NES 738 Metals and Corrosion Guide Category 3

Ministry of Defence
Defence Standard 02-738 (NES 738)

Issue 1 Publication Date 01 April 2000
Metals And Corrosion Guide
Incorporating NES 738 Category 3

Issue 2 Publication Date August 1992
AMENDMENT RECORD
Amd No
Date
Text Affected
REVISION NOTE
This standard is raised to Issue 1 to update its content.
HISTORICAL RECORD
This standard supersedes the following:
Naval Engineering Standard (NES) 738 Issue 2 dated August 1992.
Signature and Date
Ministry of Defence
Naval Engineering Standard
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
August 1992
METALS AND CORROSION GUIDE
This NES Supersedes

NES 738 ISSUE 1
Record of Amendments
AMDT
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
INSERTED BY
DATE
NAVAL ENGINEERING STANDARD 738

ISSUE 2 (REFORMATTED)
METALS AND CORROSION GUIDE
The issue and use of this Standard

is authorized for use in MOD contracts
by MOD(PE) Sea Systems and
the Naval Support Command
ECROWN COPYRIGHT
Published by:
Director of Naval Architecture
Procurement Executive, Ministry of Defence
Sea Systems, Foxhill, Bath BA1 5AB
i
ii
NES 738
SCOPE
1.
This NES is a guide to the use of preferred metallic materials for use in selected applications
in Surface Ships and Submarines. General information is given on the properties and selection
of metals, metal processing and finishing, testing, failure modes, and corrosion.
2.
It does not give detailed properties of any metal or alloy for which reference must be made to
the relevant material specification or data sheet.
3.
It is not an authority for departure from the material specified on drawings, etc, for which
established concession procedures are to be followed.
iii
NES 738
iv
NES 738
FOREWORD
Sponsorship
1.
This Naval Engineering Standard (NES) is sponsored by the Procurement Executive, Ministry
of Defence, Director Naval Architecture (Submarines) (DNA(SM)), Section NA 115.
2.
It is to be applied as required by any Ministry of Defence contract to provide general

information on the use of preferred metallic materials for use in selected applications in
Surface Ships and Submarines and on the corrosion and marine fouling to which they are
subjected. It is applicable to Ships Systems and Equipment and Weapon Systems and
Equipment.
3.
If it is found to be technically unsuitable for any particular requirement the Sponsor is to be

informed in writing of the circumstances with a copy to Director Naval Architecture (Surface
Ships) (DNA(SS)), Section NA 145 for Ship Systems and Equipment.
4.
Any user of this NES either within MOD or in industry may propose an amendment to it.
Proposals for amendments which are:
a.
not directly applicable to a particular contract are to be made to the Sponsor of the NES;
b.
directly applicable to a particular contract are to be dealt with using existing procedures
or as specified in the contract.
5.
No alteration may be made to this NES except by the issue of an authorized amendment.
6.
Unless otherwise stated, reference in this NES to approval, approved, authorized or similar
terms means by the Ministry of Defence in writing.
7.
Any significant amendments that may be made to this NES at a later date will be indicated
by a vertical sideline. Deletions will be indicated by 000 appearing at the end of the line
intervals.
8.
This NES has been reissued to reflect changes in nomenclature, departmental reorganization
and technical changes.
Conditions of Release
General
9.
This Naval Engineering Standard (NES) has been prepared for the use of the Crown and of
its contractors in the execution of contracts for the Crown. The Crown hereby excludes all
liability (other than liability for death or personal injury) whatsoever and howsoever arising
(including but without limitation, negligence on the part of the Crown, its servants or agents)
for any loss or damage however caused where the NES is used for any other purpose.
10.
This document is Crown Copyright and the information herein may be subject to Crown or
third party rights. It is not to be released, reproduced or published without written permission
of the MOD.
11.
The Crown reserves the right to amend or modify the contents of this NES without consulting
or informing any holder.
v
NES 738
MOD Tender or Contract Process

12.
This NES is the property of the Crown and unless otherwise authorized in writing by the MOD
must be returned on completion of the contract, or submission of the tender, in connection
with which it is issued.
13.
When this NES is used in connection with a MOD tender or contract, the user is to ensure that
he is in possession of the appropriate version of each document, including related documents,
relevant to each particular tender or contract. Enquiries in this connection may be made of
the local MOD(PE) Quality Assurance Representative or the Authority named in the tender
or contract.
14.
When NES are incorporated into MOD contracts, users are responsible for their correct
application and for complying with contracts and any other statutory requirements.
Compliance with an NES does not of itself confer immunity from legal obligations.
Related Documents
15.
In the tender and procurement processes the related documents listed in each section and
Annex A can be obtained as follows:
a.
British Standards
British Standards Institution,

389 Chiswick High Road,
London W4 4AL
b.
Defence Standards
Directorate of Standardization and Safety Policy,

Stan 1, Kentigern House, 65 Brown Street,
Glasgow G2 8EX
c.
Naval Engineering Standards
CSE3a, CSE Llangennech, Llanelli,

Dyfed SA14 8YP
d.
Other documents
Tender or Contract Sponsor to advise.
Note: Tender or Contract Sponsor can advise in cases of difficulty.

16.
All applications to Ministry Establishments for related documents are to quote the relevant
MOD Invitation to Tender or Contract Number and date, together with the sponsoring
Directorate and the Tender or Contract Sponsor.
17.
Prime Contractors are responsible for supplying their subcontractors with relevant
documentation, including specifications, standards and drawings.
Health and Safety

Warning
18.
This NES may call for the use of processes, substances and/or procedures that may be injurious
to health if adequate precautions are not taken. It refers only to technical suitability and in
no way absolves either the supplier or the user from statutory obligations relating to health
and safety at any stage of manufacture or use. Where attention is drawn to hazards, those
quoted may not necessarily be exhaustive.
vi
NES 738
CONTENTS
Page No
TITLE PAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SCOPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
iii
FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sponsorship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conditions of Release . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
MOD Tender or Contract Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Related Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Health and Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Warning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
v
v
v
v
vi
vi
vi
vi
CONTENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
vii
SECTION
1.
METALLIC MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1
SECTION
2.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1
SECTION
3.
PROPERTIES AND SELECTION OF METALLIC

MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Physical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mechanical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tensile and Shear Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FIGURE 3.1 TYPICAL STRESS-STRAIN
CURVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hardness and Abrasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Notch Toughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Creep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stress Relaxation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FIGURE 3.2 STRESS RELAXATION BEHAVIOUR
FOR TWO BOLTING MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Corrosion Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chemical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stress and Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Selection of Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FIGURE 3.3 SOME FACTORS IN THE
SELECTION OF A METAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Toxicity of Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
3.11
3.12
3.13
SECTION
4.
4.1
4.2
4.3
MODES OF FAILURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Plastic Collapse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Brittle Fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FIGURE 4.1 FRACTURE APPEARANCE IN THE
CHARPY TEST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fatigue and Corrosion Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FIGURE 4.2 TYPICAL SN CURVE FOR
UNWELDED STEEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
vii
3.1
3.1
3.1
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.3
3.4
3.4
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.6
3.6
3.6
3.7
3.8
4.1
4.1
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
NES 738
4.4
4.5
4.6
FIGURE 4.3 TYPICAL SN CURVE FOR MANY

NON-FERROUS ALLOYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stress Corrosion and Stress Corrosion Cracking . .
Low Energy Ductile Tearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4
4.5
4.5
4.5
SECTION
5.
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
METAL FORMS AND PROCESSES . . . . . . . . . . .

Cast Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Advantages and Disadvantages of Castings . . . . . . .
Wrought Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Working Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Extrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Powder Metallurgy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Clad Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1
5.1
5.2
5.2
5.2
5.3
5.3
5.4
SECTION
6.
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
SHAPING OF METALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cold Forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hot Forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Shaping Weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Spinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Machining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.2
SECTION
7.
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
7.10
7.11
HEAT TREATMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Annealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Normalizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Quenching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Interrupted Quenching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tempering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Flame Hardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Induction Hardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stress Relief . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Non-Ferrous Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Solution Treatment and Precipitation Hardening . .
7.1
7.1
7.1
7.1
7.1
7.1
7.2
7.2
7.2
7.2
7.2
7.2
SECTION
8.
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9
8.10
8.11
8.12
8.13
SURFACE TREATMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Surface Hardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Carburizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pack Carburizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Liquid Carburizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Gas Carburizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Steels for Carburizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nitriding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ion-Nitriding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Steels for Nitriding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Carbon-nitriding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nitriding v Carburizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Patented Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Surface Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1
8.1
8.1
8.1
8.1
8.1
8.1
8.2
8.2
8.2
8.2
8.2
8.2
8.2
viii
NES 738
SECTION
8.14
8.15
8.16
8.17
8.18
8.19
8.20
8.21
8.22
Hot Dipped Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Electroplated Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Electroless Plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sherardizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Calorizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ion-Plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Phosphating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Anodizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Metal Spraying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3
8.3
8.4
8.4
8.4
8.4
8.4
8.4
8.5
9.
9.1
9.2
TESTING AND QUALITY ASSURANCE . . . . . . .

Strength and Ductility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FIGURE 9.1 CHARPY V-NOTCH TRANSITION
CURVES FOR DIFFERENT STEELS . . . . . . . . . .
Notch Toughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Production Testing of Notch Toughness . . . . . . . . . .
Laboratory Testing of Notch Toughness . . . . . . . . . .
Drop Weight Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bulge Explosion Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FIGURE 9.2 DROP WEIGHT TEST . . . . . . . . . . . .
FIGURE 9.3 BULGE EXPLOSION TEST . . . . . . .
Crack Arrest Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Isothermal Crack Arrest Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wide Plate Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dynamic Tear Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FIGURE 9.4 CRACK ARREST TEST AND
TRANSITION CURVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FIGURE 9.5 WIDE PLATE TEST . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FIGURE 9.6 DYNAMIC TEAR TEST . . . . . . . . . . .
Fracture Mechanics Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FIGURE 9.7 FRACTURE MECHANICS
SPECIMENS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FIGURE 9.8 FIELD OF USE OF KIc AND COD .
Material Cleanness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Creep and Stress Rupture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fatigue Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Corrosion Fatigue and Stress Corrosion Cracking .
Welding and Brazing Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Non-Destructive Examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ultrasonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Eddy Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Radiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Magnetic Particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dye Penetrant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Quality Assurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.1
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
9.8
9.9
9.10
9.11
9.12
9.13
9.14
9.15
9.16
9.17
9.18
9.19
9.20
9.21
9.22
9.23
9.24
ix
9.2
9.3
9.3
9.3
9.4
9.4
9.4
9.5
9.5
9.5
9.5
9.6
9.6
9.7
9.7
9.7
9.9
9.10
9.10
9.11
9.11
9.12
9.12
9.12
9.12
9.12
9.12
9.12
9.13
9.13
NES 738
SECTION
SECTION
10.
10.1
10.2
10.3
11.
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
11.6
11.7
11.8
11.9
CARBON AND LOW ALLOY STEELS . . . . . . . . .

Limitations of Plain Carbon Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Low Alloy Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Steels for Naval Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TABLE 10.1 STEEL PLATES AND SECTIONS FOR
NAVAL USE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TABLE 10.2 STEEL TUBES AND BARS FOR
NAVAL USE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TABLE 10.3 STEEL FORGINGS FOR NAVAL
USE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TABLE 10.4 STEEL CASTING FOR NAVAL
USE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.1
10.1
10.2
10.2
STAINLESS STEEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Austenitic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ferritic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Martensitic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TABLE 11.1 TYPICAL PROPERTIES OF TYPE 410
MARTENSITIC STAINLESS STEEL AFTER
VARYING HEAT TREATMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Duplex (Austenitic-Ferritic) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Precipitation Hardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Corrosion Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stress Corrosion Cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Carbide Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stainless Steels for Naval Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TABLE 11.2 WROUGHT STAINLESS STEELS
FOR NAVAL USE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TABLE 11.3 CAST STAINLESS STEELS FOR
NAVAL USE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.1
11.1
11.1
11.1
SECTION
12.
CAST IRONS (GREY FLAKE AND DUCTILE

IRONS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TABLE 12.1 CAST IRONS FOR NAVAL USE . . .
SECTION
13.
COPPER AND COPPER ALLOYS . . . . . . . . . . . . .

TABLE 13.1 CAST COPPER-BASED ALLOYS
FOR NAVAL USE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TABLE 13.2 GUIDE TO THE USE OF CAST
COPPER-BASED ALLOYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TABLE 13.3 KEY TO PROPERTIES AND USES OF
COPPER BASED ALLOYS LISTED IN TABLE 13.2
AND TABLE 13.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TABLE 13.4 WROUGHT COPPER-BASED ALLOY
FOR NAVAL USE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TABLE 13.5 GUIDE TO THE USE OF WROUGHT
COPPER-BASED ALLOYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SECTION
14.
14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4
NICKEL AND NICKEL ALLOYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

NA 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
NA 18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
NA 21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Corrosion Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TABLE 14.1 WROUGHT NICKEL-BASED
ALLOYS FOR NAVAL USE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
x
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
11.2
11.2
11.2
11.2
11.3
11.3
11.3
11.4
11.5
12.1
12.2
13.1
13.3
13.5
13.6
13.7
13.10
14.1
14.1
14.1
14.1
14.1
14.2
NES 738
SECTION
15.
ALUMINIUM AND ALUMINIUM ALLOYS . . . . .

15.1
TABLE 15.1 WROUGHT AND CAST ALUMINIUM
ALLOYS FOR NAVAL USE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.2
SECTION
16.
TITANIUM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.1
SECTION
17.
DAMPING ALLOYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.1
SECTION
18.
BEARING ALLOYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TABLE 18.1 PLAIN BEARING ALLOYS FOR
NAVAL USE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.1
18.2
SECTION
19.
19.1
19.2
MISCELLANEOUS ALLOYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Shape Memory Effect (SME) Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lead and Zinc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TABLE 19.1 NAVAL USES OF LEAD AND ZINC
19.1
19.1
19.1
19.1
SECTION
20.
20.1
20.2
CORROSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mechanisms of Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bimetallic Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TABLE 20.1 POTENTIALS IN SEA WATER
AGAINST A SILVER/SILVER CHLORIDE
ELECTRODE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Formation of Surface Films . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Protective Films . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Selective Phase Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Crevice Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Impingement Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cavitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hot Spot Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Exfoliation of Aluminium Alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Harbour and Estuarine Waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.1
20.1
20.1
21.
21.1
21.2
21.3
CATHODIC PROTECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sacrificial Anode System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Impressed Current Cathodic Protection (ICCP)
Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.1
21.1
21.1
SECTION
22.
22.1
22.2
22.3
MARINE FOULING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Outer Bottom Fouling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fouling of Sea Water Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fouling by Bacteria and Fungi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.1
22.1
22.1
22.1
SECTION
23.
ANTIFOULING METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.1
SECTION
24.
HOT GAS CORROSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24.1
SECTION
25.
FRETTING CORROSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25.1
SECTION
26.
LUBRICATING OILS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.1
ANNEX
A.
RELATED DOCUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.1
ANNEX
B.
DEFINITIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS . . . . . . . .
B.1
20.3
20.4
20.5
20.6
20.7
20.8
20.9
20.10
20.11
20.12
SECTION
ALPHABETICAL INDEX
xi
20.2
20.3
20.3
20.4
20.4
20.4
20.5
20.5
20.5
20.6
20.6
21.1
NES 738
xii
NES 738
1.
METALLIC MATERIALS
a.
The wide range of metals and alloys used in Surface Ships and Submarines is
listed in Sections 10. to 19. of this NES. In generic terms they cover carbon and
low alloy steels, stainless steels, cast irons, copper and copper alloys, nickel and
nickel alloys, aluminium and aluminium alloys, titanium and titanium alloys,
plus various other metals for specific use.
1.1
NES 738
1.2
NES 738
2.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS
a.
Metallic materials must be selected with the right properties in addition to

strength so that components and structures operate effectively in their
particular environment without failure. The environments include sea water,
salt laden atmosphere, steam, oil, exhaust gases, refrigerants, sewage, etc. Some
materials must operate under cryogenic conditions and others must withstand
very high temperature. Other induced conditions that may have to be tolerated
are noise, shock, vibration, electromagnetic pulse (EMP) and transient
radiation effects on electronics (TREE).
2.1
NES 738
2.2
NES 738
3.
PROPERTIES AND SELECTION OF METALLIC MATERIALS

a.
3.1
Physical properties .
(2)
Mechanical properties.
(3)
Chemical properties.
These properties are intrinsic to the material and those of principal engineering
interest are:
(1)
Density.
(2)
Specific heat.
(3)
Thermal expansion.
(4)
Melting point.
(5)
Thermal conductivity.
(6)
Electrical conductivity and resistivity.
(7)
Magnetic permeabilityis a measure of the ease with which a magnetic

field will pass through a substance. Ferromagnetic materials have a high
permeability and paramagnetic materials a low permeability.
(8)
Dampingcertain metals and alloys have a damping capacity which can

lead to a reduction in vibration and noise. They achieve this capacity by
their ability to dissipate elastic strain energy as heat, see Section 17.
Mechanical Properties
a.
3.3
(1)
Physical Properties
a.
3.2
The properties of metallic materials may be divided into:
The way metals respond to externally applied force is controlled by their

mechanical properties. The properties can be divided into tensile and shear
properties, hardness and abrasion resistance, notch ductility, creep properties
and fatigue properties.
Tensile and Shear Properties

a.
Tensile and shear properties are used in determining the safe loading to be
placed on a component or structure. The properties associated with tensile and
shear loading revolve around the elastic constants E and N, and the relationship
between stress and strain. Most metals are utilized under elastic conditions,
which means that when the metal is deformed the deformation is not
permanent and it returns to its original shape upon removal of the load. To take
account of local overloading it is also necessary to have a measure of the metals
ductility. Initially, ductility is determined from percentage elongation and
reduction of area in the tensile test, but a further property of notch ductility is
considered later. The tensile and shear properties concerned are:
(1)
Limit of proportionality (N/mm 2)that part of the stress/strain curve

where strain is proportional to stress and is represented by a straight line.
The limit of proportionality is the upper point of the straight line. See
FIGURE 3.1.
3.1
NES 738
FIGURE 3.1 TYPICAL STRESS-STRAIN CURVES
3.2
NES 738
(2)
Elastic Limit (N/mm 2)closely related to the limit of proportionality and

is the maximum stress to which a material can be subjected without
causing permanent strain. It is not necessarily coincident with (a). A
material can show a slight extension on the stress/strain curve and still
return to its original length on unloading. See FIGURE 3.1.
(3)
Yield stress (N/mm 2)the stress marking the onset of plastic

deformation.
(4)
Proof Stress (N/mm 2)usually defined as 0.1% or 0.2% proof stress and
is the stress required to produce a permanent elongation of 0.1% or 0.2X
of the original gauge length in the tensile test.
(5)
Ultimate Tensile Strength (N/mm 2)the stress corresponding to

maximum load prior to failure in the tensile test.
(6)
Elongation (%)measured in the tensile test and expressed as a

percentage of the original gauge length after fracture.
(7)
Reduction of Area (%)expressed as a percentage of the original

cross-sectional area in the tensile test and indicates the extent of necking
of the specimen prior to failure.
(8)
Shear Strength (N/mm 2)the stress corresponding to maximum load in

shear prior to failure.
(9)
Elastic Modulus (Youngs Modulus)the modulus of elasticity for pure

tension, denoted by the letter E, and is the ratio of tensile stress to tensile
strain within the limit of proportionality.
(10) Shear Modulussometimes known as the Modulus of Rigidity and

denoted by the letter N, expresses the ratio of shear stress to shear strain
under elastic conditions.
(11) Poissons Ratioas a specimen elongates in the elastic region its
cross-sectional area decreases, the relationship of the transverse strain to
the tensile strain is known as Poissons Ratio.
b.
3.4
3.5
Unless otherwise stated, the tests to determine the above properties are carried
out at room temperature or at a nominal 20 C. Tensile strength generally
decreases as temperature increases.
Hardness and Abrasion

a.
Hardness is specifically a measure of resistance to penetration.
b.
High hardness may be required to resist wear or abrasion. In some

circumstances therefore, hardness is a desirable property and in others
undesirable since it can represent a loss of ductility. An example of this conflict
is white cast iron which is not employed for structural parts because of its
excessive brittleness, but it is used for resisting wear by abrasion.
c.
Hardness can indicate the yield strength of a material. It is not representative

of ductility although generally the higher the hardness the lower the ductility.
Hardness can, therefore, be an approximate guide to the condition of a metal
after heat treatment or after hot or cold working. (See Clause 9.2a.)
Notch Toughness
a.
Notch toughness is a measure of the resistance of a metal to brittle fracture. (See

Clause 4.2a.)
3.3
NES 738
3.6
3.7
b.
Brittle fractures frequently originate at a notch. In a normal tensile test a metal

may exhibit a high level of ductility, but in the presence of a notch, failure may
occur well within the normal working level of stress. The notch may take the
form of an abrupt discontinuity in the structure, or may be a flaw such as a crack
in a weld or an inclusion in a casting. In the presence of such a notch a metal
with inadequate notch toughness can fail prematurely.
c.
Risk of failure in way of a notch is increased with an increase in the rate of

loading, eg shock loading.
d.
Notch toughness is a property which is also highly temperature-dependent.

