Alcool HealthEffects

Alcohol
the Body
& Health
Effects
A brief overview
Contents
5
5
6
21 Mental health conditions
Introduction
What is alcohol?
Body effects of alcohol
22 Alcohol and drug interactions

23 Effects of alcohol on other people
Overall body effects
23 The unborn child
Blood and immune system
23 Children and families
Bones and muscles
Brain and nervous system
24 Effects of alcohol on population groups

24 Women
10 Breasts women
24 Men
10 Eyes
25 Young people
10 Heart and blood pressure
25 Older people
26 Low-risk alcohol drinking advice
11
Intestines
11
Kidneys and fluid balance
26 How much?
11
Liver
27 Advice for parents of children and

young people under 18 years
12 Lungs
27 What is a standard drink?
12 Mental health
28 When not to drink
12 Mouth and throat
28 Tips for low-risk drinking
13 Pancreas and digestion of sugar
Acknowledgements
The Alcohol Advisory Council of New Zealand (ALAC) would like to thank Dr Fiona Imlach Gunasekara, Public
Health Medicine Specialist, for preparing the summaries of the health and body effects of alcohol in this resource.
ISBN 9781927138410 (print)

9781927138427 (online)
13 Sexual health men

13 Sexual health women
14 Skin and fat
14 Stomach and food pipe (oesophagus)
15 Health effects of acute alcohol use
15 Alcohol poisoning
17 Hangover
Alcohol Advisory Council of New Zealand

Kaunihera Whakatupato Waipiro o Aotearoa
PO Box 5023
Wellington
New Zealand 6145
alac.org.nz | waipiro.org.nz | June 2012
18 Health conditions related to chronic alcohol use

20 Cancers
20 Cardiovascular disease
21 Existing health conditions impact of alcohol
21 Diabetes mellitus
28 Background to drinking advice

29 Where to find support and further information
30 Glossary
32 References
TABLES
7
Table 1: Symptoms of drunkenness at different

levels of blood alcohol concentration (BAC)
16 Table 2: Potential symptoms and complications

of acute intoxication or alcohol poisoning, by
body part affected
19 Table 3: Potential conditions and complications
of chronic and/or heavy episodic alcohol use,
by body part affected
Alcohol (ethanol or ethyl alcohol) is the ingredient

found in beer, wine and spirits which causes
drunkenness. Alcohol is formed when yeast ferments
(breaks down without oxygen) the sugars in different
foods; for example wine is made from the sugar in
grapes, beer from the sugar in malted barley (a type of
grain), cider from the sugar in apples, and vodka from
the sugar in potatoes, beets or other plants.[1]
Health Effects & Conditions
What is alcohol?
Body Effects
Impact of Alcohol
Effects of Alcohol
This resource provides a brief

overview of the health and body
effects of alcohol. It is a series
of short summaries based on
available evidence rather than
a comprehensive literature
review. Areas covered include
the effects of alcohol on body
parts, the health effects of
acute alcohol use, the health
conditions related to chronic
alcohol use, and the effects of
alcohol on other people and
populations. Low-risk drinking
advice is also outlined in this
resource along with information
about where to find support and
further information.
Introduction
Introduction
Drinking Advice
Support & Information
Some impairment in motor coordination and thinking ability

Talkativeness
Relaxation
50-150 mg/dL
Altered mood (increased well-being or unhappiness)

Friendliness, shyness or argumentativeness
Impaired concentration and judgement
Sexual disinhibition
150-250 mg/dL
Slurred speech
Unsteady walking
Nausea
Double vision
Increased heart rate
Drowsiness
Mood, personality and behaviour changes which may be
sudden, angry and antisocial
300 mg/dL
Unresponsive/extremely drowsy
Speech incoherent/confused
Memory loss
Vomiting
Heavy breathing
>400 mg/dL
Breathing slowed, shallow or stopped

Coma
Death
the concentration of alcohol in the beverage

(highly concentrated beverages such as spirits
are more quickly absorbed)
how quickly alcohol is drunk
body type (heavier and more muscular people have
more fat and muscle to absorb the alcohol)[2]
age, sex, ethnicity (e.g. women have a higher BAC
after drinking the same amount of alcohol than men
due to differences in metabolism and absorption
since men have on average more fluid in their body
to distribute alcohol around than women do; some
ethnic groups have different levels of a liver enzyme
responsible for the breakdown of alcohol)
how frequently a person drinks alcohol (someone
who drinks often can tolerate the sedating effects
of alcohol more than someone who does not
regularly drink).[6]
Adapted from: Table 163.1 in Brust, J. C. M. (2005). Alcoholism. In L. P. Rowland (Ed.), Merritts neurology (11th ed.).
Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.[4] and Table 1 in Vonghia, L., Leggio, L., Ferrulli, A., Bertini, M., Gasbarrini,
G., Addolorato, G., et al. (2008). Acute alcohol intoxication. European Journal of Internal Medicine, 19(8), 561567.[5]
The liver can break down only a certain amount

of alcohol per hour, which for an average person
is around one standard drink (which raises the
BAC about 15 to 20 mg/dL[8] the current limit
for driving in New Zealand is 80 mg/dL).
<50 mg/dL
Drinking Advice
Most (90 percent) of the metabolism, or breaking

down, of alcohol from a toxic substance to water
and carbon dioxide is performed by the liver,[6]
with the rest excreted through the lungs (allowing
alcohol breath tests), through the kidneys (into urine)
and in sweat.[8]
Symptoms
Effects of Alcohol
After a drink is swallowed, the alcohol is rapidly

absorbed into the blood (20 percent through the
stomach and 80 percent through the small intestine),
with effects felt within 5 to 10 minutes after drinking.[6]
It usually peaks in the blood after 30 to 90 minutes,[6]
and thus is carried through all the organs of the body.
the presence or absence of food in the stomach

(food dilutes the alcohol and dramatically slows
its absorption into the bloodstream by preventing
it from passing quickly into the small intestine)
BAC
Impact of Alcohol
As well as its acute and potentially lethal sedative

effect at high doses, alcohol has effects on every
organ in the body, and these effects depend on
the blood alcohol concentration (BAC) over time.[7]
the ability of the liver to metabolise alcohol (which

varies due to genetic differences in the liver enzymes
that break down alcohol)[7]
Table 1: Symptoms of drunkenness at different levels of blood alcohol concentration (BAC)
At lower doses, alcohol can act as a stimulant,[3]

inducing feelings of euphoria and talkativeness,
but drinking too much alcohol at one session can
lead to drowsiness, respiratory depression (where
breathing becomes slow, shallow or stops entirely),
coma or even death.[46]
The BAC rises, and the feeling of drunkenness occurs,

when alcohol is drunk faster than the liver can break
it down. Table 1 shows the relationship between BAC
and symptoms of drunkenness the higher the BAC,
the greater the effects on the body. However, BAC does
not correlate exactly with symptoms of drunkenness
and different people have different symptoms even
after drinking the same amount of alcohol. The BAC
level, and every individuals reaction to alcohol, is
influenced by: [1,2,7]
Body Effects
Alcohol is classed as a sedative

hypnotic drug,[2] which means
it acts to depress the central
nervous system at high doses.
Introduction
Body effects
of alcohol
Overall body effects
Summary of main effects
blood and immune system
mental health
eyes
Being drunk can

