence
scale length can be determined with relationship:
z
, pentru z m in z z m ax 200 m
Lt
z
t
L z
L z m in ,
pentru z z m in
(5.1)
where the reference height zt = 200 m, the reference length of the scale Lt = 300 m and
= 0.67 + 0.05 ln(z0). The roughness length, z0 and the minimum height, zmin are given in
Table 2.1.
(2) The along-wind turbulence, characterised by a power distribution of wind gusts as a
function of their frequency, shall be expressed by the power spectral density of turbulent
wind gusts, Sv(z,n). The unilateral (defined only for positive frequencies) and normalised (for
unit area) form of the power spectral density (SL(z, n) shall be:
SL ( z , n)
n S v ( z , n)
v2
6,8 f L ( z, n)
(1 10,2 f L ( z, n)) 5 / 3
(5.2)
where
Sv(z,n)
is the unilateral power spectral density (defined only for positive

frequencies) of wind gusts in their direction;
is the wind gust frequency;
v2
f L ( z , n)
is the dispersion of the wind velocity variation with the mean velocity;
n L( z )
vm ( z )
is the non-dimensional frequency calculated as a function of the

frequency, n, the mean wind velocity at a height z, vm(z) (see
relationship 2.3) and the integral turbulence scale length, L(z) defined
in (5.1). The function of the unilateral and normalised power spectral
density is shown in Figure 5.1.
82
Figure 05.1 Normalised and unilateral power spectral density of along-wind gusts, SL(fL)
5.2
Detailed procedure for determining the dynamic response coefficient
(1) The dynamic response coefficient, cd is presented in Sub-chapter 3.4.2.2 and shall be
determined with relationship (3.8):
cd
1 2 kp I v zs B 2 R 2
1 7 I v zs
(2) The non-resonant (quasi-static) response factor, B2, which takes into consideration the
effective correlation of the values of the peak pressure on the exposed face of the
building/structure, shall be determined with relationship:
B2
1
bh
1 0,9
L
z
s
0 , 63
(5.3)
where:
b, h
are the width and height of the structure, see Figure 3.2;
83
L(zs)
is the integral turbulence scale length given by relationship (5.1) at the reference
height, zs defined in Figure 3.2.
(3) The peak factor for determining the maximum extreme response of the structure, kp,
defined as the ratio between the maximum extreme value of the fluctuating component of the
structural response and its standard deviation, shall be obtained with relationship:
k p 2 ln T
3
2 ln T
(5.4)
where:
is the average vibration frequency in the direction and under the action of turbulent
wind;
is the averaged time for the reference wind velocity, T = 600 s (the same as for the
mean wind velocity);
= 0.5772, is Eulers constant.
(4) The average frequency of the vibrations in the direction and under the action of
turbulent wind shall be obtained with relationship:
n1, x
R2
0,08 Hz
B2 R2
(5.5)
where n1,x is the fundamental natural vibration frequency of the structure in the direction of
turbulent wind. The limit value of 0.08 Hz in relationship (5.5) corresponds to a peak factor
kp=3.0 in relationship (5.4).
(5) The resonant response factor, R2, which takes into consideration the frequency content of
the wind turbulence in quasi-resonance with the fundamental natural vibration frequency of
the structure, shall be determined with relationship:
2
R
S L ( z s , n1,x ) Rh ( h ) Rb ( b )
2
2
(5.6)
where:
is the logarithmic decrement of damping given in Annex C, in C.5;
SL
is the unilateral and normalised power spectral density given by relationship

(5.2), assessed at height zs for the frequency n1,x;
Rh, Rb
are the aerodynamic admittance functions given by relationships (5.7) and

(5.8).
(6) The aerodynamic admittance functions Rh and Rb, for the fundamental natural vector, shall
be determined with the relationships:
84
1
Rh h 1
1 e 2 h
h 2 h2
Rb b
1
1
1 e 2b
2
b 2 b
pentru h 0
(5.7)
pentru b 0
pentru b 0
(5.8)
The values
pentru h 0
and
shall be determined as follows:
4,6 h n1, x
vm z s
(5.9)
b
4,6 b n1, x
vm z s
(5.10)
5.3
Simplified procedure for determining the dynamic response

coefficient for buildings
(1) Using the detailed procedure for calculating the dynamic response coefficient (described
in Point 5.2), covering values of this coefficient were obtained for buildings with a
rectangular parallelepipedal shape and a regular mass and rigidity distribution. The values are
based on the approximated estimation of the fundamental natural vibration frequency and the
logarithmic decrement of structural damping using the simplified relationships given in
Annex C.
(2) The values of the dynamic response coefficient are given in Table 5.1 for buildings made
of reinforced concrete and Table 5.2 for buildings with a metallic structure. The values shall
be valid for buildings with the horizontal dimensions measured perpendicular to the wind
direction, b 50 m and the height, h 30 m (see Figure 3.2a).
(3) For all other situations of buildings where the simplified procedure cannot be applied
using the values given in Tables 5.1 and 5.2, the dynamic response coefficient shall be
determined in accordance with the method presented in detail in 5.2.
85
Table 5.1 Values of the dynamic response coefficient, cd for buildings with a reinforced concrete structure
(s = 0.10)
z0, m
0.003
0.01
0.05
0.30
1.00
b,
h, m
10
20
30
10
20
30
10
20
30
10
20
30
10
20
30
10
20
30
40
50
0.95
0.95
0.96
0.94
0.94
0.95
0.92
0.92
0.93
0.87
0.88
0.89
0.85
0.85
0.85
0.92
0.93
0.93
0.91
0.91
0.92
0.88
0.89
0.90
0.85
0.85
0.86
0.85
0.85
0.85
0.90
0.91
0.91
0.89
0.90
0.90
0.85
0.87
0.88
0.85
0.85
0.85
0.85
0.85
0.85
0.89
0.90
0.90
0.87
0.88
0.89
0.85
0.85
0.86
0.85
0.85
0.85
0.85
0.85
0.85
0.88
0.88
0.89
0.86
0.87
0.88
0.85
0.85
0.85
0.85
0.85
0.85
0.85
0.85
0.85
Table 5.2 Values of the dynamic response coefficient, cd for buildings with a metallic structure
(s = 0.05)
z0, m
0.003
0.01
0.05
0.30
1.00
b,
h, m
10
20
30
10
20
30
10
20
30
10
20
30
10
20
30
10
20
30
40
50
1.00
1.03
1.06
0.98
1.02
1.05
0.96
1.00
1.03
0.90
0.95
0.98
0.85
0.89
0.92
0.95
0.98
1.01
0.94
0.97
1.00
0.91
0.94
0.97
0.86
0.89
0.92
0.85
0.85
0.87
0.93
0.95
0.98
0.91
0.94
0.96
0.88
0.91
0.94
0.85
0.86
0.89
0.85
0.85
0.85
0.91
0.93
0.95
0.89
0.92
0.94
0.86
0.89
0.92
0.85
0.85
0.87
0.85
0.85
0.85
0.90
0.92
0.94
0.88
0.90
0.92
0.85
0.87
0.90
0.85
0.85
0.85
0.85
0.85
0.85
86
5.4
Displacements and accelerations corresponding to the service limit

state of a structure
(1) For tall or flexible buildings (height h 30 m or the natural vibration frequency n1 1
Hz), a service limit state verification shall use the maximum values of the along-wind
displacement and acceleration of the building, the former assessed at a height z = zs and the
latter assessed at a height z = h. The maximum along-wind displacement of the structure at
the height zs shall be determined using the global along-wind force Fw defined in Sub-chapter
3.3.
(2) The standard deviation, a,x of the characteristic along-wind acceleration of the structure
at height z shall be obtained with relationship:
a,x
c f b I v z s vm2 z s
m1, x
R K x 1, x z
(5.11)
where:
cf
is the aerodynamic force coefficient, see Chapter 4;

- for buildings, it can be considered simplified
h
h
pentru 0,25 1,0
0,9 0,4 d ,
d
h
h
c f 1,25 0,05 ,
pentru 1,0 5,0
d
d
vezi subcapitol ele 4.6, 4.8 sau 4.9.2 pentru h 5,0
is the air density, equal to 1.25 kg/m3;
is the width of the structure, defined in Figure 3.2;
is the length of the structure, defined in Figure 3.2;
is the height of the structure, defined in Figure 3.2;
Iv(zs)
is the turbulence intensity at height z = zs above ground level; see Point 2.4(2)
and Figure 3.2;
vm(zs)
is the mean wind velocity for z = zs for a reference wind velocity with MRI = 10
years (to determine the wind velocity with MRI = 10 years, see Annex A); (also
see Points 2.3(2) and 5.5(2));
zs
is the reference height; see Figure 3.2;
is the square root of the resonant response factor; see Point 5.2(5);
Kx
is the non-dimensional coefficient given by relationship (5.12);