Many metals and particularly steel exhibit a transition behaviour. The
transition behaviour is a function of metals with a body centred cubic (bcc)
crystal structure. Austenitic steels which have face centred cubic (fcc) crystal
structure do not show this characteristic. As the temperature is lowered there
is a sudden fall off in notch toughness. The temperatures over which this
transition occurs vary for different metals and this is an important factor in
choosing metals to operate at low temperatures. Testing for adequate notch
toughness is described in Section 9. of this NES.
Creep
a.
Creep is a time-dependent property of a metal which is of particular significance

for those metals stressed at elevated temperatures eg, in steam systems. At
constant stress, deformation takes place slowly over a period of time, ie, creep
occurs. Ultimately failure may result or the deformation may reach
unacceptable limits. In some metals creep occurs at room temperature.
b.
Creep occurs in three stages. The primary stage is when upon application of the
load extension occurs as a result of elastic strain and some plastic strain; the rate
of creep then gradually decreases. The secondary stage follows: creep rate is at
a minimum and extension occurs at a uniform rate. The tertiary stage then
takes place when the creep rate increases markedly leading to eventual rupture.
Most components spend their life in the second stage of creep.
Stress Relaxation
a.
Stress relaxation is the property of some materials whereby a slow decrease in

stress occurs at constant strain. This can be important for applications such as
fasteners and rolled tubes in tubeplates. Typical stress relaxation curves for two
steels are shown in FIGURE 3.2.
3.4
NES 738
FIGURE 3.2 STRESS RELAXATION BEHAVIOUR FOR TWO BOLTING MATERIALS
3.8
Fatigue
a.
3.9
Most failures of engineering components that are subjected to alternating

stresses can be traced to fatigue. Fracture occurs at working stresses very much
lower than the ultimate strength of the metal. Few engineering areas escape:
fatigue failures have occured in ships, bridges, aircraft and machinery. The
process begins with the formation of a small crack usually at a point of stress
concentration. Under further repeated loading the crack slowly spreads in a
direction normal to the direction of principal tensile stress until fracture occurs.
The final fracture may be ductile tearing or brittle fracture. Failure occurs more
rapidly where stresses fluctuate between compression and tension than where
the fluctuating stress is all tensile. When a design is subject to varying loads it
is necessary therefore to know the fatigue properties of the metal in question.
Corrosion Fatigue
a.
Fatigue life is shortened still further if the component is working in a corrosive

environment. See Clause 3.11a.
3.5
NES 738
3.10
3.11
Chemical Properties
a.
The chemical properties of a metallic material which are of prime concern to

ship design are its corrosion characteristics. Corrosion occurs by a number of
different mechanisms. It can occur by direct chemical action when the metal
enters into a chemical reaction with other elements such as oxygen, chlorine or
sulphur; or it can occur by probably the most common mechanism of corrosion,
namely, electrochemical or galvanic action. Corrosion is dealt with in more
detail in Section 20. of this NES.
b.
Metals vary considerably in their resistance to corrosion and it is necessary to

carry out tests under simulated service conditions before selecting previously
untried materials.
Stress and Corrosion

a.
3.12
The combined effects of stress and corrosion manifest themselves in the

phenomena of stress corrosion cracking and corrosion fatigue. In each case the
combined effect is to shorten life. Metallic materials vary in their resistance to
stress corrosion cracking and corrosion fatigue. Testing is necessary under
simulated service conditions.
Selection of Metals
a.
A metallic material is completely defined by its physical, mechanical and

chemical properties. The first stage in selecting a metal or an alloy for a
particular purpose is to examine these properties in relation to fitness for
service. The requirements for service must therefore be defined. Strength in
relation to weight is frequently examined first. Other factors may or may not
be so well defined, such as a level of notch toughness required. This in turn is
related to operating temperatures and whether the loading is static or by shock.
Some of the factors involved are illustrated in FIGURE 3.3.
3.6
NES 738
FIGURE 3.3 SOME FACTORS IN THE SELECTION OF A METAL
3.7
NES 738
3.13
b.
Service requirements will determine the materials to be used. Further factors

have now to be considered. What do we need to do with the material: has it to
be machined, cold or hot worked, cast, welded, or brazed? The ease or otherwise
of fabrication may further reduce the field of choice. Cost could be a governing
factor, not only the first cost of metal but also the subsequent cost of fabrication.
c.
Experience of use of the metal must also be sought. Risk increases where
experience is scant.
d.
Finally the availability of the metal in the form, shapes and sizes that are
required has to be investigated. As much as possible is to be found out about the
manufacturing route of the metal and the other uses being made of it.
Toxicity of Metals
a.
Many metals and their oxides are toxic if inhaled in a finely divided form. The
hazard may be a metal powder or as a metal fume from a working process such
as brazing, welding or metal spraying. Of particular risk are beryllium and
tellurium followed by cadmium, lead, zinc, chromium etc. Guidance on the use
of hazardous metals is issued by the Health and Safety Executive.
3.8
NES 738
4.
MODES OF FAILURE
a.
4.1
(1)
Plastic collapse.
(2)
Brittle fracture.
(3)
Fatigue and corrosion fatigue.
(4)
Corrosion.
(5)
Stress corrosion and stress corrosion cracking.
(6)
Low energy ductile tearing.
Plastic Collapse
a.
4.2
Over the years much data has been collected on engineering failures and this
has gradually led to a better understanding of metals and their properties. Most
failures can be ascribed to one or more of the following mechanisms.
Failure by plastic collapse can occur as a result of overloading or manufacturing

errors or from inadequate or inaccurate data on which the design was based.
Brittle Fracture
a.
Brittle fracture is a rare event in a large monolithic steel structure but it can
result in total loss. Some of the more notable failures have been the Americanbuilt liberty ships in World War II, and the offshore drilling rig, Sea-Gem. Brittle
failure of minor items such as fasteners, chain cables, etc can have potentially
serious results.
b.
The characteristic of a typical brittle fracture is that it occurs without warning

and with little or no previous deformation and propagates at a very high speed.
The nominal stress may be well below the yield strength of the steel. The surface
appearance of the fracture is crystalline arising from the fracture of the majority
of crystals by cleavage. Some crystals separate by shear and a measure of the
brittleness of the fracture is the percentage of the fracture surface that is
crystalline. The edges of the fracture may have shear lips or the fracture may
be entirely flat indicating extreme brittleness. The occurrence of different
appearances of the fracture in the Charpy test, see Clause 9.4b., is illustrated
in FIGURE 4.1. Brittle fractures in plate bear characteristic chevron patterns
which invariably point to the origin of the fracture.
c.
The principal factors determining whether brittle fracture occurs are:
d.
(1)
Fracture toughness or notch toughness of the metal.
(2)
Stress concentration and notch effects.
(3)
Service temperature.
(4)
Rate of loading.
(5)
Size effect.
The effect of (1) to (4) above is described in Clauses 3.5a. to 3.5d. The size effect
relates both to the thickness of plates and sections and to the overall size of the
structure. Brittle behaviour is more likely to occur in heavy structures made
from thick plate and sections rather than in structures of lighter scantlings.
This is partly due to metallurgical effects such as segregation and the difficulty
of obtaining uniform cooling, and partly due to geometric and stress conditions.
4.1
NES 738
e.
Avoidance of brittle fracture depends upon design, material selection, and

control over fabrication and acceptance.
(1)
DesignAscertain, as accurately as possible, the service temperature and

the character of the loading, eg static, fluctuating, impact etc. Section size
increases the hazard, therefore keep thicknesses to a minimum. Avoid
designing-in stress concentrations, taking particular care of details. Pay
special attention to minor fittings attached to main strength members.
Arrange joints to ensure easy access for welding and inspection.
(2)
Material SelectionEnsure that the steel has adequate notch ductility

with a transition range well below the lowest operating temperature.
Check that the steel has been tested in accordance with Section 9. of this
NES.
(3)
FabricationThe origins of many brittle fractures have been traced to

welds: the quality of welding is therefore very important. The welds of
minor fittings are as important as the structure on which they are made.
The weld metal must have adequate strength and notch toughness and
must have been tested as vigorously as the base material. Inspection must
be equally of a high standard. A satisfactory quality assurance procedure
must be agreed to cover weld procedure, welder qualifications, inspection
and repair methods. Care must also be taken to ensure that cold working
or heat treatment does not significantly impair the notch toughness of the
structure; this in turn requires that the effects of these treatments on
notch toughness be known. Avoid all uncontrolled welding.
FIGURE 4.1 FRACTURE APPEARANCE IN THE CHARPY TEST
4.2
NES 738
4.3
Fatigue and Corrosion Fatigue

a.
One of the most common causes of failure in metals is by fatigue. Under

frequently repeated stresses metals fail by fracture well below their yield
strength. If the stresses are continually reversed failure occurs even earlier.
Failure by fatigue is instantly recognizable by the appearance of the fracture.
Two distinct zones are evident, a smooth area due to minute rubbing of the
surfaces together which may show striations or lines of arrest, and a rough or
crystalline area where final failure has occurred by ductile or brittle fracture.
b.
Fatigue fractures are usually initiated at stress concentrations which may result
from a design error such as an abrupt change of section or from a surface flaw,
such as a chisel mark or weld reinforcement. The mechanism of failure is that
a small crack forms at the stress concentration and slowly spreads with repeated
loading. The crack will extend in a direction normal to the direction of the main
tensile stress.
c.
Welding can introduce various stress concentrations from which fatigue

cracking can be initiated. These can be planar defects, such as lack of fusion or
penetration, or more likely surface discontinuities, such as the toe of welds or
weld ripples. The fatigue life of welded items comprises mainly the time spent
in propagating the fracture. For unwelded items a significant portion of life is
also spent in nucleating the fracture. Since the rate of crack propagation does
not vary much with the UTS of the material the fatigue life of welded items is
not increased by using stronger material.
d.
Tensile residual stresses occur in and around welds following contraction on

cooling and can affect fatigue life. The result of residual tensile stresses is to
alter the point in the stress range at which the applied stress acts. Applied
compressive stresses can effectively become tensile and fatigue failure of welded
items can occur under compressive loading. Stress relief can extend the life
under compressive loading but has little effect if the loading is tensile since the
rate of crack propagation does not significantly depend on mean stress.
e.
The method of testing to determine the fatigue life of metals is described in

Section 9. The number of cycles, N, before failure is plotted against the applied
stress, S, usually as log N and log S. A typical curve for steel is shown in
FIGURE 4.2. From it, it will be seen that the allowable stress falls with increase
in the number of cycles. The point where the curve becomes asymptotic to the
abscissa is known as the fatigue limit. FIGURE 4.3 shows a typical SN curve
for most nonferrous alloys; it is also representative of some steels under
corrosion fatigue conditions. Where there is no clear fatigue limit an endurance
limit is used instead, eg for aluminium alloys. This use of SN data for fatigue
design is now being replaced by crack propagation data whereby the increment
in crack length per cycle (da/dN) is plotted against a range of stress intensities
(K).
4.3
NES 738
FIGURE 4.2 TYPICAL SN CURVE FOR UNWELDED STEEL
FIGURE 4.3 TYPICAL SN CURVE FOR MANY NON-FERROUS ALLOYS

f.
Fatigue strength or endurance limit can be markedly lowered by a corrosive

environment. If the highly stressed root of a crack is in a corrosive medium then
the corrosion rate increases due to the stress, and the overall fracture rate also
increases.
g.
To avoid failure by fatigue or corrosion fatigue it is necessary to know the cyclic

pattern of stress and the environmental medium, and also to have appropriate
test data. In many cases accurate information is not available, nominal design
stresses have to be used and an estimate made of the number of cycles of stress.
In applying available test data to welded structures and components the data
used is not to be based on information derived from polished unwelded
specimens. Similarly, results of tests in air may seriously overestimate the life
of an item which operates in sea water. In the end it may be necessary to base
a judgement on the test results available and experience of metals in similar
circumstances in real life situations.
h.
Where there is clear evidence of a fatigue problem there are a number of

measures which can be taken to avoid premature failure. First and foremost is
4.4
NES 738
the avoidance or removal of stress raisers. Geometric discontinuities must be

designed out. Even a minor fitting can be a stress raiser if carelessly placed on
a strength member. Machining or fine grinding welds or other rough surfaces
can remove or reduce stress concentration, but such operations may be limited
or prohibited altogether by cost. Stress relief can assist under compressive
loading. Shot and hammer peening can introduce compressive residual stress
which will assist in tensile loading (peening of welds is, however, prohibited, see
NES 706). Where the stress range is low cathodic protection will increase the
fatigue strength compared with free corrosion. The effect is uncertain at high
stress ranges. Specialist advice must be sought before introducing any
preventive measures other than improving the design.
4.4
4.5
Corrosion
a.
The mechanism of various forms of corrosion and their preventive measures are
covered in Section 20. of this NES. A brief note on corrosion is included in this
section since it accounts for some costly failures in metals.
b.
By a programmed system of surveys, dockings and refits, the replacement of

corroded items is generally effected before in-service failures occur. The cost is
very large. Hull structural plating and sections suffer from general corrosion,
pitting corrosion, and localized galvanic attack. Serious corrosion occurs
particularly in bilges and all places where water can collect. Sea-water systems
can suffer from impingement attack and cavitation resulting from local
turbulence. Any dissimilar metal combination in the presence of an electrolyte
(sea water) will suffer galvanic attack. Condensers, and heat exchangers may
suffer from tube and tube plate failure due to corrosion and erosion. Internal
pitting can affect steam and feed water pipes. Stainless steels fail by crevice
attack in the marine environment and selective phase corrosion can affect some
cast copper alloys.
c.
The selection of metals to avoid or minimize corrosion is covered in Section 20.
Stress Corrosion and Stress Corrosion Cracking

a.
4.6
Although not a widespread problem, failure from stress corrosion can occur
where both stress, internal or external, and a corrosive environment are
present. The corrosion is specific to the material and its environment, and the
stress, whether imposed or residual internal, has to be tensile. The mechanism
differs according to the material and the environment but failure would not
occur if either stress or corrosion were absent.
Low Energy Ductile Tearing

a.
The fact that a material fails in a shear mode when tested at its service
temperature is not always a guarantee of safety. Failure by low energy ductile
tearing is possible and suspect materials are to be assessed by the J-integral
method, see Clauses 9.12a.9.12d.
4.5
NES 738
4.6
NES 738
5.
METAL FORMS AND PROCESSES

a.
5.1
With the exception of a relatively small number of sintered products, metals are
used either in the cast or wrought form.
Cast Metals
a.
Metals may be cast by a number of different methods. These include:

(1)
Sand castings.
(2)
Shell moulding.
(3)
Gravity die and pressure die.
(4)
Centrifugal.
(5)
Investment.
(6)
Continuous.
b.
Sand casting is the best known method. Foundry sand is rammed around a
wooden pattern which is contained within a moulding box. The moulding box
is separated in two halves and the pattern is withdrawn leaving a cavity into
which the metal can be poured. Sand casting is a highly skilled process and
selection of a modern foundry with appropriate experience in the alloy
concerned is vital to achieve good quality components free of defects.
c.
Shell moulding requires a clay-free sand to which is added a thermosetting

bonding agent such as phenol or urea formaldehyde. A metal pattern is made,
the thermosetting mix is poured on to the heated pattern to form a shell. The
shells are made in parts and clipped together to receive the molten charge. In
the casting operation, the shells are usually backed by sand or by metal shot.
Surface finish and dimensional accuracy are better than with sand castings.
d.
Die casting is mainly confined to zinc and aluminium alloys with some use of
magnesium alloys and low melting brasses. In gravity die casting, the metal is
fed by gravity into the die and in pressure diecasting it is forced into the die
under considerable pressure. A run of castings is required to justify the cost of
the die and provided the design is satisfactory output can be high. Dimensional
accuracy and surface finish are very good: fine screw threads may be accurately
incorporated into the casting. Not all light alloys can be die cast because of their
high shrinkage characteristics which leads to cracking.
e.
Centrifugal casting employs a metallic mould without cores which is spun at

high speed. Centrifugal force flings the metal to the surface of the mould. The
resulting casting is usually of uniform wall thickness with a fine-grain outer
surface. The product is superior to that produced by sand castings but the
process is only applicable to symmetrical shapes. It is used for producing pipes,
cylindrical sleeves, hollow shafts etc.
f.
Investment casting is used for the production of small items requiring close
tolerances. Non-machinable and non-forgeable alloys can be cast to finished
dimensions by this process. The item to be cast is made of a low melting point
material, originally beeswax, enclosed in a mould which is heated to remove the
wax, and then the molten metal is run in.
g.
Continuous casting is used for producing solid and hollow bar, pipe and billet
in a continuous process. The molten metal passes through a cooled die emerging
as a just solidified bar or tube.
5.1
NES 738
5.2
5.3
5.4
Advantages and Disadvantages of Castings

a.
The main advantage of castings is that large and intricate shapes can be
produced generally in one piece more economically than by any other process.
Batch production of castings of smaller items is frequently cheaper than by
manufacture from wrought material. Ability to achieve the required shape
without expensive forging and machining is where the principal savings lie.
b.
An inherent weakness of casting is that it can produce the least predictable of

metallurgical structures. The characteristics of the solidification process lead
to inherent weaknesses arising from shrinkage, segregation, porosity and low
hot strength. Despite increasing quality assurance measures, the casting
process, particularly sand casting, is fraught with difficulties. Competent
design can, however, considerably reduce the problems and the defects. Close
co-operation is essential from the earliest concept stage between the designer,
pattern maker and foundry man. It should be noted that the tensile strength
specified for castings usually relates to standard, separately cast bars (keel
bars), and that the actual tensile strength at any point within a casting may
vary depending on the local microstructure.
Wrought Products
a.
Wrought products are produced mainly by hot processes although cold

processes are necessary for some materials. In the first stage the metal is cast
as an ingot. Subsequent working of the ingot produces plastic flow and
impurities are elongated in the direction of working. Elongation of impurities
and crystalline structure contributes to the directional properties found in
wrought products. Ductility, impact, and fatigue properties are greater in the
principal direction of working. Yield and tensile strength are less affected. For
certain materials, by control of working temperature, it is possible to produce
a fine grain structure. Worked material has a more uniform structure and is of
greater density and of higher strength than cast material of similar
composition.
b.
Wrought material is not without its defects. The original ingot can suffer from
pipes, segregation, blowholes, inclusions and cracks. Primary piping may be
cropped from the ingot but if a secondary pipe exists it could ultimately appear
as centre-line porosity in a bar product or as laminations in a plate. Blowholes
may be welded up by the working process or remain as a defect although altered
in shape. Inclusions will be elongated and generally well dispersed. They can,
however, appear as stringers and are then more serious. Internal cracks and
bursts can result from forging and various surface defects can result from the
working process. Blooms for forging made from continuously cast metal will
contain fewer defects than those from cast ingots.
c.
Control measures are possible. These start with the material production process
and control over impurities. Other defects such as piping, porosity, etc can be
reduced by the method used in the melt or casting of the ingot and subsequent
control of the cropping process to ensure defective material is removed from the
top and bottom of the ingot. Thereafter working can produce directionality of
properties or conversely a more isotropic condition if required. Measures can
also be taken to produce a satisfactory surface finish.
Working Processes
a.
The principal working processes are rolling, forging, upsetting, drawing and
extrusion. From the ingot stage hot rolling produces semi-finished products
such as blooms and slabs. Subsequently hot rolling is used for the reduction of
these products to plate, sheet, sections and rods.
5.2
NES 738
b.
Cold working is used, where required, as a finishing process. Its purpose is to:
(1)
increase strength, also known as temper;
(2)
provide a cleaner, smoother finish;
(3)
meet closer, dimensional tolerances;
(4)
straighten the product.
A combination of cold working and precipitation hardening in suitable alloys

can increase strength and hardness to an extent which is not possible with
either process singly.
5.5
c.
In addition to finishing processes, cold working is also used for drawing.