cause blurred vision.
skin
Alcohol use can have direct and

indirect effects on the skin.
Being drunk can cause

slurred speech.
breasts
(in women)
bones and muscles
kidneys
Alcohol has an effect on

the kidneys functions.
intestines
heart and blood pressure

intestines
kidneys and fluid balance
liver
lungs
lungs
Being drunk and chronic

heavy alcohol use can
increase the risk of
infections of the lungs.
heart
Alcohol use at low levels may

be beneficial for the heart in
some people but is harmful for
everyone at high levels.
liver
Long-term alcohol use

can cause damage to the
liver in a variety of ways.
pancreas
Alcohol use, particularly

when heavy, can cause
acute or chronic pancreatitis
(inflammation and damage
to the pancreas).
stomach and
food pipe
Too much alcohol can have

short- and long-term effects
on the oesophagus (food
pipe) and the stomach.
sexual health
Alcohol use can affect

judgment and increases the
chance of unwanted sexual
experiences. It can also affect
sexual performance in men.
mental health
mouth and throat
pancreas and digestion of sugar
sexual and reproductive system men
sexual and reproductive system women
skin and fat
stomach and food pipe (oesophagus).
As well as potentially affecting the physical and mental
health of individuals in many ways, chronic and heavy
alcohol use can increase the risk of death[9] either
directly, for example through acute alcohol poisoning
or because alcohol causes a fatal disease such as
cancer,[10] or indirectly, such as alcohol being a factor
in violent death or suicide. Alcohol contributes to a
high burden of disease in society in terms of years that
people spend with disability or in poor health because
of alcohol-related illnesses or injuries.[11,12] Unintentional
injuries from alcohol use often result from falls, burns,
motor vehicle accidents, assaults and drowning.[9]
Blood and immune system

Long-term effects of alcohol use
Chronic heavy alcohol use can cause abnormalities
in the blood, leading to anaemia (low haemoglobin,
the component of blood that carries oxygen around
the body) and low platelets (platelets help prevent
bleeding).[13] Chronic heavy alcohol use also suppresses
the immune system (such as affecting the white blood
Bones and muscles

Immediate effects of alcohol use
Alcohol use causes many different types of injuries,
including injuries from road traffic accidents, assaults
and falls.[9] This is usually because high levels of blood
alcohol impair the brains thought processes and
the coordination of muscles, causing clumsiness and
difficulty walking.[16] Common injuries seen at the
emergency department include cuts, bruises, sprains
and broken bones.[17,18] The risk of injury in the six
hours after drinking doubles with four standard drinks
and increases rapidly the more alcohol is drunk on
a single occasion.[19]

Moderate alcohol use may protect against osteoporosis
(thinning of the bones, which makes the bones more
likely to break).[20] However, chronic heavy alcohol
use interferes with the absorption of calcium and bone
formation and can actually lead to osteoporosis.[20,21]
Chronic heavy use is also associated with a painful
condition where bone tissue dies (osteonecrosis),[22]
gout (a type of arthritis or inflammation of the joints,
often affecting the joint of the big toe),[13] and muscle
wasting and weakness.[4,23]
Brain and nervous system

Being drunk impairs judgment, inhibitions and
concentration, and in increasing amounts leads
to drowsiness and coma.[4] The loss of memory
for a period of drunkenness (alcoholic blackout)
can occur in occasional as well as regular heavy
drinkers, and is due to alcohol interfering with
the laying down of memories.[4,8]
Both the small intestine and

large intestine can be affected
by long-term alcohol use,
including cancer risk.
eyes
Drinking Advice
Alcohol immediately affects

coordination and increases
the likelihood of injury, while
ongoing heavy alcohol use
can have other health effects.
Alcohol impairs judgement

and concentration. Long-term
alcohol use can damage the
brain and nerves.
breasts (in women)
Effects of Alcohol
Long-term alcohol
use increases the
risk of breast cancer.
brain and
nervous system
brain and nervous system
Impact of Alcohol
mouth and throat
Alcohol is absorbed into the

bloodstream and can have
some long-term effects.
Alcohol can be used to

relax but it is also addictive
and can lead to dependency.
bones and muscles
blood
Body Effects
Alcohol affects all parts

of the body including:
> Alcohol affects all parts of the body including:
cells that fight infections), making it more difficult for

the body to fight off both viral and bacterial infections.
People who drink heavily over a long time are more
likely to suffer from infections after surgery, burns,
trauma, hepatitis C infection, HIV/AIDS, meningitis,
tuberculosis and pneumonia (acute inflammation
of the lung, usually due to infection).[4,14,15]
Introduction
Body effects of alcohol
10
11
Eyes
Being drunk can cause blurred or double vision.[4]

Chronic heavy alcohol use, when coupled with a diet low
in vitamin B1 and B12, may lead to decreased vision.[4,30]
Drinking alcohol in order to protect the heart is not

advisable, since alcohol is an addictive drug that causes
cancer, increases the risk of injury and causes damage to
the fetus in pregnant women. People can find it difficult
to limit their drinking to one or two standard drinks a day
and heavy drinking actually increases the risk of heart
disease and.[34] People who have risk factors for or
have established heart disease should focus on other
factors such as cigarette smoking, high cholesterol,
high blood pressure, diabetes, overweight and physical
inactivity. Young and middle-aged adults, especially
women, are more likely to experience harm than
benefit from alcohol use due to risk from injury and,
for women, increased risk from breast cancer.[36,37]
Heart* and blood pressure

*The evidence for the effects of alcohol on the heart is mixed and often
controversial. This section is a brief summary of the evidence available
at the time of publication.
Long- term alcohol use can cause cancer of the large

bowel/intestines and rectum.[9,38,39] Alcohol can
lead to malnutrition and diseases due to low vitamin
levels, as it blocks the absorption of many important
vitamins and nutrients in the gut.[23]
Kidneys and fluid balance

Alcohol is a diuretic, meaning that it causes water to
be lost from the body through the kidneys (into urine),
which can lead to dehydration.[35] Alcohol can also
cause the loss of important minerals and salts from
the body such as magnesium, calcium, phosphate,
sodium and potassium,[13] either directly or because
alcohol induces vomiting. Low levels of these elements
can cause many problems ranging from irregular
heartbeats to seizures.[5]
Fatty liver, where fat builds up in the liver cells, is very

common in heavy drinkers and is reversible if drinking
is reduced. However, a small percentage of people with
fatty liver will develop alcoholic hepatitis, cirrhosis
or liver cancer.
Alcoholic hepatitis develops in 10 to 35 percent of
heavy drinkers and is an acute injury to the liver
which can present with symptoms of feeling unwell,
tiredness, jaundice (yellow skin and whites of eyes),
swollen stomach and enlarged, tender liver. Death
from liver failure can occur in severe cases.
Cirrhosis of the liver develops in 5 to 15 percent of
heavy drinkers and is where the liver is permanently
damaged and cells are replaced by scar tissue, so the
liver can no longer function (to detoxify the body,
make vital proteins, store vitamins and sugars,
and make chemicals necessary for digestion).
Cirrhosis can also lead to death from liver failure.
Treatment for alcoholic liver disease must include
stopping the drinking of alcohol. Alcohol also causes
liver cancer, and treatment options are often limited
if alcoholic liver disease is present or the cancer has
spread widely by the time of diagnosis. This means
liver cancer is often quickly fatal.[9,40,41]
However, heavy drinking (both chronic and a pattern of