87
m1,x
is the equivalent mass for the fundamental along-wind vibration mode; see Point
C.4 (1);
n1,x
is the fundamental natural along-wind vibration frequency of the structure;
1,x (z)is the y-coordinate of the fundamental natural along-wind vibration vector at a
height z.
(3) The non-dimensional coefficient Kx shall be determined with the general relationship:
h
v z z dz
2
m
Kx
1, x
vm2 z s 12, x z dz
0
(5.12)
where h
is the height of the structure (see Figure 4.1).
NOTE. If 1,x(z)= (z/h) (see Annex C) and co(z) = 1 (level ground, see Point 2.3(5)),
relationship (5.12) can be approximated using the following relationship:
2
Kx

1 1 ln
1 2 ln
0,5 1
zs
z0
zs
z0
(5.13)
where
z0
is the roughness length (see Table 2.1);
is the exponent of the approximated along-wind mode shape (see Annex C).
(4) The peak characteristic accelerations of structures, amax,x shall be obtained by multiplying
the standard deviation given in Point 5.3(2) by the peak factor given in Point 5.2(3),
calculated using the frequency = n1,x:
a max, x
2 ln n1, x T

a,x
2 ln n1, x T
5.5
(5.14)
Comfort criteria
(1) The effects of the wind on buildings should not cause discomfort to its occupants. The
discomfort experienced by the occupants shall depend on the amplitude and frequency of
88
oscillation of the building and various other physiological and psychological factors
associated with the characteristics of each person.
(2) To make sure that the building is used appropriately, the following requirement shall be
complied with:
a max,x a lim
(5.15)
where
amax,x
is the peak along-wind acceleration on the top level of the building (z=h),
assessed with relationship (5.14), for a reference wind velocity with MRI = 10
years (to determine the wind velocity with MRI = 10 years, see Annex A);
alim
is the upper limit comfort acceleration calculated with relationship:
a lim
a0
pentru n 1,x 1 Hz
n 0,56
1
,
x
a0
pentru 1 Hz n 1,x 2 Hz
0,5 a n
pentru n 1,x 2 Hz
0
1, x
(5.16)
where:
a0
= 6 cm/s2 for office buildings;
a0
= 4 cm/s2 for residential buildings;
n1,x
is the natural frequency of the building corresponding to the first mode of

along-wind bending vibration.
89
6 AEROELASTIC INSTABILITY PHENOMENA GENERATED BY VORTICES
6.1
General information
(1) For slender structures (chimneys, towers, cables, etc.) the dynamic effect caused by
alternating vortex shedding must be taken into consideration. The vortex shedding
phenomenon causes a fluctuating cross-wind action whose frequency depends on the mean
wind velocity, as well as the shape and dimensions of the planar cross-section of the
structure. If the vortex shedding frequency is close to a natural vibration frequency of the
structure, quasi-resonance conditions which lead to amplification of the oscillation amplitude
of the structure shall be ensured; these shall be higher as the damping and mass of the
structure or element are lower. The resonance requirement shall be considered met when the
wind velocity is theoretically equal to the critical wind velocity which causes the vortex
shedding (defined in 6.3.1).
6.2
Consideration of the effects of vortex shedding
(1) The effects of vortex shedding shall be considered if the following requirement is met
vcrit,i 1,25 vm
(6.1)
where:
vcrit,i
is the critical wind velocity for the vibration mode i (see 6.3.1);
vm
is the mean wind velocity in the section where the vortex shedding occurs.
6.3
Main vortex shedding parameters
6.3.1 The critical wind velocity vcrit,i
(1) The critical wind velocity for the vibration mode i can be defined as the wind speed for
which the vortex shedding frequency is equal to a natural cross-wind vibration frequency of
the structure, and is given by relationship:
90
v crit,i
b ni , y
St
(6.2)
where
b
is the width of the cross-section where the resonant vortex shedding occurs; for
circular cylinders, the reference width shall be the outer diameter;
ni,y
is the natural frequency of the cross-wind vibration mode i;
St
is the Strouhal number, defined in 6.3.2.
(2) The critical wind velocity for the ovalling vibration mode i of the cylinder wall shall be
defined as the wind velocity at which double the vortex shedding frequency is equal to the
natural frequency of the ovalling vibration mode i of the cylinder wall and is given by
relationship:
v crit,i
b ni,o
2 St
(6.3)
where
b
is the outer diameter of the cylinder;
St is the Strouhal number, defined in 6.3.2;

ni,o
is the natural frequency of the ovalling vibration mode i of the cylinder wall.
6.3.2 Strouhal number, St

(1) The Strouhal number, St, is a non-dimensional parameter which depends on the shape of
the cross-section, the turbulence characteristics, the Reynolds number calculated for vcrit,i, and
the surface roughness. For cross-sections with sharp edges/corners, the Strouhal number can
be assessed in a simplified way as a function of the shape of the cross-section only.
Table 6.1 and Figure 6.1 (for rectangular cross-sections) give guidance average values for the
Strouhal number, St.
91
Table 6.00 The Strouhal number, St for different cross-sectional shapes [3]
Cross-section
St
0.18
For all values of the Reynolds number, Re

from
Figure 6.1
0.5 d/b 10
d/b = 1
d/b = 1.5
0,11
0.10
d/b = 2
0.14
d/b = 1
0.13
d/b = 2
0.08
d/b = 1
0.16
d/b = 2
0.12
d/b = 1.3
0.11
d/b = 2.0
0.07
Linear interpolation
NOTE. Extrapolations of the Strouhal number as a function of the ratio
d/b are not permitted.
92
Figure 6.00 Strouhal number St for rectangular cross-sections with sharp corners [3]
6.3.3 Scruton number, Sc

(1) The Scruton number, Sc is a non-dimensional parameter which depends on the equivalent
mass, the critical damping fraction, and the reference dimension of the cross-section. The
vibration sensitivity depends on the structural damping and the ratio between the mass of the
structure and the mass of the air. The Scruton number, Sc, shall be given by relationship:
Sc
2 mie s
b2
(6.4)
where:
mie
is the equivalent mass per unit length for the cross-wind vibration mode i, as defined
in C.4 (1);
s is the logarithmic decrement of structural damping;
is the air density, whose value is equal to 1.25 kg/m3)
is the size of the cross-section, assessed in the cross-section where the critical
resonant vortex shedding phenomenon occurs.
6.3.4 Reynolds number, Re

(1) The vortex shedding of a circular cylinder shall depend on the Reynolds number, Re
corresponding to the critical wind velocity vcrit,i. The Reynolds number corresponding to the
critical wind speed shall be given by relationship:
93
Re v crit,i
b v crit,i
(6.5)
where
b
is the outer diameter of the circular cylinder;
is the kinematic air viscosity ( 15.10-6 m2/s);
vcrit,i
is the critical wind velocity (see 6.3.1).
6.4
Action caused by vortex shedding
(1) The effects of the vibrations caused by vortex shedding shall be assessed using the force
of inertia per unit length, Fw(s) which acts across-wind at the height s of the structure
(measured from the base) and shall be given by relationship:
Fw s m s 2 ni , y i , y s y F ,max
2
(6.6)
where
m(s)
is the structural mass per unit length [kg/m];
ni,y
is the natural vibration frequency of the structure in a plane perpendicular to

wind direction;
i,y (s)
is the natural vibration shape of the structure in a plane perpendicular to the

wind direction, normalised at value 1 when the displacement is maximum;
yF,max
is the maximum displacement of the structure at a height s (where i,y (s) =

1), see 6.5.
6.5
Calculation of the cross-wind displacement amplitude
(1) The maximum cross-wind displacement, yF,max shall be calculated with relationship:
y F ,max
b
1 1
K K w clat
St 2 Sc
(6.7)
where:
St is the Strouhal number, Table 6.1;
94
Sc is the Scruton number, relationship (6.4);

Kw
is the correlation length factor, Lj;
is the vibration mode shape factor;
clat
is the aerodynamic force coefficient in a cross-wind direction;
is the size of the cross-section, assessed in the cross-section where the critical
resonant vortex shedding phenomenon occurs.
(2) The values clat,0 of the aerodynamic force coefficient in a cross-wind direction are given in
vcrit,i
vm , Lj
Figure 6.2 and Table 6.2, depending on the Reynolds number and for values
0,83
. For
v crit,i
vm , Lj
other values of the ratio
, the values given in Table 6.3 should be used.
Figure 6.00 Main values of the aerodynamic lateral force coefficient, clat,0 depending on the
Reynolds number, Re(vcrit,i) for circular cylinders [3]
95
Table 6.00 Main values of the aerodynamic lateral force coefficient, clat,0 for different crosssections [3]
Cross-section
clat,0
from
Figure 6.2
For all Reynolds numbers (Re)