Section, tubes and wire can be drawn cold through lubricated dies. The drawing
process relies on the high ductility of the metal being drawn.
d.
Most forging is now power assisted although hand forging is still practised by
smiths. Where large numbers of similar articles are to be produced, drop or
closed die forging may be used. By this method heated bars or billets are forged
between dies; the hammer is raised by power and allowed to fall under gravity.
Modifications of this process use a power-assisted hammer or hydraulic press.
A further development is high-energy rate forging which utilizes pneumatic
power.
e.
Hot pressing may be used for items of simple geometry. The hammer is replaced
by a hydraulic ram and the heated material is gradually squeezed into shape by
the static pressure of the ram. One of the advantages of this process is that the
metal is worked in depth and not primarily in the surface layer, as with hammer
forging.
f.
Upset forging or heading is used in the production of bolts, rivets and similar
items. The end of the bar is heated and the head is forged in a single operation
in a machine. Dependent on the size of the item and the material, cold heading
may be used instead of hot forging.
Extrusion
a.
5.6
The extrusion process may be direct or indirect. In the direct process metal is
forced through a die, and in the indirect process the die is forced into the metal
thereby extruding the required shape through the die. The ram in each case is
powered hydraulically. Metals that can be extruded include aluminium, brasses
and ferrous alloys. The extrusion process is usually carried out hot, up to 500 C
for aluminium alloys, 800 C for brasses and 1250 C for steels, but certain alloys
may also be extruded cold.
Powder Metallurgy
a.
Sintering of metal powders is a means by which homogeneous alloys may be

produced from metals which are not soluble in the liquid state or which, because
of a wide range of melting points or very high melting points, are difficult to
produce commercially. The metals are reduced to fine powders, mixed and
compressed in a hardened steel die. The pressure is high enough to produce a
degree of cold welding between the metal particles. The compressed mass is
heated to a suitable temperature, below the melting point, at which sintering
takes place. Sintering is the conversion to a homogeneous alloy by grain growth
across the cold welds between metal particles.
5.3
NES 738
b.
5.7
Powder metallurgy can also be used to obtain an even distribution of an

insoluble constituent in a metallic matrix. Graphite can be evenly distributed
in a bearing alloy. Cermets can be produced. Tungsten carbide alloyed with
titanium carbide and cobalt is used for cutting tools. A range of high
temperature alloys can also be made by these methods.
Clad Metals
a.
Clad metals can be produced by a number of processes. Composite plates can be

made by rolling two metals together to effect bonding by pressure welding. The
clad metal can also be bonded to the parent plate by an explosive process. A more
expensive way is to clad by fusion welding, a process which is more appropriate
for castings and forgings. The principal naval application by fusion welding is
to obtain a corrosion resistant surface on a steel strength member. Cladding
may also be carried out on non-critical, low fatigue, applications by plug welding
sheet material to the component. This procedure can be used for items such as
sea-tubes and muffler tanks.
5.4
NES 738
6.
SHAPING OF METALS
6.1
Cold Forming
6.2
6.3
a.
The most economical method of shaping metals is by cold forming which may
be by rolling, bending or pressing. The metal being formed must have adequate
ductility and its properties must not be seriously impaired by the forming
process. The extent of cold work must not produce cracking.
b.
Cold working produces strain hardening leading to an increase in strength and

also a reduction in notch ductility for those metals exhibiting a transition
behaviour. For this reason it is important in structural steels to limit the
amount of cold work. Permitted strain limits for ship structural steels are given
in NES 706 and NES 770, Part 1.
c.
Stress relieving, normalizing, or process annealing may be permitted to relieve

internal stresses produced by cold work or to restore complete plasticity. The
heat treatments permitted for structural steels are defined in NES 706 and
NES 770, Part 1. For other metals reference is to be made to the relevant Data
Sheet in Def Stan 012 or specialist advice is to be sought.
Hot Forming
a.
Where the required deformation is such that the strain limit on cold work will
be exceeded it will be necessary to work the metal in the hot condition. It is
important to question the effect of hot work on the metal concerned. If the metal
is in the heat treated condition prior to forming then subsequent heat
treatment, such as quenching and tempering, or normalizing will be necessary.
Alternatively, the metal may have been purchased in a cold worked, hardened
condition to meet design strength requirements. The extra strength induced by
cold work will be lost on hot working as the metal reverts to a softened state.
b.
The working temperatures and particularly the finishing temperature will have
a crucial effect on the structure of the metal and on its properties. If the working
temperatures are not clearly specified then specialist advice must be sought.
Temperatures for structural steels are defined in NES 706 and NES 770, Part 1.
Shaping Weldments
a.
6.4
If the item to be worked has been fabricated by welding then the effect of the
work on the weld metal must be considered. Normally mild steel weldments
may be worked hot or cold but where a steel needs to be quenched and tempered
after forming then the weld metal will need to be cut out and the joint rewelded.
See NES 706 and NES 770, Part 1.
Spinning
a.
A particular method of working metals which is suitable for dome ends of

pressure vessels and similar shapes is by spinning. The plates are continually
spun while a forming tool eases the metal into shape. For small items in low
strength metals, spinning may be carried out cold, but for a steel pressure vessel
it will need to be carried out hot to achieve the necessary plasticity. The
requirements for cold or hot working the metal or weld metal concerned will be
equally applicable to spinning.
6.1
NES 738
6.5
Machining
a.
The ease with which metals can be machined is a function of their mechanical
properties and metallurgical structure. Ductile metals tend to spread and are
not as easily machined as harder and more brittle metals. The difference is
shown in the turnings: ductile metals produce continuous coils of turnings
whereas in the more brittle but more easily machined metals the turnings break
off in small chips.
b.
Finely dispersed inclusions assist chip forming and the compositions of metals
can be modified to produce such inclusions. The addition of sulphur to steels
containing manganese creates manganese sulphide inclusions. These are the so
called sulphur bearing free machining steels. Other free machining steels
contain lead which exists as microscopic globules in the steel structure. The
advantage of lead is that it has little effect on the other mechanical properties
of the steel; manganese and sulphur can considerably reduce notch ductility.
Other treated metals are stainless steels with added selenium or molybdenum,
and copper alloys and nickel silver with lead additions.
c.
The aim of free machining metals is to reduce machining costs. Free cutting
steels owe much of their development to their cost advantage in automatic
screw cutting. These steels may be unsuitable for steam or sea water
applications and specialist advice is to be sought.
6.2
NES 738
7.
HEAT TREATMENT
a.
7.1
Steel
a.
7.2
Normalizing is carried out to refine grain structure and improve mechanical

properties and also to reduce alloy segregation in forgings and castings. The
workpiece is heated to 40 C above the upper critical point and cooled in still air.
This results in less ductility than the full anneal, a small increase in hardness,
and probably better impact properties. Steels are normalized before hardening
and tempering.
Quenching
b.
7.5
Annealing of steel is carried out principally to soften the alloy and to improve
ductility. It also relieves the internal stresses caused by previous treatments.
The workpiece is heated to 40 C above the upper critical point and held
sufficiently long at that temperature, dependent on its size, to ensure a
thorough soak, and then cooled very slowly, preferably in the furnace. This is
sometimes known as full annealing. A slightly different operation is process
annealing; here the steel is heated just above the lower critical point,
550 C650 C, and then cooled. Its purpose is to remove hardening effects
produced by cold work and is used extensively in the production of sheet and
wire. The rate of cooling in process annealing is not so critical since reliance is
placed on temperature to partially soften the steel and relieve internal stresses.
Normalizing
a.
7.4
The properties of steel may be altered with relative ease by heat treatment and
this is one reason why steel is so useful. The critical factors are the temperature
to which it is heated, the time it is held at that temperature, and initially, the
rate at which it is cooled. The temperatures at which transformation takes place
in the solid state are called critical temperatures or critical points and will vary
with the particular composition of the alloy. In steel we are mainly concerned
with the upper and lower critical points.
Annealing
a.
7.3
The heat treatment of metal alloys is carried out in order to produce the desired
properties for the service intended. In addition to mechanical properties this
could also mean a stress-free condition or enhanced corrosion resistance. The
alteration of properties is obtained in the solid state by properly controlled
heating and cooling and is directly related to changes produced in the
microstructure. Alloying additions play a vital role in the transformation of
microstructure.
Quenching is carried out in order to harden steel and is normally followed by

tempering. The workpiece is heated to 40 C above the upper critical point and
then quenched in some medium to achieve the desired cooling rate. The cooling
rate influences the degree of hardness that will be achieved and is in turn
controlled by the selection of the correct quenching medium. Various fluids are
used and include water, brine, oil, oilwater emulsion, and air. Where extremely
rapid cooling is required water spray may be used. The rate which achieves
maximum hardness is known as the critical cooling rate.
Interrupted Quenching
a.
Where high surface hardness is required with minimum internal stress it is

necessary in certain steels, particularly if large items have to be treated, to carry
out interrupted quenching. The initial rapid quench in water is followed by a
slower quench in oil. High surface hardness is obtained by the rapid quench and
the slower quench reduces internal hardness and reduces internal stress.
7.1
NES 738
7.6
Tempering
a.
7.7
Flame Hardening
a.
7.8
Thermal stress relieving may be carried out on castings, welded fabrications and
repairs, and on severely cold worked items to relieve internal stress. The process
involves heating the item to a temperature below the lower critical point, approx
575 C, holding at that temperature for one hour per inch of thickness and then
cooling in still air.
Non-Ferrous Alloys
a.
7.11
Where components are large and it is impossible to heat the whole surface at
once with a torch then induction heating is the preferred alternative. The object
to be surface hardened is enclosed in a coil through which a high frequency
current is passed. The resultant induced current on the workpiece raises the
surface temperature above the upper critical point. The frequency of the
current determines the depth of hardening. Coils can be specially shaped to the
workpiece being treated and can incorporate a spray so that a rapid quench
follows the heating.
Stress Relief
a.
7.10
This process produces a hard surface on medium carbon steels while leaving a
softer and tougher core. The surface of the workpiece is rapidly heated by
oxyacetylene torch or other high temperature flame followed immediately by a
rapid quench. For some applications it is possible to attach a quenching spray
to the torch. Flame hardening relies on the fact that heat is applied very rapidly,
building up a high thermal gradient and raising the surface temperature above
the upper critical point prior to the rapid quench.
Induction Hardening
a.
7.9
The object of tempering is to increase the ductility of a quenched steel at the

expense of hardness, yield and UTS. The steel is heated to a temperature below
the lower critical point usually in the region 550 C650 C and then cooled at
a pre-determined rate. Steels for submarine pressure hulls have for many years
been quenched and tempered. By this method very tough steels of medium to
high strength have been produced.
Annealing of non-ferrous alloys is carried out to deliberately soften the metal

after it has been hardened by work or other process. Annealing temperatures
differ for different alloys and for any particular alloy the degree of softening will
be time and temperature dependent.
Solution Treatment and Precipitation Hardening

a.
Some non-ferrous alloys, in particular aluminium alloys, are amenable to

solution treatment and subsequent precipitation hardening. The alloy is heated
to a temperature which, as the name suggests, is sufficient for the different
metallic phases present to dissolve and form a solid solution. If the alloy is
quenched from this temperature the phases remain in solution and the alloy is
ductile and in the solution-treated condition.
b.
Subsequent precipitation treatment, sometimes called ageing, which usually

involves heat treatment at a much lower temperature than the solution
treatment temperature but which can also, with some alloys, occur at room
temperature over a long period of time, results in the precipitation of phases
from the solution to critical sites in the lattice structure resulting in hardening
of the alloy. The ductility will decrease and the strength will increase.
7.2
NES 738
c.
Care must be exercised when welding, or heating for any reason, precipitation
hardened alloys as the mechanical properties may be impaired and only
partially recoverable by further heat-treatment.
d.
Precipitation hardening does not apply only to non-ferrous alloys; it also applies
to certain steels when tempered after quenching and to precipitation hardening
stainless steels.
7.3
NES 738
7.4
NES 738
8.
SURFACE TREATMENT
a.
8.1
Surface Hardening
a.
8.2
8.6
In this process the steel component is packed with charcoal in a heat-resisting

box and the temperature raised to 875 C925 C. The depth of hardness is
dependent on time and temperature, of which time is the most important in
controlling the depth of carbon penetration.
Liquid Carburizing
a.
8.5
Surface hardening by carburizing is achieved by the introduction of carbon into

the surface layer of steel. The process consists of surrounding the component
with carburizing material and heating to produce a carbon-enriched layer. The
carburizing material may be either solid, liquid or gaseous.
Pack Carburizing
a.
8.4
Many moving components used in engineering such as cams, gears and shafts
require a surface that is resistant to hard wear and must also possess a tough
interior. Surface hardening by heat treatment is described in Clauses 7.7a. to
7.8a.; other means of surface hardening are by carburizing, nitriding,
ion-nitriding, or carbon-nitriding.
Carburizing
a.
8.3
The surface treatments covered in this section are the surface hardening of
steels and the application of coatings to both ferrous and non-ferrous alloys in
order to improve corrosion, heat and wear resistance.
The liquid used in this carburizing process is a cyanide-rich bath of fused salts
comprising up to 50% sodium cyanide together with sodium carbonate and
sodium or barium chloride. The molten salts are held at a temperature of
870 C950 C and the steel components to be hardened are lowered into the
bath in wire baskets. The process is ideal for small parts requiring shallow
hardening.
Gas Carburizing
a.
Gas carburizing is carried out in a controlled-atmosphere furnace where the

atmosphere is fed with methane or propane diluted by a carrier gas. The
temperatures used are mostly in the range 930 C955 C although high
temperature gas carburizing at 1095 C is also possible. The process is the most
controllable of the carburizing methods as not only can the temperature be
accurately controlled but the composition of the carburizing atmosphere can be
monitored and the carbon potential controlled.
b.
After carburizing, further heat treatment of the steel is required to toughen the
core and for some applications to produce the required hardness in the surface.
The heat treatment required will depend on the carburizing temperature used,
the composition of core and case, and the properties required for the component
to function properly. Quenching and tempering or interrupted quenching (see
Section 7.) will be required.
Steels for Carburizing

a.
A wide variety of steels are used for carburizing. Low carbon steels up to 0.2% C
provide a ductile core. Steels with a higher carbon content or low alloy steels will
be used if greater strength is required. The advantage of the low alloy steels is
that the toughness of the core is retained despite the increase in hardness.
8.1
NES 738
8.7
8.8
Nitriding
a.
Surface hardening of steel by nitriding is achieved by heating the component in

contact with a nitrogeneous agent. Nascent nitrogen is released at the surface
of the component and combines with elements in the steel to form nitrides. The
nitriding agent used is ammonia gas which breaks down in the furnace to
release single atoms of nitrogen. The temperatures used are lower than those
for carburizing and are in the range 500 C565 C.
b.
Hardness is achieved by the creation of nitrides: subsequent heat treatment is

not required. The component can be heat treated to obtain the required core
properties, final machined and then nitrided.
Ion-Nitriding
a.
8.9
Steels for Nitriding

a.
8.10
In addition to the very high hardness that is possible, nitrided steels have the
advantages of being more corrosion resistant with greater resistance to fatigue
than carburized steels. Nitrided steels are also better at elevated temperatures.
No quenching is required after nitriding and items can be machine finished
before treatment. The disadvantage with nitriding is the high cost of capital
equipment which makes the process economical only where large numbers of
items have to be treated. Carburizing can produce a much deeper, tougher case
but due to distortion considerable grinding of the hardened surface is necessary.
Main propulsion gears in MOD ships are now carburized after earlier failures
with nitrided gears.
Patented Processes
a.
8.13
Carbon-nitriding is a modification of the gas carburizing process by the addition

of ammonia gas to the furnace atmosphere. Both carbon and nitrogen are
released to be absorbed in the surface of the workpiece. The steel must be heated
to 800 C875 C for the carbon to be absorbed. At higher temperatures
absorption of nitrogen is reduced. By control of temperatures and the amount
of ammonia gas added the relative absorption of carbon and nitrogen can be
regulated.
Nitriding v Carburizing
a.
8.12
Nitriding can be used to surface harden many steels but where a high surface
hardness is required steels of special composition are necessary. The steels must
contain those elements such as aluminium, chromium, vanadium, titanium,
tungsten and molybdenum, which form hard stable nitrides. Steels of special
composition for nitriding are produced and are known as nitro-alloys.
Carbon-nitriding
a.
8.11
In this process the steel workpiece is held in a chamber containing nitrogen at

very low pressures (110 mbar). The gas is ionized using the workpiece as the
cathode, positive ions bombard the workpiece and raise the surface
temperatures to that required for nitriding. The process is more controllable
and has a higher output than the gas nitriding process.
There are several patented processes for surface hardening of steel, some of
which confer improved properties, eg Sulphanizing and Tufftriding.
Surface Coatings
a.
The function of surface coatings is to improve the corrosion, heat, or wear

resistance of metals. Coatings may be metallic or non-metallic and may be hot
dipped, electroplated, sprayed, or produced by chemical action.
8.2
NES 738
8.14
Hot Dipped Coatings

a.
8.15
The coatings used in the hot dip process are zinc and tin. These have relatively
low melting points enabling steel products to be dipped in molten baths of the
coatings. The component must be cleaned by degreasing and acid picking prior
to dipping. Fluxes are used to assist in obtaining a good bond between coating
and base metal.
(1)
Zinc coating, or galvanizing, provides excellent corrosion resistance.