heavy drinking sessions) increases the risk of coronary
artery disease.[9,34] Heavy drinking (chronic and/or
at a single session) is also associated with sudden
death from heart failure, with irregular heartbeats
and with chronic disease of the heart muscle (dilated
Chronic heavy alcohol use can damage the liver,

causing alcoholic liver disease. This occurs across
a spectrum from fatty liver, to acute alcoholic
hepatitis, to cirrhosis.[1]
Drinking Advice
The evidence for the effect of alcohol on the heart

is mixed. There is an opinion that light to moderate
alcohol use (up to one standard drink per day for
women and up to two standard drinks per day for
men) can, in older age groups, reduce the risk of
developing and dying from coronary artery disease
(narrowing and blockage of the arteries supplying
blood to the heart resulting from the build-up
of fatty deposits inside the walls of the arteries
(atherosclerosis), which can cause angina and heart
attacks). This appears to be because small quantities
of alcohol alter the lipids and clotting factors in the
blood to make them protective against heart disease.
[9,31,32,33]
Intestines
Effects of Alcohol
The relationship between alcohol use and stroke,

where there is a sudden paralysis, loss of sensation or
inability to talk because the blood supply to the brain
is interrupted, is complex. Alcohol increases the risk
of hemorrhagic stroke, where the stroke is caused
by bleeding in the brain. However, low to moderate
alcohol use (one to two drinks a day) reduces the risk
of ischaemic stroke, which is caused by blockage of the
blood vessels in the brain, but higher levels of alcohol
use increase the risk of ischaemic stroke.[9]
Long-term alcohol use increases the risk of breast

cancer, with higher use resulting in a higher risk of
cancer.[9,27,28] A significantly elevated risk is seen
from drinking even one or two drinks of alcohol a day.
[10] The risk increases on average by about 10 percent
for every one standard drink of alcohol per day.[29]
Heavy chronic alcohol use is also linked to high blood

pressure, particularly in men.[9,34,35] Blood pressure
increases with drinking more than two or three drinks
a day on average and restriction of alcohol lowers the
blood pressure.[35]
Impact of Alcohol
Chronic heavy alcohol use can also damage the part

of the brain responsible for balance and coordination
(the cerebellum), leading to instability and problems
with walking.[4,25] It can also damage peripheral nerves
in the body, leading to pain, weakness, numbness and
the inability to sense touch.[4,26] In rare cases it can
damage specific centres in the brain, leading to loss
of mental function, inability to walk and death[8] and
can lead to the development of epilepsy (chronic fits)[9]
and sleep disturbances. Although individuals suffering
from insomnia sometimes use alcohol to treat the
insomnia, tolerance to the sedating effect of alcohol
is likely to occur, increasing the risk of excessive use.[3]
Also, if more than one or two drinks are taken in
the evening, sleep can be disrupted, increasing the
chances of a person waking in the night and finding
it hard to fall back asleep.[8]
Liver
Thiamine deficiency can cause an acute, severe, lifethreatening disorder called Wernickes encephalopathy,
which usually presents with symptoms of abnormal
or paralysed eye movements, difficulty walking
and confusion. It also causes a chronic condition of
memory loss (variously called Korsakoffs syndrome,
psychosis or dementia), where loss of old memories
occurs and difficulties in laying down new memories
may be profound.[4,24,25] Both of these disorders are
ultimately fatal without treatment with thiamine.[4]
Breasts Women
Body Effects
Chronic heavy alcohol use can damage the brain and

nerves in a variety of ways. Some damage to the brain,
from mild to severe, occurs in around half of chronic
heavy alcohol drinkers.[24] This may be a result of
thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency (secondary to alcohol
use, either because of poor diet or because alcohol
reduces the absorption of thiamine from the gut and
interferes with how thiamine is used in the body).[25]
cardiomyopathy). Dilated cardiomyopathy leads

to heart failure, where the heart can no longer pump
blood around the body effectively.[9,27,32,34]
Introduction
12
In people who drink heavily, alcohol commonly causes

mood disorders, including depression, anxiety and
psychosis (a mental illness defined by changes in
personality, a distorted sense of reality, and delusions).
[8] If these disorders only occur during drinking
sessions or withdrawal, they will usually resolve once
drinking is stopped.[8] Alcohol abuse and dependency
are also common in people with pre-existing mental
health conditions.
Mouth and throat

Being drunk can have various effects on speech, such
as making people more friendly, talkative, unreserved,
relaxed or argumentative. Increasing amounts of
alcohol can cause aggressive, antisocial, angry, slurred
and confused speech.[4,5]

Heavy alcohol use on a single occasion can lead to
dangerously low blood sugar (hypoglycaemia), which
can cause symptoms of shaking, sweating, dizziness,
blurred vision and, if not treated, brain damage.[4,5]

The pancreas is a gland that secretes digestive
enzymes and releases insulin, which regulates sugar
levels in the blood.[48]
Chronic heavy alcohol use can cause acute pancreatitis
(sudden inflammation of and damage to the pancreas
that resolves over several days)[9,48] and chronic
pancreatitis (inflammation of the pancreas that
does not heal and worsens over time).[48,49] Acute
pancreatitis typically causes abdominal and back pain,
nausea and fever[49] and may occur a few hours or
up to two days after drinking alcohol.[48] In 20 to 30
percent of people, acute pancreatitis is a severe, lifethreatening condition, which requires treatment in
hospital.[50]
Chronic pancreatitis typically occurs in people aged
30 to 40 years and can cause abdominal pain, weight
loss, diabetes, malnutrition and oily bowel motions
(because the pancreas helps to digest fat and when
the pancreas is damaged, fats are excreted out of the
bowel instead of being absorbed into the body).[48]
The risk of acute and chronic pancreatitis increases
with higher alcohol use.[9]

Being drunk increases the chances of having unsafe
sex (without a condom), having sex that is later
regretted or experiencing sexual assault [51,52] as
alcohol impairs judgment and lowers inhibitions.
[4] These factors are also likely to increase the risk of
getting a sexually transmitted infection.[53]

Chronic heavy alcohol use can lead to impotence,
loss of sex drive, wasting of the testicles and reduced
fertility.[35,54] This is primarily because alcohol affects
testosterone levels.
Sexual health Women

Being drunk increases the chances of having unsafe
sex (without a condom), having sex that is later
regretted or experiencing sexual assault [51,52] as
alcohol impairs judgment and lowers inhibitions.[4]
Such sexual experiences are also likely to increase
the risk of getting a sexually transmitted infection
[53] or having an unplanned pregnancy.