0.5 d/b 10
1.1
d/b = 1
d/b = 1.5
0.8
1.2
d/b = 2
0.3
d/b = 1
1.6
d/b = 2
2.3
d/b = 1
1.4
d/b = 2
1.1
d/b = 1.3
0.8
d/b = 2.0
1.0
NOTE. The extrapolation of the lateral force coefficients as a function of the
ratio d/b is not permitted.
96
Table 6.00 Aerodynamic lateral force coefficient, clat as a function of the critical wind velocity
v crit,i
vm , Lj
ratio,
[3]
clat
vcrit,i
vm , Lj
0,83
0,83
vcrit,i
vm , Lj
1, 25
clat = clat,0
v
clat 3 2,4 crit,i
vm , Lj
1, 25
c
lat , 0
v crit,i
clat = 0
vm , Lj
where:
clat,0 is the main value from Table 6.2 and, for circular cylinders, from
Figure 6.2;
vcrit,i is the critical wind velocity (see relationship (6.1));
vm, Lj
is the mean wind velocity (see 2.3(2)) at the centre of the effective
correlation length, as defined in Figure 6.3.
(3) The correlation length factor and the vibration mode shape factor for certain simple
structures are given in Table 6.5, as a function of the correlation length, Lj given in Table 6.4.
(4) The correlation length can be considered to be the distance between the nodes of the mode
shape (for exemplification, see Table 6.4 and Figure 6.3).
Table 6.04 The correlation length, Lj as a function of the vibration amplitude, yF(sj) [3]
yF(sj) / b
< 0.1
Between 0.1
and 0.6
Lj / b
6
yF s j
4,8 12
b
> 0.6
12
97
vibration mode 1
vibration mode 2
vm,L2
vm,L1
vm,L2
vm,L1
vm,L1
vm,L1
loop
vm,L2
vm,L1
NOTE 1. If at least two correlation lengths are given, it is recommended that both are used for
calculation and the maximum value of clat is chosen.
NOTE 2. n is the number of areas where vortex shedding occurs simultaneously.
NOTE 3. m is the number of loops of the natural vibration mode shape i,y.
Figure 6.00 Examples of application of the correlation length, Lj (j = 1, 2, 3) [3]
Table 6.05 Correlation length factor, Kw and vibration mode shape factor, K
for certain simple structures ( = / b) [3]
Kw
Structure
2
Lj /b
Lj /b 1 Lj /b
3
1

98
0.13
Kw
Structure
cos
Lj /b
1
+ sin
-
Lj b
L j b
i,y ( s )
i 1 Lj
n
i,y ( s )
j 1 l j
6.6
0.10
0.11
ds
ds
0.10
Vortex effects on vertical cylinders arranged in line or grouped
(1) For circular cylinders arranged in line or grouped (whether coupled or not) (Figure 6.4),
vibrations can occur which are excited by alternative vortex shedding.
Figure 6.00 Fitting of cylinders in line or grouped [3]
(2) The oscillation amplitude can be calculated using relationship (6.7), with the amendments
brought by relationships (6.8) and (6.9), respectively:
99
- For circular cylinders arranged in line and not coupled:

clat = 1.5 . clat (individual)
for
clat = clat (individual)
a
10
b
10
a
15
b
10
a
15
b
for
linear interpolation
(6.8)
for
where clat (individual) = clat shall have the values given in Table 6.3 and the Strouhal number shall be
determined with relationships:
a
a
1 9
St 0,1 0,085 log
b
b
for
a
9
St = 0.18
b
for
- For coupled cylinders:
clat = Kiv . clat (individual) for 1.0 a/b 3.0
(6.9)
where Kiv is the interference factor for the vortex shedding (indicated in Table 6.6) as a
function of the Strouhal number and the Scruton number.
100
Table 6.06 Data for estimating the cross-wind response of coupled cylinders arranged in line
or grouped [3]
Coupled
cylinders
Sc
2 s m i, y
b2
Scruton number,
a/b = 1
a/b 2
Kiv = 1.5
Kiv = 1.5
Kiv = 4.8
Kiv = 3.0
Kiv = 4.8
Kiv = 3.0
Inverse values of the Strouhal number for coupled cylinders arranged in

line or grouped
101
ANNEX A (normative)
ZONING OF WIND ACTION IN ROMANIA
The statistical analysis carried out in order to obtain the zoning of natural wind hazards in
Romania used, as entry data, the maximum annual values of the wind velocity at a height of
10 m above ground level, measured in more than 140 weather stations belonging to the
National Meteorological Administration up until 2005. The results of the statistical analysis
are the characteristic (reference) values of the wind velocity with IMR=50 years, calculated
using the Gumbel extreme value distribution.
The reference values of the dynamic wind pressure were obtained by processing the reference
values of the wind velocity at the sites of the weather stations where records were made.
The data included in the zoning map of the reference values of the dynamic wind pressure for
altitudes of up to 1 000 m (Figure 2.1) represent dynamic pressures averaged over 10 minutes
and with a mean recurrence interval of 50 years, in accordance with the provisions of SR EN
1991-1-4.
Table A.1 gives the reference values of the dynamic wind pressure for 337 towns and cities in
Romania, located at altitudes of up to 1 000 m.
The reference value of the dynamic wind pressure for a site located at an altitude z higher
than 1 000 m can be determined with relationship:
q b,z 1000m c z 1000m q b
(A.1)
where:
q b,z 1000m
- is the reference value of the dynamic wind pressure for a site located
at an altitude z higher than 1 000 m;
qb
- is the reference value of the dynamic wind pressure on site, given in

the zoning map shown in Figure 2.1;
cz>1000m
- is the altitude factor, approximated with relationship:
1
1000
c z 1000m 1 1,6
(A.2)
For sites located at altitudes higher than 1 000 m and in areas with special wind exposure
(south-west of the Banat area), it is recommended that primary data are obtained from ANM
and specialist institutions operating in the field of civil engineering are consulted in order to
analyse this data.
For a site located at an altitude of up to 1 000 m, the reference value of the wind velocity with
a mean recurrence interval of 50 years shall be determined on the basis of the reference value
102
of the dynamic wind pressure corresponding to the respective site (see the zoning map shown
in Figure 2.1 and the data given in Table A.1) and shall be calculated with relationship:
vb
2 qb
1,6 qb
(A.3)
where is the air density, equal to 1.25 kg/m3, and qb is the reference value of the dynamic
wind pressure measured in Pa (1 kPa=1 000 Pa).
The characteristic values of the wind velocities defined with a mean recurrence interval of
100 years and 10 years can be calculated, in a simplified way, as a function of the
characteristic value of the wind velocity with a mean recurrence interval of 50 years, using
the following relationships:
vb , IMR100ani
vb, IMR50 ani
1,10
(A.4)
v b, IMR 10 ani
v b, IMR 50 ani
0,75
(A.5)
The characteristic values of the dynamic wind pressures defined with a mean recurrence
interval of 100 years and 10 years can be calculated, in a simplified way, as a function of the
characteristic value of the dynamic wind pressure with a mean recurrence interval of 50
years, using the following relationships:
q b, IMR 100 ani