Protection is afforded by the oxide surface on the zinc. Scratches or scores
on the coating result in local sacrificial corrosion of the zinc but the base
metal is still protected. Zinc coating is relatively soft and easily abraded.
(2)
Tin provides a nontoxic coating which is extensively used in the food

processing industry for canning all types of food. It is resistant to food
acids but offers no protection once scratched. Tin-plate is easily soldered
and is ideal for the fabrication of containers. It is more expensive than zinc
coated sheet.
Electroplated Coatings
a.
Components to be plated are made the cathode in an electrolytic cell. The

electrolyte contains a salt of the metal to be deposited. The anode is sometimes
a non-reactive conductor but more often it is made from the metal to be
deposited. By this latter method the concentration of the metal in the electrolyte
is maintained at the expense of the anode. Degreasing and pickling are an
essential forerunner to electroplating. Metals that may be deposited include
copper, nickel, chromium, cadmium, zinc and tin (Def Stans 038, 0310,
0319 and 0320).
(1)
Copper is mainly used as an undercoat for nickel and chromium plating,

and for copper coated wire.
(2)
Nickel coatings provide excellent corrosion resistance and are sufficiently

hard not to be easily damaged. Nickel provides a sound base for
subsequent chromium plating. It can also be used for restoring worn steel
parts.
(3)
Chromium plating provides a very hard, wear resistant finish. It is used

industrially on gauges, taps, drills, etc and can also be used for restoring
worn surfaces. A low temperature heat treatment is required after plating
to avoid hydrogen embrittlement. The chromium layer is porous so where
corrosion resistance is required it must be backed by nickel plating.
(4)
Zinc plating is widely used for fasteners and similar articles where
uniformity and control of thickness of film is important and in this respect
the process is preferred to hot-dipping.
(5)
Restrictions in the use of cadmium: cadmium and its corrosion products

are a potential health hazard to personnel and contribute to toxic
pollution. The need for safe disposal of waste cadmium and its corrosion
products and effluent from electroplating plants is of considerable
importance. Sea Systems Controllerate policy is that cadmium may only
be specified and used where there is no acceptable alternative. Cadmium
and cadmium plated components which can be satisfactorily replaced are
to be eliminated from new and existing equipment, as stocks of spare
components are used up.
8.3
NES 738
8.16
Electroless Plating
a.
8.17
Sherardizing
a.
8.18
The article to be plated is contained in a chamber with argon at very low

pressure, 2N/m2. The argon is ionized by a high dc voltage and the cathode is
bombarded by positive argon ions. This has a cleaning effect on the surface of
the cathode and is known as sputter cleaning or ion scrubbing. The coating
metal is contained in a tungsten boat in the chamber and is separately heated.
In the near vacuum conditions in the chamber the metal vaporizes readily and
a small percentage of the vapour is ionized. Positive ions of metal stream to the
cathode and plate it.
Phosphating
a.
8.21
This is an aluminizing process which is also similar to carburizing. The items

to be coated are tumbled in a mixture of aluminium powder, aluminium oxide
and aluminium chloride at 815 C980 C. The resultant coating is heat and
corrosion resistant and is used for coating ferrous turbine blades, furnace parts
and similar items and for items in contact with flue gases containing sulphur.
Ion-Plating
a.
8.20
Sherardizing is a process of coating articles with zinc that is similar in many

respects to carburizing. The articles are slowly tumbled in a drum containing
zinc powder heated to 370 C. Thinner and more uniform coatings of zinc are
possible than with hot dip galvanizing which makes the process particularly
suitable for threaded items. Degreasing and pickling are required prior to
coating.
Calorizing
a.
8.19
Electroless plating involves the deposition of an alloy coating, eg 90% nickel,

10% phosphorus, from a chemical solution without the use of an external
electropotential. Commercial processes are Kanigen and Fescolising (Def Stan
035).
Phosphate coatings are produced on the surface of steel by dipping, brushing,

or spraying with phosphoric acid (Def Stan 0311). The resultant coating is
thin and offers only limited protection against corrosion, but its surface is rough
and is an excellent key for a subsequent paint system. Commercial processes
based on phosphating are:
(1)
Parkerizinguses phosphoric acid plus iron and manganese phosphate.
(2)
Bonderizingphosphoric acid plus a catalyst.
Anodizing
a.
Anodizing, or anodic oxidation, is an electrolytic process for providing

aluminium with a thick protective oxide film. The article must be chemically
clean before anodizing. Thorough mechanical cleaning or polishing is followed
by degreasing or electrolytic cleaning. The article to be anodized is then made
the anode in an electrolytic cell containing a solution of chromic, sulphuric, or
oxalic acid. When the current is flowing oxygen forms on the anode and
combines with the aluminium. The layer of aluminium oxide so formed grows
outward from the surface. The oxide film is spongy and requires sealing before
the article goes into service. Various sealing treatments are available. Prior to
sealing the coating will readily accept a dye if required.
8.4
NES 738
8.22
Metal Spraying
a.
Metal spraying methods are defined in Def Stan 036. A wide variety of coatings
are available for restoring worn parts and for improving wear resistance and
corrosion resistance. Other coatings improve heat resistance or provide
electrical conduction or electrical resistance. Metal spraying also has a wide
application in view of its portability and flexibility. Critical parts of steel ship
structure can be sprayed with zinc or aluminium to give sacrificial protection
from corrosion. Wear and corrosion resistant ceramic materials are also
thermally sprayed.
b.
All the metals used for coating by hot dipping and electroplating, and many
more besides, can be deposited by metal spraying. Sprayed coatings are porous
which is an advantage for certain coatings used as oil-lubricated bearings, but
in a corrosive environment coatings require sealing.
8.5
NES 738
8.6
NES 738
9.
TESTING AND QUALITY ASSURANCE

a.
Tests used on metallic materials to ensure that the required properties are being
achieved may be classified as:
(1)
Laboratory and type tests used initially when introducing a new material
into service.
(2)
Smaller scale test and non-destructive examination, aimed at ensuring

that essential properties are met in production runs.
b.
Metals and alloys are required to comply with defined compositions and to meet
mechanical and other type tests. Exceptionally metallurgical examination of
the microstructure is also required. Chemical analysis to determine that the
composition is within the required tolerances is the first test in the production
route.
c.
Mechanical and other properties that are tested are:

(1)
Strength and ductility.
(2)
Hardness.
(3)
Notch toughness.
(4)
Material cleanness.
(5)
Fatigue limit.
(6)
Creep.
(7)
Corrosion resistance.
(8)
Corrosion fatigue limit.
(9)
Susceptibility to stress corrosion cracking.
(10) Ease of welding or brazing.
9.1
Strength and Ductility

a.
Strength and ductility are measured by the tensile test in accordance with BS
EN 10 002.1. The results are influenced by the shape and size of test specimen,
the rate of loading under test, and the elastic compliance of the testing machine.
By standardizing tests we arrive at meaningful and comparable results.
b.
The tensile test is suitable for laboratory and production use. From it are
determined:
c.
(1)
Ultimate tensile strength.
(2)
Yield or proof stress.
(3)
Elongation.
(4)
Reduction of area.
The tensile properties for steel plate are often only determined for one direction
in a plate. There are, however, three principal directions affecting properties in
a rolled plate, these are:
9.1
NES 738
9.2
(1)
Longitudinal or direction of rolling.
(2)
Transverse to rolling.
(3)
Short transverse, ie, through the thickness.
d.
The difference in the tensile test results for longitudinal and transverse
direction may not be great and will depend on the degree of cross-rolling of the
plate in manufacture. Most structural steels have a dramatic fall-off in ductility
in the short transverse direction. The fall-off is directly attributable to the steel
making process and in particular with the degree of inclusion in the steel, ie the
material cleanness.
e.
Production tests will be limited to longitudinal or both longitudinal and

transverse tensile tests. Normally the thicknesses of plates do not lend
themselves to tensile testing on a production basis in the short transverse
direction, but on occasions such tests are specified. Small Hounsfield tensile
specimens are one of the tests used for this purpose.
Hardness
a.
Hardness, although specifically a measure of resistance to penetration is also a

measure of resistance to deformation. For any given metal, hardness relates to
the condition of metal eg, caused by heat treatment, and can be used as a
measure that treatments have been correctly carried out. It is also a useful tool
in examining the heat affected zones adjacent to welds where high hardness
levels, ie high strength and low ductility, may be undesirable. There are various
methods of measuring hardness all of which employ a hardened ball or pyramid
and then relate the size of the indentation to a standard scale.
b.
Hardness values may indicate the strength of a metal but do not represent the
ductility and more particularly the notch ductility (notch toughness) of the
metal.
FIGURE 9.1 CHARPY V-NOTCH TRANSITION CURVES

FOR DIFFERENT STEELS
9.2
NES 738
9.3
Notch Toughness
a.
b.
9.4
9.5
Notch toughness is a measure of the resistance of a metal to fracture in the

presence of a notch. Brittle fracture is a form of fracture that occurs suddenly
under a load which is not sufficient to result in general yielding across the whole
of the fractured section. Design concern may be for:
(1)
Freedom from brittle fracture under all operating conditions particularly

in extreme cold weather.
(2)
Maximum fracture resistance under explosive attack.
In warship construction geometric and metallurgical notches and some cracks

exist in the hull structure and fittings. It is necessary, therefore, to be able to
measure the toughness of a metal in the presence of a crack. Many different tests
have been developed and may be classified as:
(1)
initiation of a crack under static loading;
(2)
initiation of a crack under dynamic loading;
(3)
crack propagation.
Production Testing of Notch Toughness

a.
For production testing the Izod test is generally used for non-ferrous metals and
the Charpy V notch for steels. Both tests are defined in BS 131, Part 1 and
BS EN 10 045.1 and involve the measure of energy absorbed in fracturing a
specimen which has a sharp notch machined into its surface. Izod tests are
carried out at room temperature, Charpy specimens are tested over a range of
temperatures.
b.
The Charpy test illustrates the transition behaviour of steel with regard to
temperature, as shown in FIGURE 9.1. Different steels exhibit different levels
of absorbed energy and different positions of the transition curve with regard
to temperature.
c.
The Charpy values obtained in a rolled plate will depend on:

(1)
the specimen orientation relative to the direction of rolling of the plate.

Transverse specimens could have values 1/3 lower than longitudinal
specimens. Cross rolling will reduce this effect;
(2)
the specimen position within the thickness of the plate: lower values may
be obtained at mid-thickness in thick plates.
Laboratory Testing of Notch Toughness

a.
Some or all of the following tests are used for evaluating metals for MOD(PE)
use. Steel for submarine pressure hulls commands a wider range of testing than
steel for uses of lesser importance.
(1)
Drop-weight test.
(2)
Bulge Explosion test.
(3)
Crack Arrest test.
(4)
Isothermal Crack Arrest test.
(5)
Wide Plate test.

9.3
NES 738
9.6
Dynamic Tear test.
(7)
Fracture Mechanics tests.
Drop Weight Test

a.
9.7
(6)
The drop weight test is used to determine the nil-ductility transition

temperature of a steel; this corresponds to a position near the lower shelf of the
Charpy curve. The test is illustrated in FIGURE 9.2. A brittle weld bead is
deposited on the specimen and notched with a saw cut to provide a crack
initiator. The specimen is positioned on an anvil so that the saw-cut is on the
tension side when the specimen is impacted by a weight. A stop on the anvil
limits the amount of bend so that it may be said that yielding has just occurred.
Specimens are tested at various temperatures to determine the transition where
a crack propagates across the specimen to where it is arrested in the plate. This
is the nil-ductility transition temperature.
Bulge Explosion Test

a.
This test is carried out in air with the target plate at specified sub-zero
temperatures. The temperature of the target plate is lowered in dry ice. Crack
starters are used similar to those used in the drop weight test. The charge weight
and its stand-off distance from the target plate are aimed at producing a
reduction in thickness of 3% on the first shot. The arrangement of the test is
shown in FIGURE 9.3.
FIGURE 9.2 DROP WEIGHT TEST
9.4
NES 738
FIGURE 9.3 BULGE EXPLOSION TEST
b.
9.8
number of explosive shots;
(2)
the cracking produced;
(3)
crack path;
(4)
severity of deformation.
In this test a crack is initiated from a saw-cut in a plate loaded to defined levels
of elastic stress, see FIGURE 9.4. By cooling the end containing the saw-cut
with liquid nitrogen a temperature gradient can be obtained along the length
of the plate. The gradient can be monitored from a series of thermocouples.
Cracking can be initiated by impact near the saw-cut as shown and the
temperature at which the crack is arrested can be associated with the
background stress that has been applied. From this data a crack-arrest curve
can be drawn.
Isothermal Crack Arrest Test

a.
9.10
(1)
Crack Arrest Test

a.
9.9
Tests are made on plain plate, welded butts, and welded T-butts. The criteria
used in assessing performance are:
If the crack arrest test is carried out at various levels of uniform temperature
it is possible to find the transition temperature for through cracks. This is the
isothermal crack arrest test.
Wide Plate Test

a.
The wide plate test uses a large specimen to determine the background stress,
at pre-determined temperatures, which is just sufficient to initiate cracking
from a precut notch, see FIGURE 9.5. Variations of the test can be used to
examine heat affected zones and weld metal.
9.5
NES 738
9.11
Dynamic Tear Test

a.
In the Dynamic Tear Test the resistance of a steel to the propagation of fracture
can be measured as a function of temperature and section thickness. It features
the worst mechanical condition that can be expected to occur in a structure, ie,
high strain rate and a sharp, highly constrained crack. In the test, a notched
specimen is simply supported at its ends and then impacted by a drop-weight
or pendulum. The energy required for a through fracture is measured. See
FIGURE 9.6.
b.
The various tests listed in Clause 9.5a. may be classified as:

(1)
initiation under static loading;

Wide Plate Test;
(2)
initiation under dynamic loading;

Charpy V-notch;
Drop Weight Nil Ductility Transition Temperature;
Bulge Explosion.
FIGURE 9.4 CRACK ARREST TEST AND

TRANSITION CURVE
9.6
NES 738
FIGURE 9.5 WIDE PLATE TEST
FIGURE 9.6 DYNAMIC TEAR TEST

(3)
propagation of fracture;
Crack Arrest Test;
Isothermal Crack Arrest Test;
Dynamic Tear Test.
9.12
Fracture Mechanics Test

a.
Fracture mechanics began as a study of crack propagation in brittle materials

and developed along three lines, linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM),
general yielding fracture mechanics (GYFM), and elastic plastic fracture
mechanics (EPFM).
b.
The application of LEFM is usually restricted to materials in which fracture

initiation is not preceded by significant yielding, ie brittle materials which fail
in an almost entirely elastic manner. Where yielding occurs at the crack tip prior
to failure either GYFM or EPFM may be used. All three methods use similar
experimental techniques to determine a fracture mechanics parameter which
can be used as a toughness value at the initiation of crack growth. Typical
specimens are shown in FIGURE 9.7. The parameters measured are:
9.7
NES 738
KIc
COD
JIc
LEFM
GYFM
EPFM
The methods of testing are described in BS 5447 for KIc, BS 5762 for COD, and
ASTM E 813 for JIc.
c.
The properties KIc, COD, and JIc may be defined as:

(1)
KIc, the stress intensity factor at the crack tip leading to rapid crack
extension under plane strain conditions, typified by a flat fracture.
(2)
COD, the crack opening displacement used under plane stress conditions
and typified by shear fracture.
(3)
JIc, a measure of the crack extension force at the initiation of crack

growth.
d.
FIGURE 9.8 illustrates the field of use of KIc and COD. The value JIc can be
used as a fracture criterion for ductile materials and can also be used to estimate
KIc values for those materials where yielding does not occur. All three methods
can be used to evaluate materials in terms that can be significant to design
particularly in estimating the critical defect size to cause failure. COD values
have been used by some UK companies to fix acceptance levels for weld defects
and inspection sensitivity, and more generally as a basis for material and weld
metal selection: the J-integral (JIc) approach to fracture safety is appropriate
to most non-ferrous alloys and to the austenitic and ferritic stainless steels.
e.
The use of KIc and COD to assess the critical size of defects is hampered by the
following:
f.
(1)
some uncertainty of environmental conditions;
(2)
uncertainty of loads in structure;
(3)
analytical treatments of complex geometry are limited;
(4)
residual stress system can vary with the method of welding and fit-up etc;
(5)
experimental techniques to determine KIc and COD are critical;
(6)
work to date has mainly concentrated on static loading.
All the notch toughness tests listed in Clause 9.5a. are suitable for laboratory
use only. Each test gives a result which is a characteristic of the test itself. There
is, therefore, a need to carry out a multi-test approach to obtain sufficient
assurance that the metal is tough enough for the service intended. Correlation
with the Charpy results is essential since the Charpy will be used for quality
assurance testing in production runs.
9.8
NES 738
FIGURE 9.7 FRACTURE MECHANICS SPECIMENS
9.9
NES 738
FIGURE 9.8 FIELD OF USE OF KIc AND COD
9.13
Material Cleanness
a.
Reference was made in Clause 9.1d. to the lack of ductility in the short
transverse direction, ie, through the thickness, found in structural steels. The
fall-off in properties in this direction may be due to any of the following:
(1)
inclusions and laminations of a macro nature arising from dirty ingots and
insufficient cropping of the tops and bottoms of ingots. These may be
revealed in the shipyard when cutting affected plates;
(2)
micro-inclusions which manifest themselves in fabrication by lamellar

tearing. This occurs under fillet welds and T-butt welds particularly in
thick plating;
(3)
to a lesser extent lamellar tearing can also arise from alloy segregation;
MOD(PE) specified structural steels are not normally affected.
b.
The presence of laminations or macro-inclusions may be determined

non-destructively by ultrasonic examination. At present there is no satisfactory
non-destructive method of determining micro-inclusions. The inclusions are
mainly silicates and sulphides, but particularly silicates. Some specifications
require sample inclusion counts (eg Q1N plate).
c.
Nick fracture tests may also be specified. In this test full plate thickness
specimens are nicked and bent until fractured. The standard of acceptance is
based on the crystallinity and laminations exhibited by the fracture face.
Determination of crystallinity is made in accordance with BS 131, Part 5.
9.10
NES 738
9.14
9.15
Creep and Stress Rupture

a.
Creep tests are made by subjecting a tensile type specimen to constant load at
a constant temperature and then measuring the increase in length as a function
of time. Tests are usually made at temperature levels of interest and at various
levels of stress. High stresses and high temperatures will increase the minimum
creep rate during the secondary stage and will decrease the time required for
rupture.
b.
Stress rupture tests are used for the preliminary screening of prospective
materials for high temperature duties. Specimens are tested to failure at various
temperatures and stresses of interest; the time to failure and elongation at
failure are measured, the creep rate is not measured by extensometry. A family
of stressrupture curves at various temperatures can be produced with
time-to-rupture plotted against stress.
Fatigue Limit
a.
b.
c.
9.16
In the laboratory, fatigue tests are normally only possible on relatively small size
specimens. Tests are carried out by axial loading and loading by bending on:
(1)
plain metal;
(2)
drilled specimens to represent stress raisers;
(3)
welded butts;
(4)
fillet welds;
(5)
T-butt welds.
There is considerable difficulty in applying the results of the tests to real