Chronic heavy alcohol use can lead to reduced fertility
and can make periods heavy or irregular or stop
altogether.[19,35] Consuming alcohol while pregnant
may increase the risk of miscarriage,[55,56] low birth
weight,[13] stillbirth and premature birth.[9,57] It can
also cause significant abnormalities in the unborn,
developing baby (fetal alcohol spectrum disorder).
[4,13,57,58]
Many people use low doses of alcohol for relaxation

and to relieve tension, nervousness and stress.[2,8]
However, in some people alcohol creates rather than
reduces stress through stimulating stress hormones.[43]
Alcohol affects mood in a variety of ways, and can
make people feel happy, sad or aggressive, and can
also cause moods swing.[4,8] However, there is a risk
of becoming dependent on alcohol if it is used as a
primary means to relieve stress and anxiety without
addressing the underlying causes. Because it removes
inhibitions and increases aggression and recklessness,
alcohol is often found in the blood of people who selfharm, or attempt or complete suicide.[44]
If alcohol is not taken, symptoms can progress to

insomnia, increased heart rate, temperature and blood
pressure, sweating, agitation, nausea, flushing of the
face, nightmares, hallucinations (seeing, hearing or
feeling things that are not present) and fits.[4,13,45,46]
The most serious withdrawal syndrome is delirium
tremens, which develops in about 5 percent of people
with alcohol withdrawal (more if fits are not treated)
and by definition includes the symptom of delirium
(an altered and confused state of mind).[46] This
syndrome has a death rate of around 5 percent.[46]
Pancreas and
digestion of sugar
Sexual health Men
Drinking Advice
The severity of withdrawal symptoms depends on

the quantity of alcohol consumed and the length of
the drinking session. Symptoms include shaking of the
hands, which commonly occurs the morning after the
drinking session and may be relieved by more alcohol.
Moderate alcohol use is associated with a reduced

risk of developing type 2 diabetes, although the exact
reason for this is not certain.[9]
Effects of Alcohol
Mental health
Alcohol is a carcinogen, meaning that it causes cancers

in humans. Regular alcohol use increases the risk of
cancers of the mouth, throat and voicebox.[9,29,47]
Drinking around 50g of alcohol a day (five standard
drinks) increases the risk of these cancers by two
to three times compared with non-drinkers, but for
people who smoke, this risk is increased much more.
[10,47] Drinking more increases the risk of cancers, and
drinking less decreases the risk of cancers.
Impact of Alcohol
Chronic heavy alcohol use is also associated with

higher rates of pneumonia, tuberculosis (an infectious
disease that affects primarily the lungs but also any
other part of the body),[9] and acute respiratory
distress syndrome (ARDS a life-threatening condition
in which the lungs fill with fluid, which occurs as a
rare complication of pneumonia, trauma and severe
infections).[42] In addition to the ways in which acute
alcohol use can cause pneumonia, chronic heavy
alcohol use also impairs the immune system and
changes the bacteria present in the mouth to those
more likely to cause infections, making people more
vulnerable to pneumonia.[9]
Alcohol is addictive and can lead to dependency. This

is where the body requires more alcohol to achieve the
desired effect (e.g. altered mood), where use of alcohol
interferes with a persons life (causing legal, work/
study, relationship or social problems), where a person
continues to use alcohol despite it causing physical
or mental problems, and where, if alcohol is not taken,
withdrawal symptoms occur.
Body Effects
Being drunk[9] increases the risk of pneumonia

(inflammation of the lungs, usually caused by
infection from bacteria or viruses).[5] This is because,
at high blood concentrations, alcohol is sedating
and relaxes the mouth and throat, suppresses reflexes
(like the gag and cough reflexes), and reduces the
ability of the lungs to clear mucus and foreign matter,
so that vomit, saliva or other substances may enter
the lungs and cause inflammation and infection
(bronchitis or pneumonia).
Introduction
Lungs
13
14
a brief summary of the evidence available at the time of publication.
The physical effects of alcohol poisoning are many,

from nausea, vomiting and dehydration, which
are familiar symptoms to those who may have
drunk too much on one occasion, to the worst
complication death.
The term alcohol poisoning is sometimes used
to describe the most serious and life-threatening
complications of alcohol overdose, such as slowed
breathing and loss of consciousness.
The lethal dose of alcohol is 5 to 8g/kg (3g/kg
for children)[6] that is, for a 60kg person, 300g
of alcohol can kill, which is equal to 30 standard
drinks (about 1 litre of spirits or four bottles of wine).
Table 2 summarises, by body part affected, the various
symptoms and complications that can occur from
drinking too much alcohol on a single occasion. This
includes symptoms caused directly by the excess
alcohol, such as nausea, slurred speech and mood
changes, but also health problems caused indirectly
by alcohol, such as injuries and unsafe sex.
+ The evidence related to alcohol and fat is evolving. This section is
Long-term alcohol use can cause cancer of the food

pipe (oesophagus) and drinking 50g of alcohol a day
(five standard drinks) doubles the risk compared with
a non-drinker.[9,29,69] However, the risk is much
greater in people who drink alcohol who are also
deficient in a liver enzyme that metabolises alcohol
(East Asian populations are commonly deficient in this
enzyme).[7,29] The risk is also increased in smokers.
[70] Chronic heavy alcohol use can also lead to chronic
gastritis but alcohol may protect against infection
from Helicobacter pylori, the bacteria that cause ulcers
of the stomach.[16,38,71] In cases of advanced liver
disease due to prolonged heavy alcohol use, the veins
to the stomach and oesophagus can swell and may
burst, causing life-threatening bleeding.
Alcohol poisoning, known in emergency departments

as acute intoxication, is when a large amount of
alcohol is drunk, followed shortly afterwards by
changes in mood or behaviour, impaired judgment
or social functioning, and one or more physical signs
of drunkenness, such as slurred speech, unsteadiness,
lack of coordination, impaired attention or loss of
consciousness.[5]
Drinking Advice
Chronic heavy drinkers are likely to be malnourished

as alcohol has little nutritional value and replaces
nutritious food in the diet.[23]
For example, drinking a small amount of alcohol may

be beneficial in preventing heart disease in older
adults, but drinking a lot of alcohol can also damage
the heart. For other health conditions, alcohol is
the single cause of the condition, such as alcoholic
cirrhosis of the liver, fetal alcohol spectrum disorder
(FASD) and alcohol-induced pancreatitis. For many
other health conditions, alcohol is one cause, among
others, of the condition for example, cancers and
pneumonia.[9] Overall, alcohol is a cause of more
than 60 different health conditions and, for almost all
conditions, heavier alcohol use means higher risk of
disease or injury.[9,27]
Alcohol poisoning
Effects of Alcohol
Alcohol seems more likely to cause weight gain in

those who drink intermittently (moderately to heavily),
in those who are already overweight, in those eating
a high-fat diet, and in men.[63,66,67] For people
concerned about their weight, nutritionists advise
people to take into account how much energy alcohol
is contributing to their diet.[68]
Persistent vomiting and retching after heavy use

on a single occasion can sometimes (but only rarely)
rip the food pipe (a Mallory Weiss tear), which leads
to vomiting of blood.
The relationship between

alcohol use and some health
conditions is complex.
Impact of Alcohol
Alcohol is a high-calorie beverage. One standard drink

(100ml of wine, 30ml of spirits or 280ml of standard
beer) contains 290kJ, close to half the energy of a
can of fizzy drink. Alcohol is also an appetite stimulant,
and people tend to eat more when consuming
alcohol with their meals.[61] However, while
theoretically the potential for alcohol to increase
weight is clear, and some studies find that alcohol
use is associated with increased weight,[62,63]
others find the opposite result.[64,65]
Being drunk can lead to nausea and vomiting,

diarrhoea, heartburn (when acid from the stomach
rises up into the food pipe, due to alcohol causing the
muscle around the outlet of the stomach to relax)
and acute gastritis (inflammation of the lining of the
stomach, which causes stomach pain, nausea, loss
of appetite and indigestion).[4,5,23,38] Vomiting and
diarrhoea can result in dehydration, salt imbalances
and the build-up of acids in the body, especially in
combination with excessive alcohol intake.[5] Inhaling
vomit can lead to bronchitis or pneumonia (infection
of the lungs). Vomit can block the airway and windpipe
when blood alcohol is very high and breathing and
consciousness are impaired.[5]
Chronic heavy alcohol use, when associated with

serious liver disease and liver failure, can also cause
yellowing of the skin, decreased body hair and spider
veins.[40,60]
Health effects
of acute
alcohol use
Body Effects
Acute alcohol use can lead to skin flushing and

worsen the appearance of skin conditions such
as rosacea (a chronic facial skin rash).[59]
Stomach and food pipe