q b, IMR 50 ani
1,15
(A.6)
q b, IMR 10 ani
q b, IMR 50 ani
0,65
(A.7)
103
Table A.1 Reference values of the dynamic wind pressure for 337 towns and cities in
Romania
No
Town/City
County
qb, kPa
(MRI=50
years)
0.4
1 Abrud
2 Adamclisi
ALBA
CONSTANTA
0.5
3 Adjud
4 Agnita
VRANCEA
0.6
SIBIU
0.4
5 Aiud
6 ALBA IULIA
ALBA
0.4
ALBA
0.4
7 Alesd
8 ALEXANDRIA
BIHOR
0.5
TELEORMAN
0.7
9 Amara
10 Anina
IALOMITA
0.6
CARAS-SEVERIN
0.7
11 Aninoasa
12 ARAD
HUNEDOARA
0.4
ARAD
0.5
13 Ardud
14 Avrameni
SATU MARE
0.4
BOTOSANI
0.7
15 Avrig
16 Azuga
SIBIU
0.6
PRAHOVA
0.6
17 Babadag
18 BACAU
TULCEA
0.6
BACAU
0.6
19 Baia de Arama
20 Baia de Aries
MEHEDINTI
0.4
ALBA
0.4
21 BAIA MARE
22 Baia Sprie
MARAMURES
0.6
MARAMURES
0.6
23 Bals
24 Banloc
DOLJ
0.5
TIMIS
0.7
25 Baraolt
26 Basarabi
COVASNA
0.6
CONSTANTA
0.5
27 Baicoi
28 Babeni
PRAHOVA
0.4
VALCEA
0.4
29 Baile Govora
30 Baile Herculane
VALCEA
0.4
CARAS-SEVERIN
0.6
31 Baile Olanesti
32 Baile Tusnad
VALCEA
0.4
HARGHITA
0.6
33 Bailesti
DOLJ
0.4
104
No
Town/City
County
qb, kPa
(MRI=50
years)
0.6
34 Balan
35 Balcesti
HARGHITA
VALCEA
0.5
36 Baneasa
37 Barlad
CONSTANTA
0.6
VASLUI
0.6
38 Bechet
39 Beclean
DOLJ
0.4
BISTRITA NASAUD
0.4
40 Beius
41 Berbesti
BIHOR
0.5
VALCEA
0.4
42 Beresti
43 Bicaz
GALATI
0.6
NEAMT
0.4
44 BISTRITA
45 Blaj
BISTRITA NASAUD
0.4
ALBA
0.6
46 Bocsa
47 Boldesti-Scaeni
CARAS-SEVERIN
0.7
PRAHOVA
0.4
48 Bolintin-Vale
49 Borod
GIURGIU
0.5
BIHOR
0.5
50 Borsec
51 Borsa
HARGHITA
0.4
MARAMURES
0.4
52 BOTOSANI
53 Brad
BOTOSANI
0.7
HUNEDOARA
0.4
54 Bragadiru
55 BRASOV
ILFOV
0.5
BRASOV
0.6
56 BRAILA
57 Breaza
BRAILA
0.6
PRAHOVA
0.4
58 Brezoi
59 Brosteni
VALCEA
0.4
SUCEAVA
0.4
60 Bucecea
61 BUCHAREST
BOTOSANI
0.7
BUCHAREST
0.5
62 Budesti
63 Buftea
CALARASI
0.4
ILFOV
0.5
64 Buhusi
65 Bumbesti-Jiu
BACAU
0.6
GORJ
0.4
66 Busteni
67 BUZAU
PRAHOVA
0.6
BUZAU
0.7
68 Buzias
TIMIS
0.6
105
No
Town/City
County
qb, kPa
(MRI=50
years)
0.6
69 Cajvana
70 Calafat
SUCEAVA
DOLJ
0.4
71 Caracal
72 Caransebes
OLT
0.7
CARAS-SEVERIN
0.6
73 Carei
74 Cavnic
SATU MARE
0.4
MARAMURES
0.6
75 Calan
76 CALARASI
HUNEDOARA
0.4
CALARASI
0.6
77 Calimanesti
78 Cazanesti
VALCEA
0.4
IALOMITA
0.6
79 Campia Turzii
80 Campeni
CLUJ
0.4
ALBA
0.4
81 Campina
82 Campulung
PRAHOVA
0.4
ARGES
0.4
83 Campulung Mold.
84 Ceahlau
SUCEAVA
0.6
NEAMT
0.4
85 Cehu Silvaniei
86 Cernavoda
SALAJ
0.4
CONSTANTA
0.5
87 Chisineu-Cris
88 Chitila
ARAD
0.6
ILFOV
0.5
89 Ciacova
90 Cisnadie
TIMIS
0.7
SIBIU
0.6
91 CLUJ-NAPOCA
92 Codlea
CLUJ
0.5
BRASOV
0.6
93 Colibasi
94 Comarnic
ARGES
0.5
PRAHOVA
0.4
95 Comanesti
96 CONSTANTA
BACAU
0.6
CONSTANTA
0.5
97 Copsa Mica
98 Corabia
SIBIU
0.4
OLT
0.5
99 Corugea
100 Costesti
TULCEA
0.5
ARGES
0.5
101 Cotnari
102 Covasna
IASI
0.7
COVASNA
0.7
103 CRAIOVA
DOLJ
0.5
106
No
Town/City
County
qb, kPa
(MRI=50
years)
0.4
104 Cristuru Secuiesc

105 Cugir
HARGHITA
ALBA
0.4
106 Curtea de Arges

107 Curtici
ARGES
0.4
ARAD
0.6
108 Darabani
109 Dabuleni
BOTOSANI
0.7
DOLJ
0.5
110 Darmanesti
111 Dej
BACAU
0.6
CLUJ
0.4
112 Deta
113 DEVA
TIMIS
0.7
HUNEDOARA
0.4
114 Dolhasca
115 Dorohoi
SUCEAVA
0.6
BOTOSANI
0.7
116 Dragomiresti
117 Dragasani
MARAMURES
0.4
VALCEA
0.5
118 Draganesti-Olt
119 DROBETA TURNU SEVERIN
OLT
0.7
MEHEDINTI
0.6
120 Dumbraveni
121 Eforie Nord
SIBIU
0.4
CONSTANTA
0.5
122 Eforie Sud

123 Fagaras
CONSTANTA
0.5
BRASOV
0.4
124 Faget
125 Falticeni
TIMIS
0.4
SUCEAVA
0.6
126 Faurei
127 Fetesti
BRAILA
0.6
IALOMITA
0.6
128 Fieni
129 Fierbinti-Targ
DAMBOVITA
0.4
IALOMITA
0.4
130 Filiasi
131 Flamanzi
DOLJ
0.4
BOTOSANI
0.7
132 FOCSANI
133 Fundulea
VRANCEA
0.6
CALARASI
0.4
134 Frasin
135 GALATI
SUCEAVA
0.6
GALATI
0.6
136 Gaesti
137 Gataia
DAMBOVITA
0.5
TIMIS
0.7
138 Geoagiu
HUNEDOARA
0.4
107
No
Town/City
County
qb, kPa
(MRI=50
years)
0.4
139 Gheorgheni
140 Gherla
HARGHITA
CLUJ
0.4
141 Ghimbav
142 GIURGIU
BRASOV
0.6
GIURGIU
0.5
143 Grivita
144 Gurahont
IALOMITA
0.6
ARAD
0.4
145 Gura Humorului

146 Hateg
SUCEAVA
0.6
HUNEDOARA
0.4
147 Harlau
148 Harsova
IASI
0.7
CONSTANTA
0.6
149 Holod
150 Horezu
BIHOR
0.6
GORJ
0.4
151 Huedin
152 Hunedoara
CLUJ
0.5
HUNEDOARA
0.4
153 Husi
154 Ianca
VASLUI
0.7
BRAILA
0.6
155 IASI
156 Iernut
IASI
0.7
MURES
0.4
157 Ineu
158 Isaccea
ARAD
0.5
TULCEA
0.6
159 Insuratei
160 Intorsura Buzaului
BRAILA
0.6
COVASNA
0.6
161 Jimbolia
162 Jibou
TIMIS
0.4
SALAJ
0.4
163 Jurilovca
164 Lehliu Gara
TULCEA
0.6
CALARASI
0.6
165 Lipova
166 Liteni
ARAD
0.4
SUCEAVA
0.6
167 Livada
168 Ludus
SATU MARE
0.6
MURES
0.4
169 Lugoj
170 Lupeni
TIMIS
0.4
HUNEDOARA
0.4
171 Mangalia
172 Marghita
CONSTANTA
0.5
BIHOR
0.5
173 Macin
TULCEA
0.6
108
No
Town/City
County
qb, kPa
(MRI=50
years)
0.5
174 Magurele
175 Marasesti
ILFOV
VRANCEA
0.6
176 Medgidia
177 Medias
CONSTANTA
0.5
SIBIU
0.4
178 MIERCUREA CIUC

179 Miercurea Nirajului
HARGHITA
0.6
MURES
0.4
180 Miercurea Sibiului

181 Mihailesti
SIBIU
0.6
GIURGIU
0.5
182 Milisauti
183 Mizil
SUCEAVA
0.6
PRAHOVA
0.6
184 Moinesti
185 Moldova Noua
BACAU
0.6
CARAS-SEVERIN
0.7
186 Moneasa
187 Moreni
ARAD
0.4
DAMBOVITA
0.4
188 Motru
189 Murgeni
GORJ
0.4
VASLUI
0.6
190 Nadlac
191 Nasaud
ARAD
0.4
BISTRITA NASAUD
0.4
192 Navodari
193 Negresti
CONSTANTA
0.5
VASLUI
0.7
194 Negresti Oas

195 Negru Voda
SATU MARE
0.6
CONSTANTA
0.5
196 Nehoiu
197 Novaci
BUZAU
0.6
GORJ
0.4
198 Nucet
199 Ocna Mures
BIHOR
0.4
ALBA
0.4
200 Ocna Sibiului

201 Ocnele Mari
SIBIU
0.6
VALCEA
0.4
202 Odobesti
203 Odorheiul Secuiesc
VRANCEA
0.6
HARGHITA
0.4
204 Oltenita
205 Onesti
CALARASI
0.4
BACAU
0.6
206 ORADEA
207 Oravita
BIHOR
0.5
CARAS-SEVERIN
0.7
208 Orastie
HUNEDOARA
0.4
109
No
Town/City
County
qb, kPa
(MRI=50
years)
0.6
209 Orsova
210 Otopeni
MEHEDINTI
ILFOV
0.5
211 Otelu Rosu

212 Ovidiu
CARAS-SEVERIN
0.4
CONSTANTA
0.5
213 Panciu
214 Pantelimon
VRANCEA
0.6
ILFOV
0.5
215 Pascani
216 Patarlagele
IASI
0.7
BUZAU
0.6
217 Pancota
218 Pecica
ARAD
0.5
ARAD
0.5
219 Petrila
220 Petrosani
HUNEDOARA
0.4
HUNEDOARA
0.4
221 PIATRA NEAMT