structures in order to predict life. Application of laboratory data may fail to give
realistic results because of:
(1)
size of specimen;
(2)
different residual stress pattern in real structure;
(3)
lack of information on real cyclic loading in service;
(4)
possible recovery effect during time interval in service.
What fatigue tests will show is whether there is a fatigue problem which is an
inherent property of the material. One important fact that has emerged from
fatigue testing welded specimens is that within the range 104 to 106 a single
SN curve represents structural steels. The effect of welds on stress-raisers is
to reduce to a common level the fatigue life despite the difference on tensile
properties.
Corrosion Fatigue and Stress Corrosion Cracking

a.
The majority of fatigue tests are carried out in air but the effect of the
environment on certain metals can be significant both on fatigue life and on the
susceptibility to stress-corrosion cracking. Pre cracked specimens are used and
either immersed in salt water for example or subjected to salt water spray and
controlled humidity conditions during test. Specimens must include welded
joints, where relevant, to ensure that heat-affected zones and weld metals are
also tested.
9.11
NES 738
9.17
9.18
Welding and Brazing Tests

a.
Any metal that has to be joined by welding or brazing must be tested to

determine its ability to be so joined. Weld or brazing filler metal must be selected
to give adequate properties for the service intended and the effect of the heat
of the operation on the base metal assessed. Heat treated alloys may require
re-heat-treatment.
b.
Some of the difficulties encountered in the heat-affected zone of welds include

brittleness in steel leading to cracking, lowered corrosion resistance in
aluminium bronze and stainless steels, the formation of a brittle sigma phase
in high chromium alloys, and softening of work-hardened metals.
c.
In brazing also, consideration must be given to the effect of temperature on the

structure of the base metal. It could have an annealing effect or cause grain
growth in cold-worked parts and precipitation hardenable alloys. Some or all of
the mechanical and corrosion tests listed in Clause 9.c. will need to be carried
out on sample welded and brazed joints unless these are already adequately
documented.
Non-Destructive Examination
a.
9.19
Ultrasonics
a.
9.20
Used for detecting internal defects in castings, forgings and welded structures.
Magnetic Particle
a.
9.23
Eddy currents are used to detect physical and chemical changes in conducting
materials. It is particularly suitable for automated production lines and is used
for detecting cracks, folds, and other defects in bar and tube. Suitable for
surface and near surface defects but generally limited to specimens of simple
geometry.
Radiography
a.
9.22
Used for the detection of cracks, voids, laminations and macro-inclusions in cast
and wrought materials and for thickness gauging. Difficulties can be
experienced with many cast metals because of the high attentuation of energy
caused by the cast structure. Normalizing may reduce this attenuation in some
alloys.
Eddy Current
a.
9.21
Non-destructive examination techniques play a major role in the inspection of

metals. Their use may be on a sample basis or may be specified for 100%
coverage of the production run. The techniques and their methods of use are
specified in NES 729, Parts 1 to 5, Non-Destructive Examination.
Suitable only for ferromagnetic material. Capable of detecting surface-breaking

defects and sub-surface defects using high current equipment. Used extensively
on castings and crack detection of welding.
Dye Penetrant
a.
For detecting surface-breaking defects such as cracks and porosity in castings,

bar and tube material and in welds. Finds particular use on non-ferrous
materials.
9.12
NES 738
9.24
Quality Assurance
a.
When called for, Quality Assurance Documentation provides the written

evidence of the results of the several examinations and tests required by the
relevant specifications for a material. The material, either as an individual piece
or as a batch, must be marked with a unique identification which is repeated
on all its QA documentation. (Note: that Quality Assurance does not necessarily
denote a superior quality of material, it just provides a signed statement of the
results of specified tests unambiguously identified to the material.)
9.13
NES 738
9.14
NES 738
10.
10.1
CARBON AND LOW ALLOY STEELS

a.
Many elements will combine with iron to form a wide range of steels. The most
important of these elements is carbon, the combination of iron and carbon to
form iron carbide is the basis of all steel. Iron with a carbon content less than
0.03% is known as pure iron; steels have a carbon content of 0.03%1.7%;
further up the scale cast irons have a carbon content of 1.7% to 6.67%.
b.
Mild steel is probably the most commonly used engineering material; it has a
carbon content of up to 0.25%. Carbon in medium carbon steels ranges from
0.25% to 0.45%, above 0.45% the steels are classified as high carbon steels. In
all these steels other alloying elements will be present in small quantities, some
as impurities. The most frequently found are sulphur, phosphorus, manganese,
and silicon.
c.
Sulphur is generally regarded as an impurity. It combines readily with iron to

form iron sulphides which render the steel hot short, creating difficulties in
welding and in working at high temperatures. Manganese has a strong affinity
for sulphur and introduced into the composition combines preferentially with
sulphur and either passes out of the melt as slag, or exists in the steels as well
distributed inclusions of manganese sulphides. Sulphur is only a deliberate
choice in steel for machining stock where iron sulphides act as chip formers and
improve machinability. (Note: such steels have poor corrosion resistance and
poor toughness.)
d.
Phosphorus is an impurity which in small amounts increases the strength and

hardness of steel. The amounts have to be less than 0.05% otherwise there is an
unacceptable fall-off in ductility and dynamic properties. Both sulphur and
phosphorus can be controlled to 0.025% or less by modern steel making
methods.
e.
The usefulness of manganese by reason of its affinity for sulphur has already
been stated. In small quantities up to 0.2%, manganese also increases strength
and lowers the transition temperature. With 1.5% manganese a steel has
increased strength in the as rolled condition and increased strength and good
ductility in the heat treated condition. Such steels are known as
carbon-manganese steels and are superior to the plain carbon steels of the same
carbon content and at very low extra cost for the alloying content. Increasing
percentages of manganese lowers ductility and in steels with over 2%
manganese the effect is very marked. Manganese is also a deoxidizer and is often
used in conjunction with silicon for this purpose.
f.
Silicon acts as a deoxidizing agent. Killed steels are those that have been
completely deoxidized in the refining process, this results in practically no gas
evolution on solidification. Such steels have a good uniformity of composition
and are free from blowholes. Up to 0.4% silicon raises both the yield and
ultimate strength of steel. Above this amount there is a decline in ductility.
g.
Aluminium is a deoxidizer and grain refiner. Steels that are deoxidized with
aluminium have finer grain characteristics than those deoxidized with silicon.
Limitations of Plain Carbon Steels

a.
Low strength and inadequate notch ductility at low temperatures are the major
limitations on the use of mild steel in the construction of warships and
submarines. Increasing the carbon content of plain carbon steels can lead to
higher strength but at the expense of ductility, notch ductility, and weldability.
TABLE 10.1 shows the MOD(PE) structural steels. The limitations of mild steel
have been overcome by the addition of other alloying elements which sometimes
needs to be accompanied by heat treatment.
10.1
NES 738
10.2
10.3
Low Alloy Steels

a.
In general, the term low alloy steel refers to steel with an overall alloy content
of less than 10%. The principal alloying elements additional to those found in
plain carbon steels are nickel, chromium, and molybdenum. Added in specified
amounts these will result in increased strength and higher notch ductility at the
same time maintaining good weldability. Heat treatment such as normalizing
or quenching and tempering may be necessary to achieve the required
properties.
b.
Other low alloy steels such as the 1% Cr or 0.5% Mo have been developed for
service at elevated temperatures because of their good creep resistance.
c.
Low alloy steels are considerably more expensive to purchase than plain carbon
steels and are more costly to fabricate. Although of higher strength, low alloy
steels may not perform well under corrosion fatigue conditions despite showing
an adequate performance under air fatigue.
Steels for Naval Use

a.
TABLE 10.1 to TABLE 10.4 show the principal uses of plain carbon and low
alloy steels in surface ships and submarines. Examples are shown of the use of
rolled plate and section, forgings, and castings.
10.2
Spec
UTS N/mm 2
Mild Steel
NES 791 Part 1
430
Yield or Proof
Stress N/mm 2
245
Notch Tough Mild

Steel
NES 791 Part 2
430
245
Normalized weldable structural steel. Main ship structure

except highly stressed areas or where crack arrest
properties are required.
B Quality CMn
NES 791 Part 3
450
310
Normalized carbon maganese steel. A notch tough

weldable structure steel used for more highly stressed
areas of ship structure or where crack arrest properties
are required. Supersedes DGS 1257.
BX Quality CMn
NES 791 Part 4
450
280
Similar to B quality but with greater control of

impurities to improve and provide guaranteed
through-thickness properties to resist lamellar tearing.
Used in heavy box sections, eg vertical keel on large
warships. Supersedes DGS 322.
CMn
BS EN 10025 Fe
510DI
NES 736 Part 1
500
340
550
Weldable structure steel plate used for purpose similar to

B quality.
High strength quenched and tempered steel with high
notch toughness
toughness, weldable,
weldable used for submarine pressure
hulls and machinery. Supersedes DGS 70.
Material
10.3
Q1N
Ni C M
NiCrMo
* Ratio of 0.2% proof stress to UTS not to exceed 0.88
Remarks and Naval Use

Weldable structural steel. Used for internal ship structure
and non-stressed superstructure. Not suitable for low
temperature stressed applications. Supersedes DGS 9.1d.
TABLE 10.1 STEEL PLATES AND SECTIONS FOR NAVAL USE
NES 738
BS 3059 Part 1
320
Carbon Steel
360
215
CMn
DGS 6142
Seamless
BS 3602 360
360 to 500
215
CMn
BS 3602 410
410 to 500
245
Mild Steel
NES 791
300
26 Carbon
BS 970 Part 3
070M20
BS 970 Part 3
080M40
BS 970 Part 1
150M19
400*
200*
509*
247*
509*
247*
40 Carbon
28 carbon
Manganese
Spec
UTS N/mm 2

Seamless and welded boiler tubes. Supersedes DGS 6141.
Pipes and tubes for use with saturated steam. Acceptable
for systems up to 400 C.
Pipes and tubes for pressure purpose with specified
elevated
l
t d ttemperature
t
properties.
ti
Typical range of bar stock in MOD(PE) use.
10.4
Note: * For more details see appropriate British Standard.

TABLE 10.2 STEEL TUBES AND BARS FOR NAVAL USE
NES 738
Carbon Steel
Yield or Proof
Stress N/mm 2
195
Material
Yield or Proof
Stress N/mm 2
Spec
UTS N/mm 2
Carbon Steel
NES 848 Part 1
430 to 650
Q1(N)
NiCrMo
NES 736 Part 2
CrMo
DGS 6019
930
740
CrMo
NES 380
850
635
NiCrMo
DGS 6022
850 to 1540
665 to 1125
Specifies four compositions of forged material with

increasing nickel content. Used for gears in propulsion
and auxiliary machinery, air cylinders.
CMn
490 to 610
280 to 305
NiCrMoV
BS 1503
224490
NES 380
700
520
General purpose forgings where moderate low

temperature notch toughness is a requirement.
A vanadium bearing NiCrMo steel. Used for steam
turbine rotors in main propulsion machinery.
NiCr
DGS 6017
1000
Material

Specifies the requirements for carbon manganese steel
forgings, shaft brackets, propulsion shafting, coupling
bolts and general purpose forgings. Not suited to
application involving low temperatures due to low notch
toughness.
547
* Ratio of 0.2% proof stress to UTS not to exceed 0.88
Weldable quality Quenched and Tempered material with

good
d notch
t h ttoughness
h
att llow ttemperature.
t
For hardening by nitriding. Used for main propulsion
machinery, pinions, wheels and wheel rims.
Used for rotors in main propulsion HP steam turbines.
10.5
For case hardened gears in propulsion machinery.
TABLE 10.3 STEEL FORGINGS FOR NAVAL USE
NES 738
430
Mo (Types D, E and
F)
NES 849
460
260
Carbon Moly Steel castings primarily for elevated

temperature purpose over 400 C; also used extensively
for engine and machinery castings which require good
impact and shock resistance.
MoV (Type G)
NES 849
540
325
Moly Vanadium steel castings with superior creep

resistance. Used for similar applications to DGS 6081 but
where the temperatures are higher.
Q1(N) NiCrMo
NES 736 Part 3
550
High quality notch tough castings used in submarine hull

valves
l
and
d similar
i il applications.
li ti
Spec
UTS N/mm 2
* Ratio of proof stress to UTS not to exceed 0.88

A general purpose casting used for shaft brackets, rudder
castings, headers and end covers in heat exchangers.
TABLE 10.4 STEEL CASTING FOR NAVAL USE
NES 738
Plain Carbon (Types NES 849

A, B and C)
Yield or Proof
Stress N/mm 2
230
Material
10.6
NES 738
11.
11.1
11.2
STAINLESS STEEL
a.
Chromium is the principal alloying element in stainless steel conferring

corrosion resistance by its ability to form a protective film of chromium oxide.
An additional benefit of chromium is that it promotes resistance to tempering
and some stainless steels are stronger at elevated temperatures than low alloy
steels. Other elements such as nickel, niobium, titanium, molybdenum, and
nitrogen are added to enhance the properties imparted by chromium and to
meet specific purposes.
b.
The stainless steels produced by alloying may be grouped into five main classes:
Austentic.
(2)
Ferritic.
(3)
Martensitic.
(4)
Duplex.
(5)
Precipitation hardening.
Austenitic
a.
Austenitic stainless steels generally contain not less than 18% chromium and
8% nickel. Other elements such as molybdenum and manganese are added
dependent on the design requirements for the alloy. The fully austenitic
structure is soft and ductile but because of its pronounced work hardening
characteristics the UTS is relatively high. Ductility is good down to very low
temperatures.
b.
Austenitic alloys are not heat treatable but the mechanical properties can be
improved by cold work. Cold work also increases the magnetic permeability in
an alloy which is otherwise considered to be non-magnetic.
Ferritic
a.
11.3
(1)
This group contains chromium generally in excess of 14% with small amounts
of carbon, usually 0.1% maximum. These steels are not hardenable by heat
treatment. Typical yield and UTS values are 255 N/mm2 and 560 N/mm 2. These
figures can be raised by cold work at the expense of ductility. With a low carbon
content corrosion resistance is very good except in association with chlorides.
Ferritics are also highly resistant to stress corrosion cracking.
Martensitic
a.
Martensitic stainless steels have a chromium content of about 12%18%, are

magnetic, have fairly good ductility and are heat treatable. A feature of this type
of steel is the wide range of combinations of solution, conditioning, and ageing
treatments which may be used to develop some desired balance of properties.
The properties obtainable in a type 410 martensitic stainless steel on heat
treatment are shown in TABLE 11.1 These steels are used where high strength
and corrosion resistance are required. It is used as compressor disc material in
certain gas turbines for surface ships.
11.1
NES 738
TEMPERING
Temp
Annealed
UTS
N/mm 2
480
YS
N/mm 2
240
ELONG
(2!)
30
R OF A
%
70
IZOD ROCKWELL
(Joules)
Hardness
95
As Quenched
C43
205 C
1310
1000
15
55
48
C41
315 C
1240
965
15
55
48
C39
425 C
1345
1030
17
55
C41
540 C
1000
790
20
65
C31
650 C
760
585
23
65
102
B97
760 C
620
205
30
70
136
B89
TABLE 11.1 TYPICAL PROPERTIES OF TYPE 410 MARTENSITIC STAINLESS STEEL

AFTER VARYING HEAT TREATMENTS
* Tempering in the range 400 C565 C is to be avoided because of low and
erratic impact properties.
11.4
Duplex (Austenitic-Ferritic)
a.
11.5
Precipitation Hardening
a.
b.
11.6
By adjusting the composition ferrite can be introduced into an austenitic matrix

give rise to increased strength and enhanced corrosion resistance. Resistance to
stress corrosion cracking is not as good as ferritic stainless steel. The material
is cast more easily than the other groups and tends to be used for this purpose.
This group of stainless steels are chromiumnickel steels with other alloying
elements such as aluminium or copper. They can be hardened to high strength
by solution treatment and ageing. Modifications of compositions has produced
three types of alloy that can be hardened in different ways:
(1)
precipitation from a martensitic matrix;
(2)
precipitation from a martensitic matrix after transformation from

austenite to martensite;
(3)
precipitation from an austenitic matrix.
The precipitation hardening stainless steels find more use in the aircraft and
missile industry than in warships.
Corrosion Resistance
a.
Stainless steels obtain their corrosion resistance from a passive oxide film which
forms on the surface of the metal in the presence of oxygen. This occurs freely
in air or oxygenated water. The nature of this mechanism of protection gives rise
to two major corrosion problems, namely crevice attack and pitting.
b.
In oxidizing environments the protective film remains intact but it will be

destroyed where oxygen or other oxidizing agent is not available in sufficient
concentration to maintain the film. This situation occurs in crevices and in
stagnant sea water. The affected area rapidly loses its passive film and corrosion
occurs.
c.
The availability of oxygen to local areas can be reduced by deposits on the metal
surface. When the film is thus locally damaged the exposed metal is anodic to
the generally extensive surrounding area. The resulting galvanic action causes
localized pitting.
11.2
NES 738
d.
11.7
Stress Corrosion Cracking

a.
11.8
Stainless steels are susceptible to stress corrosion cracking in the presence of

chlorides. The austenitic groups are the most susceptible. The only solution is
to prevent contact by the corroding media.
Carbide Precipitation
a.
11.9
Most stainless steels are susceptible to crevice attack and pitting in sea water
or in a sea-damp atmosphere. Susceptibility varies with different grades. The
only cure is to avoid crevices. Sealants in the crevices can reduce or delay
corrosion but should not be regarded as a permanent cure. Where there is any
doubt whether to use the stainless steel, or which stainless steel should be used,
then the specialist section is to be consulted.
When CrNi stainless steels are heated in the range 490 C to 870 C chromium
carbides form and are deposited at grain boundaries. The depletion of
chromium from the matrix reduces corrosion resistance and corrosion occurs
at the grain boundaries. This is a particular problem in welded stainless steel
where a narrow area in each weld heat affected zone can suffer chromium
depletion. In a corroding medium a knife line attack occurs known as weld
decay. The problem is overcome by adjusting the composition of the stainless
steel so that there is little carbon available, less than 0.03%, or by introducing
other elements such as niobium or titanium which will combine preferentially
with carbon leaving the chromium intact. Steels with niobium or titanium are
referred to as stabilized stainless steels.
Stainless Steels for Naval Use

a.
Stainless steels are not used extensively in warships. When they are used it is
mainly the stabilized fully austenitic grade which has good corrosion resistance
and is readily weldable. See TABLE 11.2 and TABLE 11.3 for naval uses.
11.3
Austenitic
18/12:Cr/Ni
(Niobium Stabilized)
Form
Relevant Specification
Superseded
Specification
UTS N/mm 2
Yield or
Proof Stress
N/mm 2
Naval Use
BS 3059:
Part 2
Grade 347S59
510710
245
Superheater Tubesuse in
temperature range
400 C800 C.
Austenitic
Tubes
18/12:Cr/Ni
(Titanium Stabilized
Solution treated at
1100 C
BS 3059:
Part 2
Grade 321S59
490690
195
Superheater Tubesuse in
temperature range
300 C600 C.
Austenitic 18/9:Cr/Ni Bar
BS 970:
Part 2
Grade 302S31
510
210
Heat Resisting Fittings.
Austenitic 17/11/2 Bar and Sheet

Cr/Ni/Mo
BS 970 :
Part 1
Grade 316S11
460
170
Centrifuge components;
Flexible Bellows.
Martensitic 13Cr
Forgings
BS 970:
Part 1
Grade 410S21
En56A
690850
495
Steam Turbine Blades,

Shrouding and fittings.
Martensitic 17/2:
Cr/Ni
Bar, Forgings
BS 970:
Part 1
Grade 431S29
En57
8501000
680
Valve Spindles, Pump Shafts

and fittings.
Martensitic
14/5:Cr/Ni
Forgings
FV520B
(See TABLE 10.2)
1030
980
Compressor DiscsGas
Turbines.
Austenitic
17/12:Cr/Ni
Sheet
BS 970:
Part 1
Grade 316S13
463
170
Gas Turbine Exhaust

Uptakes.
UNS No 32550
760
490
Used for bolts for sonar

housing and Torpedo Tube
mechanisms, Propeller
Shafts of Fast Patrol Boats.
11.4
Tubes
Duplex
255
Ferralium Bar
TABLE 11.2 WROUGHT STAINLESS STEELS FOR NAVAL USE
NES 738
Material
Material
Relevant Specification
Superseded
Specification
BS 1631
UTS N/mm 2
Yield or Proof
Stress N/mm 2
430
215 (Re)
Valve Bodies.
Naval Use
Austenitic 18/8:Cr/Ni
BS 3100:
Grade 316C12
Martensitic 13/1:Cr/Ni
BS 3100:
Grade 410C21
540
370
(Rp 0.2)
Feed Pump Castings, Valve Bodies,

Impellers.
Martensitic 13/4:Cr/Ni
BS 310:
Grade 425C11
770
620
(RP 0.2)
Steam Turbine Blading.
Duplex Ferralium 255
UNS No 32550
740
480
Propellers for Fast Patrol Craft and

Hovercraft, Rudders, Shaft Seals,
Pumps and Valves.
TABLE 11.3 CAST STAINLESS STEELS FOR NAVAL USE
11.5
NES 738
NES 738
11.6
NES 738
12.
CAST IRONS (GREY FLAKE AND DUCTILE IRONS)

a.
Cast iron is an ironcarbon alloy which contains relatively large amounts of

carbon either as graphite or as iron carbide. Additional elements such as
manganese, silicon, sulphur and phosphorus are added to modify the structure
and produce a wide range of cast irons of differing properties.
b.
A common feature of most cast irons is their unsatisfactory shock performance.