(oesophagus)
Introduction
Skin and fat +
15
16
17
Mouth
Slurred/confused speech
Stomach
and food pipe
Nausea, vomiting
Heartburn
Gastritis
Intestines
Diarrhoea
Pancreas and
sugar digestion
Pancreatitis
Hypoglycaemia
Kidneys and
fluid balance
Dehydration
Depleted salts and minerals
Heart and
blood pressure
Increased heart rate

Irregular heart rate
Brain and
nervous system
Impaired concentration/attention
Blackouts/memory loss
Impaired consciousness/coma
Mental health
Mood and personality changes

Aggression/antisocial behaviour
Suicide and self-harm
Sexual health
Unsafe sex/STI/sexual assault

Unplanned pregnancy (females)
Bones and muscles
Injuries
Eyes
Blurred/double vision
Whole body
Injuries
Death
The only cure for a hangover is time, although drinking

water or fruit juice and eating bland food such as
toast or crackers may help with dehydration and low
blood sugar. Paracetamol should be avoided as this
can be toxic to the liver during a hangover. Aspirin
and anti-inflammatory medicines should also be
avoided if nausea or stomach pain is present, as these
can aggravate acute gastritis caused by alcohol, but
antacids can be useful.[72]
Drinking Advice
Slowed rate and depth of breathing (respiratory depression)

Pneumonia/bronchitis
Effects of Alcohol
Lungs
The type of alcohol drunk may increase the chance

of getting a hangover. Alcoholic drinks include
compounds called congeners that add to the taste,
smell or colour of the drink. Alcohol with fewer
congeners, such as gin and vodka, may cause fewer
hangover effects than alcohol with more congeners,
such as brandy, whisky and red wine.[72]
Impact of Alcohol
Symptoms
Body part affected
A hangover can occur in anyone after a single episode

of heavy alcohol use. Symptoms include headache,
nausea, vomiting, sweating, fatigue, shakiness,
sensitivity to light, and irritability.[4] Typically,
symptoms start a few hours after drinking stops, when
blood alcohol is falling, and peak at the time the blood
alcohol concentration is zero, but may continue for 24
hours after this. Alcohol causes hangover symptoms
through dehydration (which causes thirst, dizziness
and weakness), irritation of the stomach and liver
(which causes nausea, vomiting and stomach pain),
low blood sugar (which causes fatigue and mood
changes), and disturbance of sleep (which causes
jet lag symptoms).[72]
Body Effects
Table 2: Potential symptoms and complications of acute intoxication

or alcohol poisoning, by body part affected
Introduction
Hangover
18
Table 3: Potential conditions and complications of chronic and/or heavy episodic alcohol use, by body part affected
Intestines
Cancer of bowel
Liver
Cancer of liver
Alcoholic liver disease (fatty liver, hepatitis, cirrhosis)
Pancreas and
sugar digestion
Acute and chronic pancreatitis
For some people, alcohol is a regular or occasional drink enjoyed

at social occasions that causes no apparent harm. However, even
moderate alcohol use carries some risks, as alcohol causes breast
cancer even at low doses, can damage the developing fetus before
a woman even knows she is pregnant and can lead to addiction
and dependence in any individual.
Heart and blood

pressure
Coronary heart disease

Hypertension
Heart failure due to cardiomyopathy
Irregular heartbeat
Blood and
immune system
Anaemia
HIV/AIDS
Hepatitis C
Tuberculosis
Infections
Lungs
Pneumonia
When drunk regularly over time and/or drunk in a pattern of

heavy single drinking sessions, alcohol can cause a variety of
health conditions. These include cancers and other conditions
such as alcoholic liver disease, which can range from reversible to
permanent liver damage due to alcohol. The risks of alcohol-related
cancers and other health conditions caused by alcohol are greatest
in those who are dependent on alcohol or drink heavily, and the
risks increase with the average amount of alcohol drunk.
Table 3 lists some of the conditions and complications of
chronic and/or heavy episodic alcohol use.[9]
Brain and
nervous system
Brain damage (Wernickes encephalopathy, Korsakoffs dementia, etc)

Nerve damage
Epilepsy
Sleep disturbances
Stroke
Mental health
Addiction/dependence
Mood disorders
Withdrawal symptoms
Sexual health
Impotence
Infertility
Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (in children born to women who drink while pregnant)
Premature birth/low birth weight (in babies born to women who drink while pregnant)
Breasts (women)
Cancer of breast
Bones and muscles
Muscle weakness
Gout
Eyes
Decreased vision
Skin and fat
Malnutrition
Whole body
Death
Potential complications of chronic alcohol use
Cancer of food pipe (oesophagus)

Chronic gastritis
Drinking Advice
Stomach
and food pipe
Effects of Alcohol
Cancer of mouth, voicebox and throat
Impact of Alcohol
Mouth
Symptoms
Body Effects
Body part affected
Introduction
Health conditions
related to chronic
alcohol use
19
20
21
The relationship between alcohol and cardiovascular

disease (coronary artery disease and strokes) is
complex. In summary, low to moderate alcohol
use (one to two drinks per day) can reduce the risk
of coronary artery disease (where the coronary arteries,
which supply blood to the heart, become narrowed
or blocked, which leads to angina and heart attacks)
and the risk of ischaemic stroke (stroke caused by
blocked arteries in the brain)[31].
Alcohol increases the risk of developing cancers of the:

mouth, throat and voicebox
oesophagus (food pipe)
large bowel and rectum
breast (in women)
liver.
In contrast, there is evidence that use of alcohol

does not cause cancer of the kidney or non-Hodgkin
lymphoma (a cancer of the lymph cells).
The treatment of alcoholrelated liver disease, alcoholrelated pancreatitis, alcoholrelated mood disorders, alcohol
dependence, or brain damage
due to alcohol involves
stopping alcohol use.
The benefit of alcohol in reducing heart disease

is primarily for those at risk of heart disease
particularly older people and those with a family
history of heart disease.[36]
Alcohol may also worsen other health conditions not

related to alcohol and temporary reduction or stopping
of alcohol use is recommended. These include any
disease of the liver, which can be worsened by alcohol
use, infections, as heavy alcohol use can impair the
immune system, and sleep disorders, as alcohol
interferes with the sleep cycle.[19]
Diabetes mellitus
People with mental health conditions are more likely

to use alcohol than those without. Alcohol is strongly
associated with social phobias and anxiety, as it can
help people with anxiety to feel they function better
in social situations, but this is also associated with
a risk of alcohol dependence. Alcohol problems are
more common in people who are depressed and
heavy alcohol use in people with depression is
associated with higher risk of suicide, self-harm
and poor outcomes. Alcohol use worsens the severity
of bipolar disorder. Heavy alcohol use is common
among people with schizophrenia and may increase
the severity of symptoms.
All people with a mental health condition are
advised to discuss their alcohol use with their health
professionals, as it may have a negative impact on
their illness and/or interact with medication that is
taken to treat their illness.[19]
# Note that the evidence of the relationship between alcohol and