222 Piatra Olt
NEAMT
0.6
DOLJ
0.7
223 PITESTI
224 PLOIESTI
ARGES
0.5
PRAHOVA
0.4
225 Plopeni
226 Podu Iloaiei
PRAHOVA
0.6
IASI
0.7
227 Pogoanele
228 Popesti Leordeni
BUZAU
0.7
ILFOV
0.5
229 Potcoava
230 Predeal
OLT
0.5
BRASOV
0.6
231 Pucioasa
232 Racari
DAMBOVITA
0.4
DAMBOVITA
0.5
233 Radauti
234 Rauseni
SUCEAVA
0.6
BOTOSANI
0.7
235 Ramnicu Sarat

236 RAMNICU VALCEA
BUZAU
0.6
VALCEA
0.4
237 Rasnov
238 Recas
BRASOV
0.6
TIMIS
0.4
239 Reghin
240 Resita
MURES
0.4
CARAS-SEVERIN
0.7
241 Roman
242 Rosiori de Vede
NEAMT
0.7
TELEORMAN
0.7
243 Rovinari
GORJ
0.4
110
244 Roznov
245 Rupea
NEAMT
qb, kPa
(MRI=50
years)
0.6
BRASOV
0.4
246 Salcea
247 Salonta
SUCEAVA
0.6
BIHOR
0.6
248 Santana
249 SATU MARE
ARAD
0.6
SATU MARE
0.4
250 Sacele
251 Sacuieni
BRASOV
0.6
BIHOR
0.5
252 Saliste
253 Salistea de Sus
SIBIU
0.6
MARAMURES
0.4
254 Sarmasu
255 Savarsin
MURES
0.4
ARAD
0.4
256 Saveni
257 Sangeorz Bai
BOTOSANI
0.7
BISTRITA NASAUD
0.4
258 Sangeorgiu de Padure

259 Sannicolau Mare
MURES
0.4
TIMIS
0.4
260 Scornicesti
261 Sebes
OLT
0.5
ALBA
0.4
262 Sebis
263 Seini
ARAD
0.4
MARAMURES
0.6
264 Segarcea
265 SFANTU GHEORGHE
DOLJ
0.5
COVASNA
0.6
266 Sf. Gheorghe

267 SIBIU
TULCEA
0.6
SIBIU
0.6
268 Sighetul Marmatiei

269 Sighisoara
MARAMURES
0.6
MURES
0.4
270 Simeria
271 Sinaia
HUNEDOARA
0.4
PRAHOVA
0.4
272 Siret
273 SLATINA
SUCEAVA
0.6
OLT
0.5
274 Slanic Moldova

275 Slanic Prahova
BACAU
0.7
PRAHOVA
0.6
276 SLOBOZIA
277 Solca
IALOMITA
0.6
SUCEAVA
0.6
278 Sovata
MURES
0.4
No
Town/City
County
111
No
Town/City
County
qb, kPa
(MRI=50
years)
0.5
279 Stei
280 Strehaia
BIHOR
MEHEDINTI
0.4
281 SUCEAVA
282 Sulina
SUCEAVA
0.6
TULCEA
0.6
283 Simleul Silvaniei

284 Somcuta Mare
SALAJ
0.4
MARAMURES
0.4
285 Stefanesti
286 Stefanesti
ARGES
0.5
BOTOSANI
0.7
287 Talmaciu
288 Tasnad
SIBIU
0.6
SATU MARE
0.4
289 Tautii Magheraus

290 TARGOVISTE
MARAMURES
0.6
DAMBOVITA
0.4
291 Targu Bujor

292 Targu Carbunesti
GALATI
0.6
GORJ
0.4
293 Targu Frumos

294 TARGU JIU
IASI
0.7
GORJ
0.4
295 Targu Lapus

296 TARGU MURES
MARAMURES
0.4
MURES
0.4
297 Targu Ocna

298 Targu Neamt
BACAU
0.6
NEAMT
0.6
299 Targu Secuiesc

300 Tarnaveni
COVASNA
0.7
MURES
0.4
301 Techirghiol
302 Tecuci
CONSTANTA
0.5
GALATI
0.6
303 Teius
304 Tismana
ALBA
0.4
GORJ
0.4
305 Titu
306 TIMISOARA
DAMBOVITA
0.5
TIMIS
0.6
307 Toplita
308 Topoloveni
HARGHITA
0.4
ARGES
0.5
309 Turceni
310 Turnu Magurele
GORJ
0.4
TELEORMAN
0.5
311 TULCEA
312 Turda
TULCEA
0.6
CLUJ
0.4
313 Tusnad
HARGHITA
0.6
112
No
Town/City
County
qb, kPa
(MRI=50
years)
0.6
314 Tandarei
315 Ticleni
IALOMITA
GORJ
0.4
316 Ulmeni
317 Ungheni
MARAMURES
0.4
MURES
0.4
318 Uricani
319 Urlati
GORJ
0.4
PRAHOVA
0.6
320 Urziceni
321 Valea lui Mihai
IALOMITA
0.6
BIHOR
0.4
322 VASLUI
323 Vascau
VASLUI
0.7
BIHOR
0.4
324 Vatra Dornei

325 Valenii de Munte
SUCEAVA
0.4
PRAHOVA
0.6
326 Vanju Mare

327 Vicovu de Sus
MEHEDINTI
0.6
SUCEAVA
0.6
328 Victoria
329 Videle
BRASOV
0.4
TELEORMAN
0.5
330 Viseu de Sus

331 Vlahita
MARAMURES
0.4
Harghita
0.4
332 Voluntari
333 Vulcani
ILFOV
0.5
HUNEDOARA
0.4
334 ZALAU
335 Zarnesti
SALAJ
0.4
BRASOV
0.4
336 Zimnicea
337 Zlatna
TELEORMAN
0.7
ALBA
0.4
113
ANNEX B (normative)
B.1
EFFECTS OF THE TERRAIN
Transition between roughness categories 0, I, II, III, and IV
(1) The determination of the design wind velocity must take into consideration the transition
between the terrain categories corresponding to different degrees of roughness (see Table
2.1).
(2) If the site of the building or structure is located in the vicinity of an area where the terrain
roughness changes at a distance of less than:
2 km from terrain belonging to category 0
1 km from terrain belonging to categories I, II, and III,
then the least rough terrain category located in the vicinity of the site shall be used.
(3) If the requirements stipulated in (2) are not met, or if the roughness changing areas
represent less than 10 % of the surface being considered by applying the distances mentioned
in Point (2), the terrain roughness category shall be that present on the site of the structure.
B.2
Numerical calculation of the orography factor
(1) For isolated hills and cliffs, the wind velocity shall change as a function of the gradient,
of the cross-wind slope (

B.1).
H
Lu
, where the height H and the length Lu are defined in Figure
vm z
- mean velocity at a height z above ground level
vm, plat z
- mean velocity at a height z above flat ground
co
vm z
vm, plat z
v m, plat z
- orography factor
114
vm z
v m, plat z
Figure B.1. The increase in wind velocity due to orography [3]

(2) The orography factor shall be determined as a function of the wind velocity at the base of
the slope and shall be calculated with relationship:
1,
c 0 1 2 s ,
1 0,6 s,
pentru 0,05
pentru 0,05 0,3
pentru 0,3
(B.1)
where:
s
is the location factor obtained from Figure B.2 or Figure B.3;
is the gradient of the upwind slope, H/Lu (see Figure B.2 and Figure B.3).
(3) The highest increase in wind velocity shall take place near the top of the slope.
(4) The orographic effects shall be taken into consideration in the following situations:
a)
for sites located on the upwind slope of hills, ridges and cliffs, where 0.05 < 0.3
and x Lu/2;
b)
for sites located on the downwind slope of hills and ridges, where
< 0.3 and x < Ld / 2, or where 0.3 and x < 1.6 H;
c)
for sites located on the downwind slope of steep cliffs and gradients < 0.3 and x <
Le / 2, or where 0.3 and x < 5 H;
where (see Figures B.2 and B.3):

Le
is the effective length of the upwind slope, given in Table B.1;
Lu
is the actual length of the upwind slope;
Ld
is the actual length of the downwind slope;
is the effective height of the hill, ridge, cliff, etc.;
is the horizontal distance from the site to the top of a ridge;
is the vertical distance from ground level to the site.
Table 0B.1 Values of the effective length, Le [3]

Type of slope ( = H / Lu)
Moderate slope (0.05 < 0.3)
Steep slope ( > 0.3)
Le = Lu
Le = H / 0.3
115
ridge
wind
downwind slope <

0.05
site
Figure B.2 Factor s for steep cliffs and slopes [3]
ridge
wind
site
downwind slope <