Because of this the use of cast iron is not permitted where fracture would impair
the watertight integrity of hull structure or important watertight bulkheads.
Neither must it be used for bedplates, engine mountings or supports nor where
operating loads impose tension or flexure.
c.
Cast iron will only be considered for use in HM Ships when:

(1)
it is fully supported in a framework of material of acceptable shock

resistance;
(2)
because of its low cost and procurability it is advantageous to adopt

commercial equipment without modification;
(3)
it can be demonstrated to meet the service requirements.
d.
In the above cases, prior approval for the use of cast iron must be obtained from
MOD(PE). This will in many instances involve full characterization of the
proposed material, eg impact testing to establish temperature transition curves,
fracture toughness tests, and shock testing of the equipment concerned.
e.
In assessing possible applications it should be noted that cast irons fall into two
broad classifications according to their ductility:
(1)
Grey iron castings covered in BS 1452 show little or no ductility in a tensile

test and the specification therefore does not call for tensile ductility. The
UTS of the seven grades in BS 1452 are in the range of 154400 N/mm2.
The higher strength grades cover irons such as Meehanite in which
additions of calcium silicide produce a fine distribution of graphite and
improved mechanical properties.
(2)
Ductile irons form the second broad classification and consist of irons
possessing measurable ductility and for which a minimum elongation in
the tensile test is specified varying from 217% according to grade. The
first type in this class embraces spheroidal or nodular graphite irons
(SNG) covered by BS 2789; the second type includes malleable cast iron
covered by BS 6681.
f.
Of the SNG irons, SNG 370/17 and SNG 420/12 are the most ductile, being
required to show 17% and 12% elongations respectively. The next best in order
of shock resistance are the black heart malleable castings grades B 3512 and
B 3210 of BS 6681 having minimum elongation of 12% and 10% respectively.
These four grades of castings can be used with comparative safety in certain
applications not exposed to excessive shock loading or low temperatures.
g.
For applications such as bushes and liners where emphasis is on antifriction

properties, the higher strength irons, grades 2026 of the group covered by
BS 1452, may be considered. The low strength irons, grades 1017 of this
specification, are not to be considered for any application with the exception of
commercial equipment referred to above.
h.
TABLE 12.1 shows some uses of cast iron.

12.1
Grey Cast Iron

Malleable Cast Iron
Yield or Proof
Naval Uses
Stress N/mm 2
84
Finds application in naval workshops for use as slides,
bushes, spacers and rollers.
200
Used for machine frames in workshop equipment.
BS Specification
UTS N/mm 2
1452Grade 300
(typical)
6681Grade W3812
(typical for
Whiteheart)
300
6681Grade B3210
(Typical for
Blackheart)
320
190
Used for conveyor chains in dockyard applications.
400
230
Used for cylinder blocks for motor boat engines; piston

rings. Also Diesel Engine Main Structures when adequate
shock mounting arrangements are fitted.
Nodular (Spheroidal 2789Grade 400/18

Graphite) Cast Iron
380
12.2
White Cast Irons
4844Part 3 Grade 3E Accepted on chemical

composition and hardness
Very wear resistant. Used in shot blasting machine

components and as tiles or wear plates for chutes in
material handling applications in dockyard areas.
Austenitic Cast
Irons (Ni-Resist
t
type)
)
3468 Type 1B
AUS101B
3468 Type D2
AUS202A
Sea-water pump impellers; sea-water filters for marine

engine coiling; cargo winch brake drums.
Pump impellers, exhaust manifolds, turbocharger
housings; transducer housings.
185
420
235
TABLE 12.1 CAST IRONS FOR NAVAL USE
NES 738
Material
NES 738
13.
COPPER AND COPPER ALLOYS

a.
In the annealed condition copper has exceptionally good ductility and

malleability. The other principal physical properties are high electrical and
thermal conductivity and a good resistance to corrosion. Commercially pure
copper, known as tough pitch copper, is widely used in the electrical industry for
conductors. It contains up to 0.1% oxygen residual to the production methods
and is held as cupric oxide. Cupric oxide has little effect on malleability and none
on electrical conductivity but renders the material hot short and unweldable.
Oxygen free, high conductivity copper is available but is expensive; a range of
deoxidized coppers are much cheaper but suffer a marked reduction in electrical
conductivity.
b.
Many elements alloy with copper: chief among these are nickel, aluminium,
iron, tin, zinc, silicon, beryllium and phosphorus. The principal use in HM Ships
of the alloys so produced is in systems where corrosion resistance is essential.
TABLE 13.1 to TABLE 13.5 show both cast and wrought alloys and their
applications. Ratings are also included of their corrosion resistance, shock
resistance, and ease of fabrication.
c.
In addition to the notes in the Tables particular attention is drawn to:

(1)
Continuous Cast Gunmetal and Phosphor Bronze Rods to Specification

NES 830, Part 2 and NES 838, Part 1.
Continuously cast bar stock is a convenient and economic form for the
manufacture of pipe fittings, bushes, bearings etc. It can be used wherever
the cast material is specified and when machining from stock is more
economical than producing patterns and individual castings. Generally
the quality of continuous cast material is very high and is equal to the
standards set for Class 1 castings in NES 745, Part 1. Due to its grain
structure it is not suitable for non-destructive examination by
Ultrasonics.
(2)
Beryllium Copper.
Beryllium Copper is a high strength alloy primarily used for electrical
components and springs. It is virtually non-magnetic, non-sparking and
it has good resistance to corrosion. It is, however, not a recommended
material as beryllium metal and compounds are potentially highly toxic.
d.
Certain cast and wrought copper based alloys have inherent deficiencies which
render them unsuitable for Naval Service or place limitations on their use.
Three materials which are unsuitable for Naval Service, but which at one time
had wide applications, are:
(1)
Aluminium Bronze Rods, Sections and Forgings to ADSPEC 1076.

Due to a tendency to stress corrosion cracking and susceptibility to
dealuminification this material has been replaced by High Tensile
Aluminium Bronze (NickelAluminium Bronze) to specification
NES 833, Part 2 or Aluminium Silicon Bronze to NES 834, Part 2 as
appropriate.
13.1
NES 738
(2)
High Tensile Brass (also known as Manganese Bronze).

The use of this material is not permitted in surface ships and submarines
because it is susceptible to stress corrosion cracking. It also suffers from
dezincification.
(3)
Naval Brass to BS 2870, 2874, 2875CZ 112 (Wrought) and BS 1400 SCB4
(Cast).
This material suffers from severe dezincification when in sea water. It is
only to be used for minor fittings which are not in contact with sea water
and whose failure would not be hazardous.
13.2
Mechanical Properties*
Material
Specification
NickelAluminium Bronze
NES 747 Part 1
(Naval Alloy) Centrifugal Castings
NES 747 Part 2
(Naval Alloy) Sand Castings and
Ingots
600
0.2% Proof
Stress N/mm 2
230
620
NES 747 Part 3
(Commercial Alloy) Sand Castings
and Ingots
(Naval Alloy) Sand Castings and
IngotsSand Castings with
welding restricted to the
non-wetted surface (Class I and II
Castings only)
UTS N/mm 2
Elongation %
Izod Joules
13.3
15
30
250
15
24
640
250
13
20
NES 747 Part 4
620
250
15
24
Guide to the design and
manufacture of Nickel Aluminum
bronze Castings
NES 747 Part 5
AluminiumSilicon Bronze
Sand Cast
CopperNickelChromium
Sand Cast
NES 834 Part 1
460
170 (0.1%)
20
27
NES 824
480
300
18
Contd
TABLE 13.1 CAST COPPER-BASED ALLOYS FOR NAVAL USE
NES 738
Material
Specification
250
0.2% Proof
Stress N/mm 2
125
270
300
BS 1400PB1
PB2
PB4
Gunmetal Sand Cast
NES 830 Part 1
Gunmetal Continuous Cast
NES 830 Part 2

LG2
LG4
Phosphor Bronze Sand Cast
13.4
Phosphor Bronze Continuous

Cast
Naval Brass Sand Cast
*Note:
UTS N/mm 2
Elongation %
Izod Joules
16
26
100
130
13
13
26
26
220
220
190
130
130
100
3
5
3
NES 838 Part 1
360
170
BS 1400 SCB4
250
70
18
The properties shown are typical and are not necessarily as shown in the relevant specifications for the acceptance
minimum for cast keel bars.
TABLE 13.1 CAST COPPER-BASED ALLOYS FOR NAVAL USE
NES 738
Contd
Material
Specification
Sea Water*
G
SSC
Shock*
Resistance
Fabrication*
Fabrication
Service* Use
Service
Remarks
13.5
NickelAluminium
Bronze (Naval Alloy)
Centrifugal Castings
NES 747 Part 1
C20
E, F, G
A, F, H, K
Suitable for symmetrical

castings, eg condenser
headers, bushes, pump
casings etc.
NickelAluminium
Sand Castings and Ingots
NES 747 Part 2
C20
E, F, G
A, F, H, J, K
For high integrity castings

in contact with sea water.
NickelAluminium
Bronze (Commercial
Alloy) Sand Castings and
Ingots
NES 747 Part 3
C20
E, F, G
A, F, H, J, K
Cheaper alternative to NES

747 Parts 1 and 2 which has
good corrosion resistance to
sea water in an unwelded
condition but more liable to
corrosion of heat affected
zones when any welding is
present.
NES 747 Part 4

NickelAluminium
Sand Castings and
Ingots Sand Castings
with welding restricted to
the non-wetted surface
(Class I and II Castings
only)
C20
E, F, G
A, F, H, J, K
For high integrity castings

in contact with sea water.
AluminiumSilicon
Bronze Sand Cast
NES 834 Part 1
C20
E, F, G
A, F
Suitable for non-magnetic

applications (including in
sea water) but not water
speeds above 2.5m/sec.
CopperNickel
Chromium Sand Cast
NES 824
F, G
A, F, H, K
For high integrity casting in

contact with sea water.
(contd)
NES 738
TABLE 13.2 GUIDE TO THE USE OF CAST COPPER-BASED ALLOYS
Material
Specification
Sea Water* Corrosion

Resistance
G
SSC
Shock*
Shock
Fabrication
Service
Remarks
Gunmetal Sand Cast
NES 830 Part 1
C70
E
A, B, F
Gunmetal Continuous
Cast
NES 830 Part 2
E70
E
A, B, F, K
Suitable for lightly loaded

gear and bearing
applications (LG2 only for
gears) medium strength sea
water applications.
LG2
LG4
Suitable for medium

strength sea water
applications, and lightly
loaded bearings.
13.6
Phosphor Bronze Sand

Cast
BS 1400
PB1
PB2
PB4
C20
D, E, F, G
A, B, E, K
Suitable for high speed, high

load bearing applications
(with hard shafts) and low
integrity sea water
applications.
Phosphor Bronze
Continuous Cast
NES 838 Part 1
C20
D, E, F, G
A, B, E, K
Suitable for high speed, high

load bearing applications
(with hard shafts) and low
integrity sea water
applications.
Naval Brass Sand Cast
BS 1400 SCB4
C20
D, E, F, G
E, K
* See TABLE 13.3 for key

TABLE 13.2 GUIDE TO THE USE OF CAST COPPER-BASED ALLOYS
Suitable for small, low

integrity, general purpose
castings. Prohibited for sea
water applications.
NES 738
(contd)
NES 738
Issue 2
Corrosion Resistance*
A
B
C
* Note:
(G = General, C = Crevice,
SCC = Stress Corrosion Cracking)
Very good resistance to corrosion in sea water

Fairly good resistance to corrosion in sea water
Not suitable for sea water applications
This very broad guide refers only to uncoupled corrosion rates. Refer to
Section 20. for detailed considerations.
Shock Resistance
A
B
C
D
Suitable for maximum shock resisting applications

Good shock resistance
Only suitable for low shock applications
Not recommended for use where liable to shock loading
Fabrication
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
Good cold working properties

Good hot working properties
Machineabillty rating(free cutting brass = 100)
Can be soft soldered
Can be silver soldered
Gas shielded arc weldable
Manual metallic arc weldable
Service Use
A
Suitable for underwater fittings

B
Suitable as a bearing material

C
Suitable for HP air piping

D
Suitable for hydraulic piping

E
Suitable for temperatures up to 300 C

F
Suitable for temperatures up to 150 C

G
Suitable for refrigeration piping down to 50 C

H
Suitable for water speeds up to 4.25m/sec

I
Suitable for pump shafts

J
Suitable for propellers

K
Suitable for gears and wormwheels

L
Suitable for fasteners

TABLE 13.3 KEY TO PROPERTIES AND USES OF COPPER BASED ALLOYS LISTED IN TABLE 13.2
AND TABLE 13.5
13.7
Specification
UTS
N/mm2
0.2% Proof Stress
N/mm2
Elongation %
Izod Joules
Forgings, Forging Stock, Rods and
Sections
NES 833 Part 2
650
285
16
24
NES 834 Part 2
525
245
20
33
NES 838 Part 2
365
260
18
100
Sheet and Strip
BS 2870 CZ112
370
22
Rods and Sections
BS 2874 CZ112M
370
120
19
40
Plate
BS 2875 CZ112
350
18
Sheet, Strip and Plate,
NES 749 Part 1
420
200
25

Sections.
Tubing
NES 749 Part 2
500
260
20
NES 749 Part 3
450
230
40
40
AluminiumSilicon Bronze
Sections
Phosphor Bronze
Rods and Sections (For QA Rods)
Naval Brass
AluminiumNickelSilicon Brass
13.8
(Solution treated and precipitation hardened)

70/30 Cupro-Nickel
Plate and Sheet.
NES 780 Part 1
350
140
30
55
Forgings, Forging Stock Rods and

Sections.
Tubing
NES 780 Part 2
310
110
30
54
NES 780 Part 3
400
140
35
NES 779 Part 1

NES 779 Part 2
280
280
36
30
NES 779 Part 3
310
110
35
57
NES 835
720
420
20
41
35
90/10 Cupro-Nickel
Sheet, Strip, Plate
Sections
Tubing
High Strength Cupro-Nickel
Forgings and Rod
Copper
Tubes
NES 837
* The properties shown are typical and are not necessarily as shown in the relevant specifications.
TABLE 13.4 WROUGHT COPPER-BASED ALLOY FOR NAVAL USE
NES 738
Issue 2
Material
Material
Specification
Sea Water* Corrosion

Shock* ResisResistance
tance
G
C
SSC
Fabrication*
Fabrication
Service* Use
Service
Remarks
NickelAluminium
Bronze
Forgings, Forging Stock,
Rods and Sections
NES 833 Part 2
B
C20
E, F, G
A, B, E, H, I,
K, L
Suitable for propeller shafts,

pump components etc in
contact with sea water. Also
bush and bearing
applications (not as a
rubbing pair). Can be used
as fastener material with
suitable heat treatment.
NES 834 Part 2
B
C20
E, F, G
A, B, E, I, L
Suitable for fasteners, pump

shafts and oil lubricated
bearings for non-magnetic
sea water applications. Not
suitable for water speeds
above 2.5m/sec.
Rods and Sections (for QA NES 838 Part 2

Rods)
A
C20
D, E, F, G
A, B, F, I, K
Good cold working

properties, suitable for
springs, bourdon tubes,
diaphragms etc.
B
C50
C
50
D, E, F, G
B, F, L
AluminiumSilicon
Bronze
Forgings, Forging Stock,
Rods and Sections
13.9
Phosphor Bronze
Naval Brass
Sheet and Strip
BS 2870 CZ112
Rods and Sections
BS 2874 CZ112M
Plate
BS 2875 CZ112
Suitable for general low

integrit applications.
integrity
applications Not
to be used in contact with
sea water.
Contd
TABLE 13.5 GUIDE TO THE USE OF WROUGHT COPPER-BASED ALLOYS
NES 738
Issue 2
NES 738
Issue 2
Contd
Material
Specification
Sea Water*
Corrosion
Resistance
G
C
SSC
Shock*
Resistance
Fabrication*
Service* Use
AluminiumNickel
Silicon Brass
13.10
A
B**
B
C50
E**
C, D, E, G
A
B
C20
D, E, F, G
A,, C,, D,, F,, G,,

H
NES 779 Part 3
A
B
C20
D, E, F, G
A, F, G
NES 835
A
C20
A, F, H, I, K,
L
Sheet, Strip and Plate
NES 749 Part 1
Forgings, Forging
Stock, Rods and
Sections.
NES 749 Part 2
Tubing
NES 749 Part 3
70/30 Cupro-Nickel
Plate and sheet
Forgings, Forging
Stock, Rods and
Sections
Tubings
90/10 Cupro-Nickel
Tubing
High Strength
Cupro-Nickel
Forgings and Rod
NES 780 Part 1

NES 780 Part 2
Remarks
Suitable for applications
where low magnetic
permeability is a
requirement. In tube
form it is suitable for
hydraulic and HP air
systems. Not
recommended for sea
water systems due to low
impingement resistance
(ie 1.6m/sec.).
In tube form it is
suitable for most
systems iincluding
l di sea
water.
NES 780 Part 3

Used in sea water
systems.
Suitable for high

interrity sea water
applications. Must not
be brazed or welded. For
use up to 150 C. Notch
sensitive to fatigue
loading.