cardiovascular disease is mixed and often controversial. This section
is a brief summary of the evidence available at the time of publication.
The relationship between alcohol use and mental

health conditions is somewhat complicated in that
heavy or problem drinking can cause some mental
health conditions; and conversely, some mental
health conditions may cause problematic drinking.[43]
Drinking Advice
People with diabetes are advised to discuss alcohol use

with their health professional.[19] Those with wellcontrolled diabetes can safely drink alcohol, although
the risk of low blood sugar is increased if alcohol is
drunk without food and insulin is used.[19,73] People
with diabetes are advised to monitor blood sugars
when drinking and to wear an alert bracelet or similar
identification (alerting others of their diabetes in an
emergency) because the symptoms of low blood sugar,
which is life threatening but quickly treatable, and
drunkenness are very similar.[74]
Mental health conditions
Effects of Alcohol
However, higher alcohol use increases the risk of

coronary artery disease and ischaemic stroke [9].
In addition, any alcohol use increases the risk of
hemorrhagic stroke (stroke caused by bleeding
arteries in the brain) [9]. Both single episodes
of heavy alcohol use and chronic heavy use can
also increase the risk of hypertension, developing
irregular heartbeats and suffering sudden death
from a cardiac cause.[9,27,32,34]
Impact of Alcohol
The risk of developing cancer increases

with a higher use of alcohol.
Existing health
conditions
impact of alcohol
Alcohol is now recognised as a carcinogen it is known

to increase the risk of several different types of cancer.
This is based on assessments from the World Health
Organization International Agency for Research on
Cancer (IARC) Monograph Working Group, a group
of expert scientists who review published studies
and evaluate the evidence that alcohol increases
the risk of cancer.[10,29,70]
Body Effects
Cardiovascular disease #
Introduction
Cancers
22
23
not drink alcohol. Alcohol is also best avoided while

breastfeeding, as alcohol can pass through the milk
to the baby and affect development.[57]
Alcohol also impacts on other people through

crime, assault and sexual assault.
Children and families
It features in many statistics relating to crime,

assault and sexual assault in New Zealand and
overseas and alcohol has been shown to impair
judgment and increase aggression in some people.[27]
As there is no known safe level for using alcohol during

any stage of pregnancy, it is advised that any woman
who is pregnant or wishing to get pregnant should
Alcohol, especially when drunk in large amounts,

can also contribute to domestic violence. It seems to
do this by increasing aggressiveness, particularly in
people already feeling hostile towards their partners,
although whether alcohol leads to violence depends
on personality, cultural and situational factors.[77,78]
Alcohol abuse has featured in a significant number of
homicides involving couples and children in
New Zealand.[79]
Drinking Advice
Drinking alcohol at any stage during pregnancy

can affect the development of the unborn baby
(the fetus) as alcohol passes through the placenta
from the blood of the mother to the fetus. The most
extreme consequence of alcohol affecting the fetus
is a miscarriage or stillbirth. In other cases, the baby
can be born with significant permanent effects.[57]
The range of effects on a child caused by alcohol is
called fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD).These
effects include premature birth, restricted growth,
birth defects, brain damage, developmental delay, and
social, emotional, behavioural and mental deficits.
[35,57] In an older child, this can manifest as low IQ,
poor social skills, inattention, and problems with
aggressive and impulsive behaviour.
Effects of Alcohol
The unborn child
Children in families where an adult abuses alcohol

or drinks heavily are known to be vulnerable to a
variety of negative effects. As well as the risk of being
affected by FASD, these children, compared with
children in families without a parent or caregiver who
drinks heavily, are at higher risk of injury, poisoning
and hospitalisation, eating disorders (for females),
depression and anxiety, conduct disorders, aggression,
attention deficit/hyperactivity, lower educational
achievement and heavy alcohol use in adolescence.
Some of the reasons for these negative effects include
higher rates of conflict between parents, greater
absence of parents, violence against children, higher
stress and economic deprivation, and less parental
supervision.[76]
Impact of Alcohol
When combined with illegal drugs, alcohol can have

various effects depending on the type of illegal drug.
It may increase the risk of sedation when mixed with
other sedating drugs, or counteract the effect of
stimulant drugs. When alcohol is taken with cannabis,
driving ability is significantly impaired, even more than
when alcohol is drunk alone.[75]
Drinking alcohol can affect

other people, in particular
unborn children and children
and families.
Alcohol can react with different medicines and drugs

in different ways, such as increasing the sedating
effect of sleeping tablets and opiate-based pain relief,
increasing the potential for aspirin to irritate the
stomach or increasing the potential of paracetamol to
damage the liver. Also, chronic and/or heavy episodic
drinking activates the liver enzymes that are involved
in breaking down prescription medicines, which can
lead to these medicines being metabolised faster than
usual and being less effective.[7]
Prescription drugs that interact with alcohol

include benzodiazepines, opiates, paracetamol,
antidepressants, antibiotics, antihistamines,
anti-inflammatory drugs, hypoglycaemic agents,
warfarin, barbiturates and some heart medicines.
Anyone starting or using one of these medicines
should seek advice from their health professional
about how alcohol may interact with the drug and
whether reduction or temporary stopping of alcohol is
necessary. People who are driving a motor vehicle or
operating heavy machinery must take particular care
when starting a new medicine that has a potential
interaction with alcohol.[2,19]
Body Effects
Alcohol interacts with many

drugs, including prescribed
and over-the-counter medicines,
herbal medicines and
illegal drugs.
Effects of
alcohol on
other people
Introduction
Alcohol
and drug
interactions
24
25
Introduction
Young people up to the age of 25 years are at

a higher risk of harm from alcohol use than
older adults. This is because young adults
have the greatest risk of injury and accidents
related to alcohol use, an increased risk of
alcohol dependence and a lower tolerance
to alcohol than older adults.[19] Other
harms that affect young people more than
adults include unprotected and unwanted
sex, assault, arrests, and harmful effects on
social life, finances or work/study.[80,82]
Alcohol use often declines in older age but

older people may be at risk of developing
problem drinking alcohol abuse or
dependency often triggered by significant
life events such as loss of a loved one,
loneliness, retirement, insomnia, illness
or pain.
Older people are less tolerant to the effects
of alcohol.As a result of aging, alcohol is not
broken down by the body as efficiently.The
ratio of body water to fat tends to fall and
alcohol has a faster effect on the brain,
meaning it takes less alcohol to become
drunk and this increases the risk of falls
and injury.
Older people who drink alcohol and drive are

at much higher risk of traffic accidents than
those who do not drink. Alcohol interacts
with many common prescription medicines
and this may be a reason for many older
people to avoid or restrict their alcohol use.[83]
Drinking Advice
Women who drink alcohol are at increased

risk of developing breast cancer[9] and
drinking while pregnant increases the risk
of harm to the unborn baby.[35,57]
Children and young adults are more

vulnerable to negative impacts of alcohol
on memory and learning, as the brain is still
developing up until the 20s.[82]
Older People
Effects of Alcohol
probably have less of the enzyme needed

to break down alcohol in the liver.[37]
Patterns of alcohol use differ between men

and women in New Zealand, with men still
being overall more likely to drink compared
with women. Among drinkers, men are more
likely to drink daily or several times a week,
drink heavily on a single occasion and drink
heavily more often.[80] Men are at higher
risk of experiencing harm from their own
drinking and physical assault related to
alcohol [80,81] and experience more deaths
from alcohol-related causes.[82]
Young People
Impact of Alcohol
Women have higher blood alcohol levels

after drinking the same amount of alcohol
as men, so can get drunk faster and can
suffer the toxic and lethal effects of alcohol
poisoning at a lower dose. This is because
women on average:
are smaller than men so have less fluid in
their bodies to distribute alcohol around
(having a higher fat to water ratio)
Men
Women
Body Effects
Effects of alcohol
on population
groups
26
27
Reduce your risk of injury on a single occasion

of drinking by drinking no more than:
4 standard drinks for women on any single occasion
5 standard drinks for men on any single occasion.
Low risk alcohol

drinking advice
The following graphic visually explains

low-risk drinking advice for adults
For adults
Reduce your long-term health risks
STANDARD DRINKS
Daily
and no more
than 10 a week
and no more
than 15 a week
And
at least 2 alcohol-free days per week
There is no known safe level of alcohol

use at any stage of pregnancy.
Pregnant women
No more than...
No alcohol
4 5
STANDARD DRINKS
STANDARD DRINKS
On any single occasion