0.05
Figure B.3 - Factor s for hills and ridges [3]

(4) In valleys, if the velocity is not expected to increase, co(z) can be considered equal to 1.0.
116
B.3
Neighbouring buildings and/or structures
(1) If a building/structure is twice the average height, hmed of the neighbouring

buildings/structures, then the peak wind velocity and dynamic wind pressure, vp and qp, for
any neighbouring structure shall be considered at a height zn (assuming that ze = zn) above
ground level, determined with the relationship:
1
r,
2
daca x r
2 h jmare
1
r 1
r
hmic ,
zn
x r , daca r x 2r
daca x 2r
(B.2)
where the radius r is:
hmare , daca hmare 2 d mare
2 d mare , daca himare 2 d mare
(B.3)
The neighbouring structure with a lower height hlow, the radius r, the distance x and the
dimensions dlow and dhigh is shown in Figure B.4. The increase in wind velocity and dynamic
pressure can be ignored when hlow exceeds half the height hhigh of the tall building. In this
situation, zn=hlow.
dhigh
dlow
dhigh
dlow
hhigh
zn
hmed
hlow,1
Figure B.4 The influence of a tall building on two neighbouring buildings (1 and 2) [3]
117
B.4
Displacement height of the zero-elevation plane
(1) For buildings located on terrain of category IV, the vicinity of other buildings and
obstacles modifies the wind velocity and pressure profile. This modification behaves as if the
ground level (zero-elevation plane) rises to a height, hdepl, called displacement height of the
zero-elevation plane, which can be determined with relationship (B.4) (see Figure B.5).:
hdepl
daca x 2 hmed
min 0,8 hmed , 0,6 h,
min 1,2 hmed 0,2 x , 0,6 h , daca 2 hmed x 6 hmed

0,
daca x 6 hmed
(B.4)
The height z given by the relationships for calculating the mean wind velocity (2.3) and the
dynamic wind pressure (2.7) shall be replaced with an effective height, (z - hdepl). In this
situation, the profile of the exposure factor (see Figure 2.1) shall be displaced upwards with
the height hdepl.
(2) In the absence of more accurate information, for a terrain of category IV, hmed = 15 m.
6hmed
2hmed
hmed
hdepl
hdepl
Figure B.5 Obstacle height and upwind distance [3]
118
ANNEX C (informative)
DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF STRUCTURES
C.1
General aspects
(1) The calculation methods recommended in this annex are based on the hypothesis that the
behaviour of structures belongs to the linear elastic range.
(2) The dynamic properties of structures shall be assessed on a theoretical and/or
experimental basis by applying the methods used in structural dynamics.
(3) In a first approximation, the dynamic properties of structures (natural frequencies, natural
vectors, equivalent masses, and logarithmic decrement of damping) can be assessed, in a
simplified way, using the relationships given in C.2C.6.
C.2
Fundamental natural frequency
(1) For structures with embedded foundations or overhangs which have a mass attached to
their free end, relationship (C.1) can be used to calculate their fundamental natural frequency,
n1:
n1
g
1
2
x1
(C.1)
where
g
is the gravity acceleration, equal to 9.81 m/s2;
x1 is the maximum displacement due to the dead load applied in the direction of
vibration, in [m].
(2) The fundamental natural frequency n1 for multi-storey buildings exposed to wind action
can be estimated with the relationship:
n1
55
h
[Hz]
for buildings made of reinforced concrete
[Hz]
for buildings with a metallic structure
(C.2a)
and
n1
40
h
(C.2b)
119
where h
is the height of the building, in [m].
(3) The fundamental bending frequency, n1 for chimneys can be estimated with the
relationship:
n1
1 b Ws
Wt
hef2
[Hz]
(C.3)
with
hef h1
h2
3
(C.4)
where
b
is the diameter of the chimney at the top, [m];
hef
is the effective height of the chimney, [m]; h1 and h2 are given in Figure C.1;
Ws
is the weight of the structural elements which contribute to the stiffness of a

chimney;
Wt
is the total weight of a chimney;
is equal to 1000 for metallic chimneys, and 700 for reinforced concrete and
masonry chimneys.
Note. h3 = h1/3, see Point C.4(2).
Figure C.01 Geometric parameters for chimneys [3]
(4) The fundamental natural ovalling frequency, n1,o of the walls of long cylinders (chimneys),
without circular stiffeners, can be calculated with relationship:
120
t3 E
s 1 2 b 4
n1,o 0,492
(C.5)
where
E
is Youngs modulus, in [N/m2];
is the thickness of the cylinder wall, in [m];
is Poissons coefficient;
is the cylinder wall mass per unit area [kg/m2];
is the diameter of the cylinder, in [m].
The circular stiffeners shall increase the ovalling frequency.
C.3
Fundamental natural vector
(1) For buildings, towers, and chimneys, which are modelled as overhangs with embedded
foundations, the fundamental natural bending vector, 1(z) (see Figure C.2) can be
approximated with a relationship with the following form:
z
1 z
h
(C.6)
where
= 0.6
for slender structures built on frames with non-load bearing walls;
= 1.0
for buildings with a central core and perimetral columns or buildings with
vertical columns and wind protections;
= 1.5
for buildings with a central core made of reinforced concrete;
= 2.0
for chimneys and towers;
= 2.5
for metallic lattice towers.
(2) The fundamental natural bending vector in the vertical plane, 1(s) for simply supported
and embedded structures and structural elements can be approximated as shown in Table C.1.
121
= 2.5
= 2.0
= 1.5
= 1.0
= 0.6
Figure C.02 Fundamental natural bending vector for buildings, towers, and chimneys
Table C.01 Fundamental natural bending vector in the vertical plane for simply supported and
embedded structures and structural elements [3]
Static diagram
Natural vector
1(s)
s
sin
l
1
s
1 cos 2
2
l
C.4
Equivalent mass
(1) The equivalent mass per unit length, me for the fundamental vibration mode shall be given
by the relationship:
122
m s s ds
2
1
me
s ds
2
1
(C.7)
where
m
is the mass of the structure per unit length;
is the height or span of the structure or structural element.
(2) For overhangs with a variable mass distribution, me can be approximated using the
average value of m in the upper third of the structure, h3 (see Figure C.1).
(3) For structures supported at both ends, which have a span , and variable mass
distribution, me can be approximated using the average value of m for a length /3 centred in
relation to the point on the structure where (s) is maximum (see Table C.1).
C.5
Logarithmic decrement of damping
(1)
The logarithmic decrement of damping, for the fundamental vibration mode shall be
estimated with the relationship:
s a d
(C.8)
where
s is the logarithmic decrement of structural damping;
a is the logarithmic decrement of aerodynamic damping for the fundamental mode;
d is the logarithmic decrement of damping due to special devices (tuned masses, liquid
dampers, etc.), if applicable.
(2) Table C.2 contains approximated values for the logarithmic decrement of structural
damping, s.
(3) The logarithmic decrement of aerodynamic damping, a for the fundamental bending
mode caused by along-wind vibrations shall be estimated with the relationship:
c f b vm z s
2 n1 me
(C.9)
where:
cf is the aerodynamic force coefficient for a longitudinal wind action
123
is the air density, equal to 1.25 kg/m3;
is the width of the structure;
vm(zs)
is the mean wind velocity for z = zs (see Point 2.3(2));
zs
is the reference height;
n1 is the fundamental natural along-wind vibration frequency of the structure;

me is the equivalent mass per unit length of the structure, determined with relationship
(C.7).
Tab0le C.2 Approximated values for the logarithmic decrement of structural damping, s
for the fundamental natural vibration mode [3]
Type of structure
Reinforced concrete buildings
Steel buildings
Mixed concrete + steel buildings
Reinforced concrete towers and chimneys
Unlined welded metal chimneys without exterior thermal insulation
Unlined welded metal chimneys with exterior thermal insulation
h/b < 18
Metal chimneys with a lining layer and external
20 h/b < 24
thermal insulation a
h/b 26
h/b < 18
Metal chimneys with several lining layers and
20 h/b < 24
external thermal insulation a
h/b 26
Metal chimneys with masonry lining
Metal chimneys with gunite lining
Unlined coupled chimneys
Cable-stayed unlined metal chimneys
Metallic bridges
Welded
+ metallic lattice
With high-strength bolts
towers
With ordinary bolts
Mixed bridges
Prestressed, without cracks
Concrete bridges
with cracks
Wooden bridges
Aluminium alloy bridges
Fibreglass and plastic (composite) bridges
With parallel cables
Cables
With wire strands
124
Logarithmic
decrement of
structural
damping, s
0.10
0.05
0.08
0.03
0.012
0.020
0.020
0.040
0.014
0.020
0.040
0.025
0.070
0.030
0.015
0.04
0.02
0.03
0.05
0.04
0.04
0.10
0.060.12
0.02
0.040.08
0.006
0.020
a For intermediary values of h/b, linear interpolation can be used.
(5) If the structure is equipped with special dissipative devices, adequate theoretical or
experimental methods shall be used to determine the value d.
C.6
Dynamic characteristics of bridge structures
(1) The fundamental bending frequency in a vertical direction, n1,B of a bridge with solid core
decks or caisson decks can be approximated using the relationship:
n1, B
E Ib
K2
2
m
2 L
(C.10)
where
L
is the length of the main span, in [m];
is Youngs modulus, in [N/m2];
Ib
is the moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area for vertical bending, calculated
at mid-span, in [m4];
is the mass per unit length of the cross-section at mid-span (assessed for
permanent loads), in [kg/m];
is a non-dimensional factor which depends on the spans, as follow:
- For single-span bridges:
K=
if it is simply supported; or
K = 3.9
if it is encased at one end and free at the other end; or
K = 4.7
if it is encased at both ends;
For two-span continuous bridges:

K
shall be obtained from Figure C.3, using the curve applicable to two-span
bridges; L1 is the length of the lateral span and L L1;
For three-span continuous bridges:

K
shall be obtained from Figure C.3, using the curve applicable to three-span
bridges; where
L1
is the length of the largest lateral span;
L2
is the length of the other lateral span and L L1 L2;
This shall also apply

overhanging/suspended.
to
three-span
125
bridges
where
the
central
span
is
If L1 > L, then K can be obtained using the curve for two-span bridges, by neglecting the
shortest lateral span and taking into consideration the longest lateral span as the main
span of an equivalent two-span bridge.
-
For symmetrical four-span continuous bridges (bridges that are symmetrical in relation to
the central support), K can be obtained using the curve for two-span bridges shown in
Figure C.3, considering each half of the bridge to be an equivalent two-span bridge.
For asymmetrical four-span continuous bridges or bridges with more than four
continuous spans, K can be obtained using the curve for three-span bridges shown in
Figure C.3, considering the largest interior span to be the main span.
EIb
m
NOTE. If the value

at the supports is higher than twice the value at mid-span, or if it is
lower than 80 % of the value at mid-span, then relationship (C.10) shall only be used to obtain
very approximate values.
(2) The fundamental torsional frequency of bridges with solid core decks shall be equal to the
fundamental bending frequency calculated with relationship (C.10), providing that the
average value of the longitudinal moment of inertia upon bending per unit width is at least
100 times the average value of the transversal moment of inertia upon bending per unit
length.
(3) The fundamental torsional frequency of bridges with caisson decks can be approximated
with the relationship:
n1,T n1, B P1 P2 P3
(C.11)
with
P1
m b2
Ip
(C.12)
P2
2
j
Ij
b2 I p
(C.13)
P3
L2 J j
2 K b 2 I p 1
(C.14)
where
n1,B
is the fundamental bending frequency, in Hz;
is the total width of the bridge;

126
is the mass per unit length, defined in C.4;
is Poissons coefficient for the decking material;
rj
is the distance from the axis of the caisson element j to the axis of the bridge;
Ij
is the mass moment of inertia per unit length of the caisson element j for vertical
bending at mid-span, which takes into consideration the effective width of the
deck;
Ip
is the mass moment of inertia per unit length of the cross-section at mid-span. It
shall be obtained with the relationship:
md b 2
Ip
I pj m j r j2
12
(C.15)
where
md
is the mass per unit length of the deck (without caissons) only, at mid-span;
Ipj
is the mass moment of inertia of the caisson j at mid-span;
mj
is the mass per unit length of the caisson j at mid-span, without taking into
consideration the part attached to the deck;
Jj
is the torsion constant of the caisson j at mid-span, which shall be obtained with
relationship:
4 A j2
Jj
ds
t
(C.16)
where
Aj
is the area of the opening delimited by the caisson at mid-span;
ds
is the integral along the perimeter of the caisson of the length/thickness ratio for
each side of the caisson at mid-span.
NOTE. If relationship (C.16) is applied for bridges with several caissons whose planar shape
ratio (= span / width) is higher than 6 shall lead to a negligible drop in the torsion constant
assessment accuracy.
(4) The fundamental natural bending vector in the vertical plane, 1(s) for bridges can be
approximated as shown in Table C.1.
(5) Approximated values of the logarithmic decrement of structural damping, S for bridges
are given in Table C.2.
127
(6) The logarithmic decrement of aerodynamic damping, a for the fundamental bending
mode caused by along-wind vibrations shall be estimated with relationship (C.9).
(7) If the structure of the bridge is equipped with special dissipative devices, adequate
theoretical, or experimental methods shall be used to determine the value d.
Three-span bridges
Two-span bridges
Figure C.03 Factor K used to calculate the fundamental bending frequency [3]
128
ANNEX D (normative)
D.1
WIND ACTION ON BRIDGES
General elements
(1) The provisions stipulated in this annex shall only apply to bridges with constant height and
cross-sections similar to those shown in Figure D.1, which are made up of a single or multispan
deck.
open or closed
Lattice or
slab
Lattice or
slab
Figure D.1 Examples of cross-sections of common decks [3]
129
(2) The wind forces applied to bridge decks are detailed in D.2 and D.3. The wind forces
applied to piles are dealt with in D.4. The forces applied by wind action separately to
different parts of a bridge shall be considered simultaneously if their effect is more
unfavourable.
(3) Wind action on bridges shall produce forces in directions x, y and z as shown in Figure
D.2, where:
direction x
is the direction parallel with the deck width, perpendicular to the span
direction y
is the direction along the span
direction z
is the direction perpendicular to the deck
The forces applied in directions x and y are caused by wind action in different directions and
shall not normally occur simultaneously. The forces applied in direction z can be caused by
wind action in several directions; if they are unfavourable and significant, they shall be taken
into consideration concomitant with the forces applied in any other direction.
NOTE. The following notations shall be used for bridges (see Figure D.2):
L
length in direction y
width in direction x
height in direction z
For some of the provisions included in this annex, the values attributed to L, b and d are
defined more accurately. When references are made to Chapters 3 and 5, the notations
applicable to b and d shall be readapted.
Wind
direction
Figure D.2 Directions of wind action on bridges [3]

(4) When road traffic is considered to be simultaneous with the wind (see A2.2.1 and A2.2.2
in Annex A2 of SR EN 1990:2004/A1:2006), the combined value Fwk of the wind action
130
on the bridge and vehicles shall be limited to a value

with the value vb*. The value shall be vb*= 23 m/s.
Fw*
determined by replacing the value vb
(5) When railway traffic is considered to be simultaneous with the wind (see A2.2.1 and
A2.2.4 in Annex A2 of SR EN 1990:2004/A1:2006), the combined value Fwk of the wind
action on the bridge and trains shall be limited to a value
value vb with the value vb*. The value shall be vb**= 25 m/s.
D.2
Fw**
determined by replacing the
Choosing the procedure for calculating the wind action response
(1) The need to use a method for calculating the dynamic response for bridges shall be
assessed. The dynamic calculation method is generally not necessary for the decks of normal
road and railway bridges with a span of up to 40 m. For this classification, normal bridges
can be considered to be steel, concrete, aluminium, or wooden bridges, including composite
(mixed) bridges whose usual cross-sectional shape is described in Figure D.1.
(2) If a dynamic response calculation method is not necessary, the value of the dynamic
response coefficient, cd can be considered equal to 1.
D.3
Aerodynamic force coefficients
(1) When necessary, the aerodynamic force coefficients for the parapets and signalling
supports of bridges shall be determined. In this situation, the provisions stipulated in 4.4
should be used.
D.3.1 Aerodynamic force coefficients in direction x (general method)

(1) The aerodynamic force coefficients for wind action on bridge decks in direction x shall be
cf,x = cfx,0
(D.1)
where:
cfx,0
is the aerodynamic force coefficient if there is no free-end airflow (see 4.13).
131
(2) For normal bridges (defined in D.2.1), cfx,0 can be considered equal to 1.3. Alternatively, cfx,0
can be taken in accordance with Figure D.3, which shows a few common cases for determining
the values Aref,x and dtot.
(3) When the slope angle of the wind action exceeds 10, the aerodynamic force coefficient
can be obtained by carrying out special studies. This slope angle can be due to the along-wind
gradient of the terrain.
(4) If two bridge decks which are generally similar are located at the same level and are
separated transversally by a gap of up to 1 m, the force on the structure exposed to wind
action can be calculated similar to an individual structure. In other situations, special
attention shall be paid to the wind-structure interaction.
Types of bridges
Separate lattice
girders
a) the construction phase, open face
parapets more than 50 % and open face
safety barriers
b) Solid face parapets, noise barriers, safety
barriers, and traffic barriers
Figure D.3 Aerodynamic force coefficient for bridges, cfx,0 [3]
132
(5) Where the face exposed to wind action is inclined (see Figure D.4), the aerodynamic force
coefficient cfx,0 can be reduced by 0.5 % for each degree of sloping, 1 from the vertical, but
this reduction shall be limited to a maximum of 30 %. This reduction shall not apply to the
value Fw, defined in D.3.2.
Figure D.4 Bridge deck with a sloping face exposed to wind action [3]
(6) When the bridge deck is sloping in a transversal direction, cfx,0 can increase by 3 % for
each degree of sloping, but no more than 25 %.
(7) The reference areas, Aref,x for the combinations of loads without the traffic load shall be
defined as follows:
a) for solid core girder decks, Aref,x shall be the sum of (see Figure D.5 and Table D.1):
1) the areas of the exposed surfaces of the main girder
2) the surface areas of those parts of the main girders which are below the level
of the first girder
3) the surface areas of the cornice, pavement, or rail track on a crushed stone
prism located above the level of the main girder
4) the exposed areas of the solid face safety devices or noise barriers, where
relevant, located above the level of the surface described in 3) or, in the
absence of such equipment, 0.3 m for each open face parapet or barrier.
b) for lattice girder desk, Aref,x shall be the sum of:
1) the front areas of a cornice, pavement, or rail track on a crushed stone prism
2) the areas of the solid faces of the main lattice girders, located above, or
underneath the surfaces described in 1).
3) the front areas of the solid face safety devices, where relevant, located above
the level of the surface described in 1) or, in the absence of such equipment,
0.3 m for each open face parapet or barrier.
However, the total reference area shall not exceed the area obtained by
considering an equivalent plane solid core girder with the same total height,
including all its designed parts.
133
c) for bridge decks consisting of several girders, during execution, before installing the
rolling track slab, Aref,x shall be the exposed surface of two main girders.
Open face
parapet
Solid face parapet,