Contd
Contd
Material
Sea Water*
Corrosion
Resistance
Specification
Shock*
resistance
SSC
Fabrication*
Service* Use
Remarks
A
B
D, E, F, G
F, G
Liable to work harden in

high vibration unless
regularly annealed.
Copper
Tubes
NES 837
* See TABLE 13.3 for key

B**, E**, after hot work heat treatment is necessary
13.11
NES 738
Issue 2
NES 738
Issue 2
13.12
NES 738
14.
14.1
NICKEL AND NICKEL ALLOYS

a.
Some of the uses of nickel have already been described in the previous sections.
It is also used as a bond coat for spraying and plating, for alloying in a wide range
of steels including low alloy, stainless and heat resisting steels, and for alloying
in copper-based metals. This section deals with nickel-based alloys where nickel
forms more than 50% of the composition.
b.
There are three nickel-based alloys used in surface ships and submarines. They
are designated in BS 3072 to BS 3076 as NA 13, NA 18 and NA 21 (see
TABLE 14.1), and are also known as of Monel 400, Monel K500, and Inconel
625.
c.
Other nickel-based alloys such as Inconel 718 and various grades of Nimonics
are used in marine gas turbines.
NA 13
a.
14.2
NA 18
a.
14.3
Alloy NA 18 is of similar composition to NA 13 but with the addition of small

amounts of aluminium and titanium. These additions render the alloy
precipitation hardenable and results in the much higher strengths shown in
TABLE 14.1. Corrosion resistance is similar to that of NA 13. Welding is more
difficult, particularly with MIG. If NA 18 is in the fully aged condition then
welding will result in a heat affected zone with the lower strength of the solution
treated condition. Better results are achieved by welding in the solution-treated
condition, then solution treat and age.
NA 21
a.
14.4
Alloy NA 13 contains a minimum of 63% nickel, 2834% copper plus small

quantities of iron and manganese. Mechanical properties depend on the
condition of the alloy, typical properties are: UTS 550 N/mm2, 0.2% proof stress
of 200N/mm 2. The mechanical properties depend on the condition of the alloy,
with strength increasing from the annealed condition, to the hot rolled and
highest in the cold drawn condition. NA 13 can be welded by TIG, MIG and
MMA but properties of the hardened alloys are reduced in the HAZ to that of
the annealed material.
Alloy NA 21 is a heat resistant alloy with a good creep characteristic and a good
resistance to oxidation up to 500 C. Because of its excellent corrosion resistance
it is also used as an alternative to NA 13 and 18 at normal and low temperatures.
It contains 58% nickel, 20% chromium, 8% molybdenum plus small quantities
of iron and niobium. It is used as a weld overlay when very good corrosion and
moderate wear resistance are required.
a.
Although nickel and nickel-based alloys have excellent corrosion resistance care
must be taken when they are coupled to other metals. The nickel-based alloys
are markedly cathodic in sea water which could lead to corrosion of less noble
connected metalssee Section 20. of this NES.
14.1
Material
NA 13
NA 18
NA 21
Form
Spec
UTS N/mm 2
0.2% Proof Stress

N/mm 2
Elongation %
14.2
Sheet and Plate
BS 3072
480510
195275
2535
Strip
BS 3073
480
195
35
Seamless Tube
BS 3074
480
170380
1535
Wire
BS 3075
480770
2025
Bar
BS 3076
480600
170415
2035
Sheet and Plate
BS 3072
900970
620690
15
Strip
BS 3073
9001170
620900
515
Seamless Tube
BS 3074
900
620
15
Wire
BS 3075
7601240
Bar
BS 3076
8301000
500760
1420
Sheet and Plate
BS 3072
690830
275415
30
Strip
BS 3073
Seamless Tube
BS 3074
690830
275415
30
Wire
BS 3075
Bar
BS 3076
690830
275415
2530
Remarks and Typical Uses

Sea water pump shafts, valve
spindles
i dl and
d seals.
l
Fasteners
Fasteners.
Tubes for steam coils in
calorifiers.
Used for similar items to NA 13
b t where
but
h
the
th higher
hi h strength
t
th can
be used with advantage.
Marine wire rope for towing

sonar.
Tube and shell heat exchangers.
exchangers
Exhaust ducts for gas turbines.
turbines
Weld overlay for tailshafts,
tailshafts
stabilizer stock, stern tube liners.
* Properties depend on condition of product, eg cold rolled and annealed, cold worked and stress relieved etc.
TABLE 14.1 WROUGHT NICKEL-BASED ALLOYS FOR NAVAL USE
NES 738
NES 738
15.
ALUMINIUM AND ALUMINIUM ALLOYS

a.
A wide range of aluminium alloys are available which offer various

combinations of strength, corrosion resistance and weldability (see
TABLE 15.1). The alloys fall broadly into two classes, the non-heat-treatable
and the heat-treatable alloys. Commercially pure aluminium and non-heattreatable alloys can only be strengthened by cold work; the heat-treatable alloys
are strengthened by precipitation hardening (see Clauses 7.11a.7.11d.) and
higher strengths are possible with these than can be achieved with the cold
worked alloys. Both cold worked and precipitation hardened alloys are softened
by welding.
b.
The principal alloying element used in the non-heat-treatable alloys for marine
use is magnesium. Some use is also made of manganese. The heat-treatable
alloys contain silicon and copper in addition to magnesium. Instructions on
welding and fabricating both these types of alloy are contained in NES 706.
c.
One of the main advantages of aluminium alloys is that their density is only one
third that of steel. With strengths approximately half that of steel, good weight
to strength ratios are possible. The other attraction is their generally good
corrosion resistance which is achieved by a tough continuous oxide film which
forms immediately on exposure to air. Resistance to sea water corrosion varies
with alloy composition. Contact with copper alloys in marine conditions results
in serious corrosion.
d.
The properties of aluminium alloys are not affected by very low temperatures
but the alloys do suffer a loss of strength at only moderately high temperatures.
This is a serious drawback in structural use since in the event of fire, strength
decreases at above about 250 C. Additionally their coefficient of heat
conductivity is significantly higher than that of steel leading to a more rapid
spread of fire than in a steel structure.
e.
The modulus of elasticity of aluminium alloys is only one third that of steel,
therefore, under stress they deflect more readily than steel. This can cause
problems in a composite steel and aluminium structure. The large deflection
experienced by aluminium alloys may not be acceptable where alignment of
weapon systems is concerned or for structures where buckling under
compression is possible.
15.1
Spec
Superseded Spec
UTS N/mm 2
0.2% Proof
Stress N/mm 2
Elonga- tion %
Remarks and Typical Uses

Superstructure, minor bulkheads,
ventilation trunking,
g furniture,
etc,
t non-heat-treatable.
h t t t bl
BS 1470
5083
275405
125270
416
AlMgMn Extruded
Sections
NES 831 Part 2
BS 1474
5083
275280
125130
1114
AlMg Sheet and Strip
NES 831 Part 1
BS 1470
5251
160275
60175
320
AlMg Tubes
BS 1471 5251
N4
160225
60175
518
AlSiMgMn
Forgings
BS 1472 6082
H30
170310
100270
516
Guard rail stanchion,

heat-treatable.
Al
BS 1470 1200
SIC
70150
230
Commercial aluminium. Minor

fittings, non-heat-treatable.
AlMg Rivets and Bolt

Stock
BS 1473 5154A
NR5
215245
Structural rivets. Bolt stock for

the manufacture of fasteners.
AlSi Castings
BS 1490 LM6
160190
57
Used in a variety of ships

fittings, switchgear boxes, and in
distillate coolers on desalination
plant. Galley and laundry
machinery. Non-heat-treatable.
AlSiMg Castings
BS 1490 LM25
130280
15
A heat treatable alloy. Used for

similar applications as LM6.
15.2
AlMgMn Plate, Sheet NES 831 Part 1

and Strip
Lockers, furniture, mess racks,

non-heat-treatable.
* Properties depend on condition of the material eg, annealed, strain hardened, solution heat treated etc. The properties of cast alloys are
further controlled by the casting process eg, sand cast, chill cast etc (see relevant British Standard).
TABLE 15.1 WROUGHT AND CAST ALUMINIUM ALLOYS FOR NAVAL USE
NES 738
Material
NES 738
16.
TITANIUM
a.
The attraction of titanium and its alloys is their high strength to weight ratio
and their excellent corrosion resistance. Some titanium alloys are equal in
strength to some of the alloy steels; commercially pure titanium approximates
in strength to mild steel with a weight approximately 60% of that of steel. The
modulus of elasticity is low compared with steel and titanium is therefore not
as stiff as steel.
b.
CP Titanium and most alloys possess excellent corrosion resistance especially

in marine conditions. It resists both general and pitting corrosion and is
resistant to crevice attack. The resistance to corrosion is provided by the
formation of a passive stable oxide film on the surface. Some titanium alloys
may suffer from stress corrosion cracking in sea water.
c.
The major disadvantage with titanium is that it is a highly reactive metal with
a notable affinity for oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen and carbon. Quite small
amounts of these elements adversely affect the ductility and toughness of
titanium. The net effect is that titanium is very costly to produce and to
fabricate.
d.
Titanium and its alloys can be welded but the precautions necessary are
rigorous. Chemical cleanliness is required and all air must be excluded from the
weld zone. It can be welded in a vacuum chamber or by the inert gas process with
the addition of a trailing gas shield and a gas backing shield to protect the weld
on cooling.
e.
Development is continuing on both wrought and cast commercially pure and

alloyed titanium for naval use. Successful use of CP titanium to date in naval
vessels has been for tubes in steam drain coolers, components of diesel engine
exhaust systems and reinforcing bolts in GRP hulls. With limited knowledge of
the full characteristics of titanium alloys each proposed application requires
detailed consideration by material specialists.
16.1
NES 738
16.2
NES 738
17.
DAMPING ALLOYS
a.
The damping capacity of a metal is a measure of its ability to convert strain

energy into other forms of energy such as heat. In a perfectly elastic solid
subjected to sinusoidal strain the stress and strain are in phase with each other
and therefore no energy is converted or dissipated. In a damping alloy this does
not apply and the phase angle between stress and strain is a measure of the
energy conversion or damping capacity: the higher the damping capacity the
greater is the strain energy that is dissipated.
b.
There are two mechanisms of damping, known as anelastic and hysteretic:
c.
(1)
Anelasticin an anelastic solid there is a lag between the application of

stress and reaching the resulting equilibrium strain unless the stress
changes very, very, slowly. Materials with this characteristic give rise to an
energy loss that reaches a peak at a certain critical frequency of vibration.
(2)
Hysteretica hysteretic solid has a stress-strain curve on loading that

does not coincide with that on unloading. The area between the two curves
is proportional to the energy loss and does not vary with the frequency
with which the load cycle is traversed, but changes in a somewhat complex
fashion with peak stress. Damping from this mechanism is usually high
and since it does not vary with frequency it is thus of particular interest
to design engineers. The utilization of such materials in design can
contribute to vibration and noise reduction combined with the fact that
intensity of vibration stress under resonant conditions can be limited,
leading to reduction in fatigue-type failures.
Grey cast iron has good damping capacity but because of its poor shock
performance it is unsuitable for shipboard use. Other commercially available
alloys with high damping capacity are unsuitable in contact with sea water
because of lack of resistance to corrosion.
17.1
NES 738
17.2
NES 738
18.
BEARING ALLOYS
a.
This section covers cast and manufactured bearings. It does not include sprayed
wear-resistant coatings referenced in Clause 8.22a.
b.
The choice of metallic bearings is governed by many factors including load

conditions, running speeds, noise, lubrication and working temperatures. Each
application has to be considered according to its own particular requirements.
c.
For a bearing material to be successful in service it must possess the following

features:
(1)
Sufficient strength to maintain dimensional stability.
(2)
Ability to conform to minor irregularities and deflections.
(3)
The ability to absorb foreign particles and prevent damage to the moving
part.
(4)
The material must resist corrosion in its working environment, eg sea

water or the oxidation products of lubricating oil.
d.
The majority of bearings used in marine engineering are oil lubricated and the
material best able to meet the requirements listed in Clause 18.c. is white metal.
This is an alloy of tin, antimony, copper, and cadmium, or tin, zinc, and copper
according to usage, see TABLE 18.1.
e.
Other plain bearing materials are used in marine machinery such as the
aluminiumtin alloys which now find widespread use as diesel engine bearings.
Copper-based alloy bearing materials are also used for the applications listed in
TABLE 18.1. For highly loaded slow speed underwater bearings, Crown Metal
is used which is an alloy of copper, zinc, and nickel with small additions of tin
and lead.
f.
In the normal course of the operation of plain bearings consideration must be

given to the occasions when boundary lubrication conditions prevail and metal
to metal contact may occur. Bearings must be capable of operating under such
conditions without seizure. To assist against possible seizure selected bearings
may be given a plating overlay. The functions of the overlay are:
(1)
To provide a compatible bearing surface with good frictional properties

that will withstand local metal-to-metal contact without failure
particularly during the running in of new bearings.
(2)
To improve load distribution.
(3)
To confer some degree of embeddability of foreign particles.
g.
The thickness of the overlay will range from 0.017mm to 0.075mm depending
on bearing load, type and size. Typical overlay compositions contain lead and
tin sometimes with the addition of a small amount of copper, or an overlay of
lead and indium.
h.
The ability to sustain imposed dynamic loadings at operating temperatures is

reflected in the fatigue strength characteristic of the bearing and in that respect
the white metal bearings perform less satisfactorily than the copper-based
alloys and the aluminium-based alloys. Although adequate for many
applications the performance of white metal bearings falls off rapidly with rise
in temperature. In an endeavour to overcome this problem, manufacturers have
produced fatigue resistant white metal bearings in which cadmium, nickel,
and, in some cases, silver additions have been made in order to refine the
structure of the white metal. Promising results have been obtained from
rig-tests but such alloys have not yet been produced on a commercial scale.
18.1
NES 738
Bearings
Specification
Forms Available
Applications
Type I
White Metal
Sn89
Sb7
Cu3
Cd1
Type II
White Metal
Sn68.5
Zn30
Cu1.5
NES 839
High unit loads and

high temperature.
Type III
White Metal
Sn90
Sb7
Cu3
NES 839
BS 3332/1
Lead Base
White Metal
Pb74
Sb13
Sn12
Cu1
BS 3332/7
Solid die castings,

lining of steel, cast
iron and bronze
components.
General workshop
plant and machinery
bearings operating
at lower loads and
temperatures.
Phosphor-Bronze
Cu88
Sn10
P0.5
BS 1400 PB1
Machined cast
components
Heavily loaded low

speed applications
where resistance to
sea or fresh water is
required.
Crown Metal
Cu48
Zn35
Ni15
Pd1
Sn1
NES 836
Machined cast
components
Heavily loaded low

speed applications
where resistance to
corrosion in sea
water is
requiredrudder
bearings.
NES 839
BS 3332/1
Underwater grease
lubricated bearings
Solid die castings,
lining of half bearings such as stern tubes.
and bushes, lining of
g
direct housing.
Main bearings of
diesel engines,
marine gearbox
bearings, turbine
bearings, large plant
and machinery
bearings.
Contd
TABLE 18.1 PLAIN BEARING ALLOYS FOR NAVAL USE
18.2
NES 738
Contd
Bearings
Specifications
Forms Available
Applications
CopperLead
Cu70
Pb30
Lining of steel-backed Crankshaft half

components
shell bearings for
diesel engines.
Overlay, plated.
High duty IC
engines.
Low tin
Aluminium Alloys
Al92
Sn6
Cu1
Ni1
Cast or rolled
machined
components; lining of
steel-backed
components
Main bearings for

diesels and
compressors, usually
overlay plated for
crankshaft bearings.
Split and unsplit
bushes for
small-ends, rockers,
linkage, and
gearboxes.
High Tin
Aluminium Alloys
Al79
Sn20
Cu1
Lining of thin and

medium walled half
bearings, split bushes
and thrust washers.
Heavily loaded
crankshaft bearings
for high speed petrol
and diesel engines,
usually without
overlay. Small end,
rockers, crankshaft,
gearbox, and linkage
bushes, thrust
washers.
Aluminium
Silicon Alloy
Al95
Cd1
Si4
Lining of thin walled

half bearings, split
bushes and thrust
washers.
Heavily loaded diesel

engine crankshaft
bearings, usually
overlay plated.
Small end, gearbox,
rocker bushes etc.
TABLE 18.1 PLAIN BEARING ALLOYS FOR NAVAL USE

i.
The use of the sintering process, see Clauses 5.6a.5.6b., to produce copper-lead
bearings gives a much more reliable product than the cast version. For small
bearings and bushes of standard sizes sintered bronzes are often used. These can
be made self lubricating by the addition of powdered graphite in the mix to be
sintered or by subsequent impregnation with oil or PTFE. Under wet conditions
graphite may promote corrosion of the journal.
j.
Copper-lead bearings are also available with controlled porosity to give

retention of oil in the bearing.
k.
Non-metallic bearing materials such as PTFE and nylon are competing with
metals for many applications. PTFE has the lowest coefficient of friction of any
solid material but it needs strengthening with a filler metal. Both PTFE and
nylon can be reinforced with bronze particles and can function as dry bearings.
18.3
NES 738
18.4
NES 738
19.
MISCELLANEOUS ALLOYS
19.1
Shape Memory Effect (SME) Alloys
19.2
a.
Shape Memory Effect is a phenomenon possessed by certain alloys which gives

them a unique mechanical memory. The SME alloys when plastically deformed
in their martensitic state will revert to their original shape on heating to a
temperature where the martensitic structure disappears.
b.
The main naval application for SME alloys is the use of Cryofit pipe couplings
manufactured from Tinel which is a nickeltitanium alloy (see NES 797,
Part 2). The coupling assembly consists of a coupling driver manufactured as
a smooth bore cylinder in Tinel, and a coupling liner with annular lands made
from a high strength cupro-nickel. The lands form a hydraulic seal and provide
the mechanical grip when compressed by the driver. After cryogenic cooling the
bore of the driver is mechanically expanded and the liner passed into the drivers
internal bore.
c.
The expanded couplings are stored in liquid nitrogen at 196 C. In use they are
removed and installed in the hydraulic line within 60 secs. As the temperature
of the coupling rises it contracts to its memory shape and firmly joins the
hydraulic lines. The force exerted by the coupling is considerable and the joint
is completed at a temperature below 54 C. After inspection couplings are
protected from corrosion by a heat shrink plastic sleeve.
d.
Another shape memory alloy, SME brass, is now used in thermostatic control
units. This is a copperzincaluminium alloy and the energy output from the
device is considerably greater than that from a bimetallic strip.
Lead and Zinc

a.
The uses of lead and zinc are summarized in TABLE 19.1.