There is no
known safe level
of alcohol use at
any stage of
pregnancy
What is a standard drink?

Standard drinks measure
the amount of pure alcohol
330ml CAN
OF BEER @
4% ALC
440ml CAN
OF BEER @
4.2% ALC
330ml BOTTLE
OF BEER @
5% ALC
330ml BOTTLE
OF LITE BEER @
2.5% ALC
1.5
1.3
0.7
Advice for pregnant women or those

planning to get pregnant
no alcohol.
Reduce your risk of injury
STANDARD DRINKS
A standard drink contains 10 grams of pure alcohol.
How many SDs

in different drinks?
*rtd (ready to drink)
It is important to note that drink serving sizes are

often more than one standard drink. The label on
an alcoholic drink container provides the number
of standard drinks in the container.
To work out the number of standard drinks in what
you are drinking use this formula:
Amount of drink in litres (Vol) x Percent by volume
of alcohol (%) x Density of ethanol at room
temperature (0.789)
750ml BOTTLE
OF BEER @
4% ALC
600ml pint
of beer @
4.5% ALC
100ml GLASS
OF TABLE WINE
@ 12.5% ALC
2.4
2.1
For example:
500ml of beer which is 5 percent alcohol by volume:
0.5 x 5 x 0.789 = 1.97 (approx 2 standard drinks)
standard
drinks
2 3
STANDARD DRINKS
What is a standard drink?
Drinking Advice
No more than...
If 15 to 17 year olds do drink alcohol, they should

be supervised, drink infrequently and drink at
levels usually below and never exceeding the
adult daily limits.
Effects of Alcohol
Low risk is not, however, no risk. Even when drinking

within the low-risk limits, a range of factors can affect
your level of risk, including drinking too quickly, your
body type or genetic makeup, your gender, existing
health problems, and your age.
For young people aged 15 to 17 years, the safest

option is to delay drinking for as long as possible.
Impact of Alcohol
AND at least two alcohol-free days every week.
Those under 15 years of age are at the greatest risk

of harm from drinking alcohol and not drinking in
this age group is especially important.
3 standard drinks a day for men

and no more than 15 standard drinks a week.
For children and young people under 18 years,

not drinking alcohol is the safest option.
Body Effects
Reduce your long-term health risks by drinking

no more than:
2 standard drinks a day for women
and no more than 10 standard drinks a week
The Alcohol Advisory Council

of New Zealands (ALAC) alcohol
drinking advice is designed to
help people make an informed
choice and help keep their risk
of alcohol-related accidents,
injuries, diseases and death low.
Introduction
Low-risk
alcohol
drinking advice
Advice for parents

of children and young people
under 18 years
28
Its advisable not to drink if you:

are pregnant or planning to get pregnant
are on medication that interacts with alcohol
feel unwell, depressed, tired or cold, as alcohol

could make things worse
If youare not sure or are concerned,

check with your doctor.
Tips for low-risk drinking
These include:
Know what a standard drink is
Set limits for yourself and stick to them
Start with non-alcoholic drinks and
alternate with alcoholic drinks
Drink slowly
Eat before or while you are drinking
Never drink and drive
Be a responsible host
Talk to your kids about alcohol.
ALACs alcohol drinking advice was revised in 2011.

The revised advice is based on the most current and
best available scientific research and evidence using
the primary resource material, including:
considerably more evidence has emerged

since 1994, particularly for the effect of alcohol
on the developing brain of adolescents
ALAC has a legislated responsibility to provide
up-to-date scientific evidence on the risks
of drinking alcohol
a corresponding change to guidelines has
been made in comparable jurisdictions such
as Australia and Canada.
and resources
n
o
ti
a
rm
fo
in
For further
line version
n
o
n
a
g
in
d
lu
inc
about alcohol,
alac.org.nz
it
is
v
,
e
rc
u
o
s
of this re
Background to
drinking advice
ALACs previous upper limits for responsible drinking

were developed in 1994 by a group consisting of
alcohol producers, health promoters and problem
intervention and treatment workers that sought
a consensus approach. The upper limits, which are
frequently referred to as ALAC guidelines, were
reviewed and replaced by revised drinking
advice because:
0800 787 797
The Alcohol Drug He

lpline
provides free and co
nfidential
information and selfhelp
material, advice and
referrals to
local drug and alcoho
l services.
Drinking Advice
Try drinks with a lower alcohol content
ALACs revised drinking advice about children and

young people under 18 years also draws on the UK
Department of Healths guidance document: Guidance
on the Consumption of Alcohol by Children and Young
People (published in December 2009).[85]
treatment
For support and
ol intake, talk
to reduce alcoh
r call the
to your doctor o
elpline:
Alcohol Drug H
Effects of Alcohol
Keep track of how much you drink daily and weekly
The 2009 Australian guidelines have the same limits

for both men and women.[19] ALACs drinking advice,
like the Canadian guidelines,[84] has different limits
for men and women. These gender differences reflect
the impact of alcohol on women, due to factors such
as body size and composition, ability to metabolise
alcohol, and the higher risk of developing a range of
health conditions.
Impact of Alcohol
It is possible to drink at a level that is less risky, while

still having fun. There are a number of things you can
do to make sure you stay within low risk levels and
dont get to a stage where you are no longer capable
of controlling your drinking.
Both these guidelines were developed by a committee

of experts, informed by research literature reviews and
studies conducted by Dr Jurgen Rehm and colleagues
[9,12,16], peer reviewed by international experts and
informed by consultation.
Where to
find support
and further
information
are about to operate machinery or a vehicle

or do anything that is risky or requires skill.
Alcohol and Health in Canada: A Summary of