noise barrier, or solid
safety barrier
Open face safety
barrier
Figure D.5 Height that must be used to determine Aref,x [3]
Table D.1 Height dtot that must be used to determine Aref,x [3]
Road protection devices
Open face parapet or safety barrier
Solid face parapet or safety barrier
Open face parapet and safety barrier
on one side
d + 0.3 m
d + d1
d + 0.6 m
on two sides
d + 0.6 m
d + 2 d1
d + 1.2 m
(8) The reference areas, Aref,x for the combinations of loads that include the traffic load shall
be considered as stipulated in (4), with the following modifications. If the surfaces are larger
than those described in Paragraphs a)(3) and (4) and b)(3), the following shall be taken into
consideration:
a) for road bridges, the surface area obtained by considering a height of 2 m above the road,
for the most unfavourable length, regardless of the position of the vertical traffic loads;
b) for railway bridges, the surface area obtained by considering a height of 4 m above the
upper level of the tracks, for the entire length of the bridge.
(9) The reference height, ze, can be considered the distance at the lowest ground level to the
centre of gravity of the bridge deck, without taking into consideration the other parts (e.g.
parapets) of the reference surfaces.
(10) The effects of wind pressure due to moving vehicles are not covered by this code. For
the wind effects due to passing trains, see SR EN 1991-2.
134
D.3.2 Wind forces on bridge decks in direction x Simplified method

(1) When it is not necessary to use a dynamic response calculation method, the force applied
by wind action in direction x can be obtained using the relationship:
Fw
1
vb2 C Aref ,x
2
(D.2)
where:
vb
is the reference wind velocity
is the wind load factor. C = ce cf,x, where ce is the exposure factor and cf,x is given in
D.3.1(1); the values for C are given in Table D.2
Aref,x is the reference area specified in D.3.1
is the air density

Table 0D.2 Values of the load factor, C [3]
b/dtot
0.5
4.0
ze 20 m
6.7
3.6
ze = 50 m
8.3
4.5
The values given in the table were determined on the basis of the following
hypotheses:
- Terrain of category II;
- Aerodynamic force coefficient cfx,0 in accordance with 4.3.1 (1) ;
- co = 1.0 ;
- kl = 1.0.
For intermediary values of b/dtot, and ze, linear interpolation can be used.
D.3.3 Wind forces on bridge decks in direction z

(1) For wind action on bridge decks in direction z, the aerodynamic force coefficients cf,z must
be defined both in an ascending and a descending direction (lift force coefficients). cf,z must
not be used to analyse the vertical vibrations of bridge decks.
(2) In the absence of wind tunnel tests, the recommended value cf,z can be considered equal to
0.9. This value shall take into consideration, overall, the influence of a potential transversal
slope of the deck, the ground gradient and the fluctuations of the wind incidence angle with
the bridge deck due to turbulence.
(3) Alternatively, cf,z can be assessed using Figure D.6. In this situation:
- the height dtot can be limited to the height of the bridge deck, not taking into account the
traffic or the equipment installed on the bridge;
135
- for horizontal flat terrain, the angle of the wind with the horizontal axis can be considered
equal to 5 due to turbulence. This recommendation shall also apply to uneven terrain,
where the bridge deck is located at least 30 m above ground level.
deck slope with the horizontal axis (superelevation)

wind action angle with the horizontal axis
Figure D.6 Aerodynamic force coefficient, cf,z for bridges with a transversal slope [3]
(4) Wind forces on the bridge decks in direction z can only have significant effects if they
have the same size grade as the vertical forces due to permanent actions.
(5) The reference area Aref,z shall be equal to (see Figure D.2):
Aref,z = b . L
(D.3)
(6) The end-effect factor shall not be taken into consideration (see Chapter 4).
(7) The reference height shall be the same as for cf,x (see D.3.1(6)).
(8) The force eccentricity in direction x can be considered to be e = b/5.
D.3.4 Wind forces on bridge decks in direction y

(1) If necessary, the longitudinal wind forces in direction y shall be considered.
136
The values for the longitudinal wind actions in direction y shall be:
-
for bridges with solid core girders, 25 % of the wind forces in direction x;
for bridges with lattice girders, 50 % of the wind forces in direction x.
D.4
Bridge piles
D.4.1 Wind directions and design situations

(1) To assess the wind action on bridge decks and their supporting piles, the most
unfavourable wind direction for the entire structure must be identified, for the effects
considered.
(2) The wind action shall be calculated separately for transient design situations during the
construction stages, when the wind action on the bridge deck cannot be transmitted
horizontally or redistributed. If, during such situations, the piles support overhanging parts of
bridge deck or scaffolding, a possible asymmetry of the wind action on these elements must
be taken into consideration. For the characteristic values obtained during transient design
situations see SR EN 1991-1-6, and for scaffolding see 4.11.
D.4.2 The effect of wind on bridge piles

(1) The effects of the wind on bridge piles shall be assessed using the general format defined
in the code. For global loads, the provisions stipulated in Points 4.6, 4.8, or 4.9.2 shall be
taken into consideration.
(2) For asymmetrical loads, the design load due to wind action on those parts of the structure
where it causes favourable effects should not be taken into consideration.
137
*)

Romanian Wind Code CR1-1-4

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Romanian Wind Code CR1-1-4

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MINISTRY OF REGIONAL

DEVELOPMENT AND TOURISM

1.1 Purpose and scope............................................................................................................6

WIND VELOCITY. DYNAMIC WIND PRESSURE.............................................................................14

2.1 General aspects...............................................................................................................14

WIND ACTION ON BUILDINGS AND OTHER STRUCTURES.......................................................22

3.1 General aspects...............................................................................................................22

4.1 General information......................................................................................................31

4.9 Circular cylinders......................................................................................................68

6.1 General information......................................................................................................90

EFFECTS OF THE TERRAIN..................................................................114

Transition between roughness categories 0, I, II, III, and IV..................................114

ZONING OF WIND ACTION IN ROMANIA...........................................102

DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF STRUCTURES.........................119

WIND ACTION ON BRIDGES....................................................................129

D.1 General elements.....................................................................................................129

Purpose and scope

assessment of wind action on guyed masts and guyed chimneys;

assessment of combined wind-rain, wind-frost and wind-ice action (for these

calculation of torsional vibrations, e.g. tall buildings with a central core;

calculation of bridge deck vibration generated by transverse wind turbulence;

assessment of wind action on cable supported bridges;

Design code. Basis of structural

Notified draft technical regulation

Eurocode: Basis of structural design - Bridges

Eurocode: Basis of structural design. Annex A2:

Eurocode 1: Actions on structures. Part 1-4:

Design assisted by testing

Definitions and symbols

aerodynamic pressure/suction coefficient - the aerodynamic external

aerodynamic force coefficient - the aerodynamic force coefficient characterises the

characteristic (pressure / force) value also see CR 0.

(2) The code uses the following symbols:

Latin upper-case letters

Afr area (surface) exposed to wind

Aref reference area

B2 quasi-static response factor

C wind load factor for bridges

Ffr resultant frictional force

Fj vortex exciting force applied to a point j of the structure

Fw resultant wind force

H height of an orographic element

K mode shape factor; shape parameter

Kiv interference factor for vortex shedding

Krd reduction factor for parapets

Kw correlation length factor

L length of the span of a bridge deck; turbulence scale length

Ld actual length of a downwind slope

Le effective length of an upwind slope

Lu actual length of an upwind slope

N number of cycles caused by vortex shedding

Ng number of load cycles for gust response

R2 resonant response factor

SL unilateral and normalised power spectral density

Ws weight of the structural elements which contribute to the stiffness of a

Wt total weight of a chimney.

Latin lower-case letters

b width of the structure (cross-wind dimension, unless specified otherwise)

cd dynamic response coefficient of the structure

cdir directional factor

cf aerodynamic force coefficient

cf,0 aerodynamic force coefficient for structures or structural elements

cf,l lift force coefficient

cfr friction coefficient