Evidence and Guidelines for Low-risk Drinking
(completed in November 2010 and published
in November 2011) (http://www.ccsa.ca/2011%20
CCSA%20Documents/2011-Summary-of-Evidenceand-Guidelines-for-Low-Risk%20Drinking-en.pdf).
[84]
Body Effects
have a condition that could be made worse

by drinking alcohol
Australian Guidelines to Reduce Health Risks from

Drinking Alcohol (published in February 2009)
(http://www.nhmrc.gov.au/your-health/alcoholguidelines)[19]
Introduction
When not to drink
29
30
31
Glossary
Alcohol dependency
Alcohol poisoning
A physical or psychological dependence on alcohol, where the body requires more

alcohol to achieve the desired effect (e.g. of altered mood): use of alcohol interferes
with a persons life (causing legal, work/study, relationship or social problems); a person
continues to use alcohol despite alcohol causing physical or mental problems; and, if
alcohol is not taken, withdrawal symptoms occur.
When a lot of alcohol has been drunk in a short time, blood levels of alcohol are high
and symptoms of extreme drunkenness are present, such that breathing has slowed,
the individual is only partially conscious or is unconscious, or some other complication is
present that presents a serious danger to health. Also known as Acute intoxication.
Fetal alcohol spectrum

disorder (FASD)
Disorder caused by alcohol passing from a pregnant woman to her unborn child and
resulting in a range of possible effects on the child including premature birth, restricted
growth, birth defects, brain damage, developmental delay and social, emotional,
behavioural and mental deficits.
Gastritis
Inflammation (irritation and swelling) of the lining of the stomach, leading to symptoms
of stomach pain, nausea, loss of appetite and indigestion.
Heartburn
Burning pain in the chest caused by acid from the stomach entering the food pipe. Also
known as reflux (gastro-oesophageal reflux).
Hypoglycaemia
Low blood sugar.
Korsakoffs syndrome,
psychosis or dementia
A chronic condition of memory loss where loss of old memories occurs and difficulties in
laying down new memories may be profound.
Mallory Weiss tear
A tear in the join between the stomach and the food pipe due to prolonged or violent
retching or vomiting.
Oesophagus
Food pipe, which takes food and fluid from the back of the mouth to the stomach.
Osteoporosis
Thinning of the bones which makes them more likely to break.
Alcoholic hepatitis
An acute injury to the liver from chronic heavy drinking which can present with
symptoms of feeling unwell, tiredness, jaundiced (yellow skin and whites of eyes),
swollen stomach and enlarged, tender liver.
Anaemia
Low haemoglobin, the component of blood that carries oxygen around the body, which
causes symptoms of tiredness and weakness.
Acute respiratory distress

syndrome (ARDS)
A life-threatening condition in which the lungs fill with fluid, which occurs as a rare
complication of pneumonia, trauma and severe infections.
Pancreatitis
Inflammation of the pancreas, an organ that helps in digestion, which can be an acute,
sudden or chronic, longstanding condition.
Blood alcohol concentration

(BAC)
Concentration of alcohol in the blood, used to determine level of drunkenness for legal
or medical purposes. The current limit for driving in New Zealand is 80 mg/dL.
Pneumonia
Inflammation of the lungs usually caused by infection with bacteria or a virus, which
causes shortness of breath, cough and fever.
Burden of disease
The impact of diseases, health problems, injuries, etc measured by economic cost,
mortality, morbidity, years of life lost to disability or ill health or other indicators.
Psychosis
A mental illness defined by changes in personality, a distorted sense of reality and

delusions.
Carcinogen
A substance that has been shown to cause cancer.
Respiratory depression
Cirrhosis
Disease of the liver where cells are permanently damaged and replaced by scar tissue, so
the liver can no longer function (to detoxify the body, make vital proteins, store vitamins
and sugars, and make chemicals necessary for digestion).
Slowing of the rate and/or depth of breathing to a point where breathing is insufficient
to supply oxygen around the body.
Sedative
A type of drug that calms, and reduces excitability and anxiety.
Congeners
Compounds added to alcohol that adds to the taste, smell or colour of the drink.
Standard drink
Coronary artery disease
A condition where the coronary arteries, which supply blood to the heart, become
narrowed or blocked because of the build-up of fatty deposits inside the walls of the
arteries (atherosclerosis). This leads to angina and heart attacks.
Delirium tremens
The most severe alcohol withdrawal syndrome, which by definition includes the
symptom of delirium (altered and confused state of mind) and usually also sweating,
tremors, anxiety and sometimes fits.
Different types of alcoholic drinks contain different concentrations of alcohol. The

standard drink measures the amount of pure alcohol in a drink so the amount of alcohol
across different volumes and concentrations of alcoholic drink can be compared. One
standard drink equals 10 grams (g) of pure alcohol. For example, a 330ml can of 4 percent
alcohol beer, 30ml of straight spirits and 100ml glass of table wine are all approximately
10g of alcohol and one standard drink.
Stroke
Dilated cardiomyopathy
Chronic disease of the heart muscle that leads to heart failure, where the heart can no
longer pump blood around the body effectively.
Sudden damage to brain cells due to the interruption of the blood supply to
the brain, causing loss of function, such as paralysis or loss of speech. Also known
as cerebrovascular accident (CVA).
Teratogen
Diuretic
An agent that causes fluid to be lost from the body through the kidneys.
A substance that can damage the fetus while it is developing inside a pregnant woman.
Alcohol is a teratogen or is teratogenic.
Fatty liver
Disorder of the liver where fat builds up in the liver cells, which is reversible and usually
causes no symptoms but may progress to other forms of alcoholic liver disease.
Wernickes encephalopathy
An acute, severe, life-threatening disorder that usually presents with symptoms

of abnormal or paralysed eye movements, difficulty walking and confusion caused
by thiamine deficiency (secondary to chronic heavy alcohol use).
32
33
References
1.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

(2010). Alcohol and public health:
Frequently asked questions. 2010. From
http://www.cdc.gov/alcohol/faqs.htm.
11. Connor, J., Broad, J., Jackson, R., Vander Hoorn, S.,
& Rehm, J. (2005). The burden of death, disease
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Alcohol

21 Mental health conditions

Body effects of alcohol

22 Alcohol and drug interactions

Overall body effects

23 The unborn child

Blood and immune system

23 Children and families

Bones and muscles

Brain and nervous system

24 Effects of alcohol on population groups

10 Heart and blood pressure

Kidneys and fluid balance

27 Advice for parents of children and

27 What is a standard drink?

28 When not to drink

12 Mouth and throat

28 Tips for low-risk drinking

13 Pancreas and digestion of sugar

13 Sexual health men

Alcohol Advisory Council of New Zealand

18 Health conditions related to chronic alcohol use

28 Background to drinking advice

Table 1: Symptoms of drunkenness at different

16 Table 2: Potential symptoms and complications

Alcohol (ethanol or ethyl alcohol) is the ingredient

Health Effects & Conditions

This resource provides a brief

Some impairment in motor coordination and thinking ability

Altered mood (increased well-being or unhappiness)

Breathing slowed, shallow or stopped

the concentration of alcohol in the beverage

Support & Information

The liver can break down only a certain amount

Most (90 percent) of the metabolism, or breaking

After a drink is swallowed, the alcohol is rapidly

the presence or absence of food in the stomach

As well as its acute and potentially lethal sedative

the ability of the liver to metabolise alcohol (which

Table 1: Symptoms of drunkenness at different levels of blood alcohol concentration (BAC)

Health Effects & Conditions

At lower doses, alcohol can act as a stimulant,[3]

The BAC rises, and the feeling of drunkenness occurs,

Alcohol is classed as a sedative

Overall body effects

Summary of main effects

blood and immune system

Being drunk can

Alcohol use can have direct and

Being drunk can cause

bones and muscles

Alcohol has an effect on

heart and blood pressure

Being drunk and chronic

Alcohol use at low levels may

Long-term alcohol use

Alcohol use, particularly

Too much alcohol can have

Alcohol use can affect

Blood and immune system

Bones and muscles

Long-term effects of alcohol use

Brain and nervous system