Material
Lead
Form
Wrought
Castings
Zinc
Costings
Naval Use
Resistant to sulphuric acid and used in lead-acid
battery maintenance spaces.
Used as screening against radiation in particular areas
of nuclear submarines. Finds use in certain parts of
Naval Diving Equipment, eg weighted boots. Coated
with PVC and used as ballast.
Used as protective coatings for steel parts in marine
atmospheres.
TABLE 19.1 NAVAL USES OF LEAD AND ZINC
19.1
NES 738
19.2
NES 738
20.
CORROSION
20.1
Mechanisms of Corrosion
a.
20.2
The term corrosion is generally applied wherever a metal is attacked and wasted
by its environment. The attack can be caused by direct chemical action or by
galvanic action. The former may be initiated by chlorides, sulphides or, more
commonly, by oxygen. This form of corrosion between a metal and a corroding
agent results in the formation of a non-metallic compound, eg metal oxide. The
speed of the process increases with rise in temperature, for example the scaling
of steel at red heat. The bulk of corrosion at atmospheric temperatures is,
however, caused by bimetallic corrosion.
Bimetallic Corrosion
a.
Bimetallic corrosion occurs when two dissimilar metals connected by an

electrical conductor are immersed in an electrolyte. An electrolyte is an
electrical conducting solution in which positively charged and negatively
charged ions can move freely. Acids, alkalis, and salt solutions, such as sea water
make good electrolytes. The electrolyte may be present in bulk as when
immersed in sea water or as a thin condensed film on the metal surface. A
galvanic cell is thus set up and a small electrical current flows through the
conductor. One of the metals will act as an anode and the other as a cathode
according to the electrical potential of each metal. The varying potentials of
metals in sea water are shown in the galvanic series in TABLE 20.1. Those
metals further down the table are more noble, or cathodic, to the metals above
them. The anodic metal wastes away and the cathodic metal is protected from
corrosion.
b.
If two dissimilar metals are placed in sea water but not electrically connected
then galvanic action will not occur. Both metals would be slightly attacked by
direct chemical action. If the metals are electrically connected then the anodic
metal will corrode rapidly and the cathodic metal will be protected.
c.
The rate of corrosion will depend on factors such as, ratio of areas of anode to
cathode, water speed, temperature, alkalinity/acidity (pH of the water) but
mainly on the difference in electrical potential of the two metals. The relative
position of a pair of metals in TABLE 20.1 shows whether a corrosion problem
exists or not and whether an alternative choice of metal could sensibly be made.
Where an alternative is not possible then consideration is to be given to
insulating the metals from one another. The relative surface areas of anode and
cathode have a major effect on the rate of corrosion. Thus a small anodic area
coupled to a large cathodic area will result in rapid corrosion of the former.
d.
Galvanic corrosion can also occur at local positions within a plate or pipe
without a second metal being present. The cause of this local corrosion may be
one of the following:
(1)
variations in composition in local areas causing a potential difference (eg

in way of welds, breaks in protective films or coatings);
20.1
NES 738
TABLE 20.1 POTENTIALS IN SEA WATER AGAINST A SILVER/SILVER

CHLORIDE ELECTRODE
20.2
NES 738
20.3
20.4
(2)
the presence of impurities in the metal surface which are part of the
microstructure and are anodic or cathodic to the metallic matrix.
Impurities are often segregated at crystal boundaries and can give rise to
intercrystalline corrosion;
(3)
variation in the mechanical condition of the metal due to the local working
or heating that it has received, eg welding, cold bending. This can give rise
to local differences of potential;
(4)
differences in cleanliness of the surface exposed to the liquid can result in

differences in potential;
(5)
variation in the oxygen content of the electrolyte can have significant

effect, eg low oxygen area within a crevice surrounded by a high oxygen
area. Corrosion of this nature is said to be due to concentration cells;
(6)
alloys with a structure consisting of two different metallurgical phases

will be subject to galvanic corrosion if one phase is anodic to the other. See
also Clause 20.5a.
Formation of Surface Films

a.
In the electrochemical action corrosion products will be formed which may or

may not be deposited on the metal surface dependent on the metals and
electrolyte concerned. In some cases an oxide film may be deposited completely
over the surface and may insulate the metal beneath. The corrosion reaction
becomes stifled and will eventually cease.
b.
The corrosion product forming on an anode surface may itself be strongly

cathodic to the underlying metal. Where such a film is incomplete, or where it
is damaged, corrosion will take place in the bare anodic areas. If these areas are
small in relation to the area of the cathode then the attack may be deep.
Protective Films
a.
Some metals owe their corrosion resistance to the formation of an oxide film on
their surface. Aluminium has a high affinity for oxygen and produces a dense
and impervious oxide film which protects the metal underneath from further
attack. Similarly, metallic chromium and stainless steels owe their protection
to a film of chromium oxide which forms readily under oxidizing conditions.
b.
The extent to which an oxide film will protect the metal beneath depends on:
(1)
the nature and continuity of the film and how effectively it bonds to the
metal beneath. Porous films offer poor protection. Films that are not
tightly adhering can result in progressive corrosion of the metal
underneath;
(2)
the mobility of metal and non-metal ions within the oxide film. Iron at
high temperatures will continue to oxidize even though coated with an
oxide skin.
20.3
NES 738
20.5
20.6
20.7
Selective Phase Corrosion

a.
This type of corrosion is confined to alloys having a micro-structure consisting

of two or more phases of differing corrosion potential leading to an internal
galvanic cell. Corrosion and protection of phases can result in a similar manner
as in Clause 20.2a., but the extent and significance of the corrosion will depend
on the distribution and amount of the anodic phase in the alloy. A dispersed
anodic phase is not particularly harmful, but where the anodic phase is
continuous and small in area compared to the cathodic phase, very extensive
hidden corrosion can occur, leading to serious loss of strength. Such corrosion
may be described as layer or plug type according to whether it proceeds
mainly parallel or normal to the surface exposed to the corrosive environment.
b.
In copper alloys corrosion may have the appearance of coppering which

describes a corrosive attack where one or more alloying elements are lost and
porous copper remains. An example is naval brass where in the affected areas
the typical yellow colour changes to copper-red. This occurs on the removal of
zinc and is otherwise known as dezincification. Types of aluminium bronze
suffer similarly on the removal of aluminium and this is known as
de-aluminification.
Crevice Corrosion
a.
Crevice corrosion occurs when a thin film of electrolyte is trapped between two
closely contacting surfaces. Although the gap may be very small, the electrolyte
is drawn in by capillary action and remains there to become stagnant. Two
forms of corrosion may then occur. Lack of dissolved oxygen in the crevice will
prevent the repair of surface oxide films on which some metals depend for their
corrosion resistance, see Clause 20.4a. The second form of attack occurs because
the non-uniform distribution of oxygen produces a concentration cell giving rise
to galvanic action. By the first method corrosion takes place over the creviced
area and by the second method corrosion occurs near the edge of the crevice.
b.
Crevice attack can, therefore, occur where items are in close contact in an
electrolyte. Examples are bolted flanges and pump spindles in way of packing,
but it can also occur under any crevice-forming object, such as loose scale, loose
paint, or other deposit.
Impingement Corrosion
a.
One of the factors that influence the rate of corrosion is the nature of the flow
of liquid over the corroding metal. Corrosion takes place more readily where
fresh liquid is continually available either by turbulence or simply by rate of
flow. This may result from the application of fresh oxygenated liquid itself or
by the removal of corrosion products or protective films from the metal surface.
Accelerated corrosion due to the continual removal of protective corrosion
product films is called impingement corrosion.
b.
Impingement corrosion is a hazard in all systems carrying sea water. The

severity of attack is not only dependent on the speed and turbulence of the
water, but also on the suspended grit and entrained air in the system. Pipes in
sea water systems are normally of cupro-nickel and are protected by their own
oxide surface. Impingement destroys the oxide skin locally and electrolytic
corrosion takes place between the intact cathodic oxide skin and the exposed
anodic metal. Maximum design speeds of sea water in pipes are given in
NES 719. Turbulence caused by change-of-direction and in-line fittings
increases the risk of impingement corrosion and lowers the rate of flow that may
be safe in straight pipes.
20.4
NES 738
c.
20.8
20.9
Cavitation
a.
Cavitation is an erosion effect whereby metal is removed by the impact of

collapsing bubbles which form when pressure in a liquid is locally reduced below
its vapour pressure. It occurs on the suction faces of ships propellers where
bubbles continuously form and collapse in rapid succession. Other affected
areas are the suction areas of pump impellers and casings, and the water side
of liners in internal combustion engines.
b.
Removal of the protective oxide film by cavitation can give rise to an accelerated
form of attack by cavitation corrosion by a similar mechanism to impingement
corrosion described in Clause 20.7b.
Hot Spot Corrosion

a.
20.10
Impingement attack is readily identified in pipes: the surface of the metal is

extensively pitted, often in the form of horseshoe-shaped pits, with the horse
walking upstream. In copper and copper alloys the pits will be clean, the surface
close to the affected area may be coated with copper salts in the form of
blue-green traces.
Localized introduction of high temperature water or steam can cause severe

local attack on the sea water side of a copper alloy tube opposite the high
temperature point on the steam side. Corrosion pits are formed, often
accompanied by the formation of metallic copper in the pits.
Pitting
a.
Many metals which suffer little or no overall corrosion in sea water are often
susceptible to deep pitting. All forms of pitting are caused by the same basic
mechanism which follows when a local void occurs in the protective surface film
and a galvanic cell is set up. The absence of the protective film may be due to
its non-uniform distribution when formed during the process of corrosion, or
more usually the local destruction of the film. Local destruction of the film can
occur from a variety of causes some of which were listed in Clause 20.2d. and
include:
(1)
non-adherent products of corrosion may collect at localized areas and

create a cell. Any other stationary debris, such as sand, dead barnacles etc
can produce the same result;
(2)
non-metallic inclusions in the surface which are cathodic or anodic to the

parent metal. The resultant corrosion leads to lack of oxygen and the
formation of a concentration cell. The surroundings within a pit can also
become acidic, preventing the formation of a protective film and
accelerating the attack;
(3)
local differences in micro-structure due to cold work or heat treatment

setting up galvanic cells;
(4)
penetration of the protective film by the corroding agent, eg the

penetration of the film on stainless steel by chloride ions;
(5)
carbon film on the insides of tubes originating from lubricants for

machining, working or bending processes. Carbon is cathodic to all
metals, and where the carbon film is discontinuous, pitting will occur;
(6)
fluids at rest for a long time may set up concentration cells.

20.5
NES 738
20.11
Exfoliation of Aluminium Alloy

a.
20.12
The exfoliation of aluminium alloy is the result of the directionality of grain

structure combined with micro-constituents at the grain boundaries. Marked
directionality of grains can occur in rolled plate and if the corroding agent
penetrates the surface layer corrosion can occur as the result of galvanic action.
The corrosion takes place at the grain boundaries due to the difference in
potential between the micro-constituents and the metallic matrix.
Delamination of the surface layers is caused by the pressure exerted by the
voluminous corrosion products.
Harbour and Estuarine Waters

a.
Sea water systems are particularly at risk in harbours and estuaries where the
waters are polluted by sewage and organic industrial wastes. Oxygen is depleted
and hydrogen sulphides formed. Copper alloys can develop sulphide films which
are cathodic to the metal. If this film is damaged or destroyed locally exposing
bare metal rapid corrosion will occur due to the large cathode-to-anode ratio.
Special attention must be paid to newly constructed systems and repaired
systems which have not developed their full protective oxide film. Instructions
on the chemical protection of new sea water systems is given in NES 781.
20.6
NES 738
21.
CATHODIC PROTECTION
a.
21.1
21.2
Sacrificial Anode System

a.
Protection by sacrificial anodes does not require an external electric power

supply or any control by ships staff. Hull potential readings need to be taken
at regular intervals, to ensure that protection is being given. It is most suitable
for small ships and ships with a regular docking programme for the renewal of
the anodes. The weight of anode material must be calculated to last for the
planned docking interval and the surface area of the anodes required is related
to the underwater surface area of the hull and the area of the propellers and any
other exposed copper alloys.
b.
Underwater hull plating is protected by groups of anodes arranged around the

hull, normally three groups port and three groups starboard. Sea water inlet
and outlet tubes are protected by anodes fitted as near as possible to the inlet
and outlet valve. Wet bilges and tanks can be protected by aluminium ribbon
anodes or similar sacrificial anode systems. It is essential that each anode is in
good electrical contact with the steel structure it is protecting.
Materials
a.
21.3
The principles of corrosion by galvanic action are explained in Clauses

20.2a.20.2c., where it is shown that small electrical currents flow between
anodic and cathodic material when these are immersed in an electrolyte, and
this in turn leads to the wastage of the anodic material. The principle of cathodic
protection is to maintain the potential of the steel hull at 0.80 to 0.85 volts
relative to a standard silver/silver chloride reference electrode at which
potential corrosion of the steel will not occur. This is achieved by swamping
these localized corrosion currents by applying an opposing current from an
external source. Two systems of cathodic protection are used, the sacrificial
anode system and the impressed current system. Details of the systems and
their applications are contained in NES 704, Parts 1 to 5.
A carefully balanced zinc alloy which corrodes evenly at a steady rate is used for
sacrificial anodes fitted to ships. A magnesium alloy is used on some commercial
vessels because of its higher driving voltage but this can damage some types of
paintwork unless fitted remote from the structure being protected. It is used,
however, to protect naval ships fitting out by being suspended away from the
hull. Aluminium alloy anodes are also used for special applications.
Impressed Current Cathodic Protection (ICCP) Systems

a.
ICCP systems are used on most frigates, larger ships and nuclear submarines
to protect the underwater hull surface. Lead alloy or platinized titanium anodes
fitted on and insulated from the hull surface are wired to a control unit.
Reference electrodes mounted on the hull monitor the hull potential and the
current to the anodes is controlled to maintain the set voltage required.
Sacrificial anodes are also needed within deep recesses, such as sea tubes and
inside ballast tanks and free-flood spaces of submarines.
b.
The lead/silver alloy, lead/antimony/silver alloy or platinized titanium anodes

are fitted to plastic backing shields to prevent damage to the paint in the
immediate vicinity by high current density. These assemblies are designed to
last 710 years.
c.
Ships fitted with ICCP systems are coated with a coal tar epoxy (cte) paint in
accordance with NES 760 or NES 774. The conventional paints with an
oleo-resinous base are unsuitable for the alkaline conditions usually present
when ICCP is in use.
21.1
NES 738
21.2
NES 738
22.
22.1
22.2
22.3
MARINE FOULING
a.
Plant and animal organisms abound in the sea, and in order to complete their
life style, some need to attach themselves to a firm base. Their adherence to the
hulls of ships results in a roughened surface causing increased resistance to
water flow thus decreasing top speed and increasing fuel consumption. The
settling of organisms within sea water systems likewise increases resistance to
flow, can cause blockage and excessive water velocities in their vicinity and
deposits can initiate crevice corrosion of many alloys. Much of the fouling in sea
water systems is in the form of dead material trapped in the system.
b.
Marine fouling may be divided into hard and soft growths. The main hard
growths are mussels, calcareous tube worms and barnacles, the latter being the
dominant species in many parts of the world. The soft growths are algae,
hydroids, kelps and sponges. All of the above may be described as macro-fouling
organisms; there are in addition the micro-organisms which are soft growths
and consist of fungi and bacteria.
Outer Bottom Fouling

a.
Algae prefer some daylight and settle on ships hulls near the waterline where
they are responsible for the so called grass. The hard shelled animal species,
calcareous tube worms and barnacles tend to settle in greater numbers further
down the hull. Mussels are not a major problem on the bottom of active ships
since they are quickly swept away at speed.
b.
Algal fouling contributes as much to increase in skin frictional resistance as the

hard shelled animal organisms of similar area of deposition. Slime-forming
organisms can also contribute significantly to drag.
Fouling of Sea Water Systems

a.
Mussels are the worst offenders in sea water systems although barnacles and
hydroids are frequent colonizers. Hydroids often settle in great numbers in the
end boxes of heat exchangers. Barnacles attach themselves in heat exchanger
tubes. Fouling by any of these organisms can reduce the heat transfer efficiency
of heat exchangers and condensers and they can cause complete blockage of
tubes. Much of the fouling is caused by dead organisms trapped in the systems.
b.
Perforation of heat exchanger tubes has been shown to be the result of

impingement corrosion caused by turbulence induced by mussel shells lodging
in the tubes.
Fouling by Bacteria and Fungi

a.
Fungi and bacteria are micro-organisms which require organic carbon to feed
on and they will attack many carbon-based materials. Acidic by-products of the
attack can lead to corrosion and pitting of metals. Some of the problems caused
by fouling by bacteria and fungi are:
(1)
growth in hydraulic fluids leading to physical blockage of filters;
(2)
in some circumstances the development of micro-organisms can lead to

the formation of stable emulsions in hydrocarbon fluids and can be
particularly serious in lubrication systems;
(3)
problems can occur with fungal growth in aviation fuel. The problem can
be contained by keeping the fuel as dry as possible and by increased
cleanliness in storage;
22.1
NES 738
(4)
dieso fuel for gas turbines is required to be of higher purity than that
previously used. Additional water removal equipment is required plus fine
filtration; the growth of micro-organisms has led to considerable
problems in blockage of filters and clogging of coalescers; water coalescing
action is also reduced by the production of surface-active materials; the
net effect is reduction in turbine power and loss of operational efficiency;
(5)
rigid controls are also required to prevent the growth of micro-organisms

in fresh water tanks.
22.2
NES 738
23.
ANTIFOULING METHODS
a.
Antifouling paints are the only practical means at present of reducing fouling
of the outer bottom. The paints contain materials that are poisonous to the
fouling organisms and are generally based on cuprous oxide. The erodable
antifouling paints employ a combination of tributyl tin and zinc or copper
oxides.
b.
Sea water systems may be protected by a number of methods but at present only
the Cathelco system has been introduced in the Royal Navy. Other measures
under investigation are copper dosing and chlorination. The method in each
case is as follows:
(1)
Cathelcocopper and aluminium anodes are enclosed in a housing

incorporated in the flow line. The anode is supplied with an impressed
current which releases copper and aluminium in minute quantities
preventing the settlement of fouling organisms.
(2)
Copper dosingsimilar in operation to the Cathelco system but using a

copper anode only.
(3)
Chlorinationthe introduction of chlorine into the water flow can be

achieved by the electrolysis of sea water in an electro-chlorination unit
using platinized titanium electrodes. At certain concentrations
chlorination may reduce corrosion of nickelaluminium bronze and some
other complex copper alloys.
23.1
NES 738
23.2
NES 738
24.
HOT GAS CORROSION

a.
As temperatures rise the rate of corrosion of metals increases because of the

faster rate of chemical reactions at elevated temperatures. When metals are
heated in air they react with the oxygen in the air and are oxidized. Similar
effects occur in other oxidizing media such as steam, high temperature and high
pressure water, carbon dioxide etc. In bioxidant gases such as SO2/SO3
simultaneous oxidation and sulphidation may occur.
b.
A particular example of accelerated oxidation accompanied by sulphidation may

occur in marine gas turbines due to the presence of sulphur oxides in the
combustion gases (from sulphur in the fuel) in combination with seasalt
ingested with air and fuel. Seasalt contains some sodium sulphate and further
sulphate is formed by reaction of the sodium chloride in the salt with SO2/SO3
in the combustion gases. The sulphate is deposited on hot surfaces such as first
stage turbine blades by impaction or condensation and in the presence of traces
of chloride, which help to destroy the protective properties of the oxide scale,
salt-induced hot corrosion may occur, the particular form of attack depending
on temperature. The most aggressive form of corrosion may arise in the
temperature range 650 to 750 C.
c.
To combat this form of corrosion, specially developed higher chromium super

alloys are used together with high chromium, low aluminium overlay coatings
which are more resistant to attack than the traditional aero engine type
Nimonic alloys and pack aluminized coatings.
d.
Special problems may also arise in other high temperature components such as
diesel engine exhausts and exhaust ducts of gas turbines. Materials such as
Inconel 625 may be necessary for the inboard diesel exhaust systems in
submarines with other lower alloyed special stainless steels for the outboard
systems. Gas turbine exhaust ducts and uptakes may contain some Inconel 625
components but in the main austenitic stainless steel, BS 970, Grade 316S12
has proved adequate.
24.1
NES 738
24.2
NES 738
25.
FRETTING CORROSION
a.
This type of corrosion arises where two metal surfaces in tight contact are
subject to a small relative movement such as might occur with vibration. Actual
points of contact that exist between the mating surfaces are broken off during
the relative movement and debris is accumulated in the spaces between the
points of contact. The exposed chafed metal oxidizes.
b.
When oxidation occurs on stationary surfaces in air the oxide film thickens and
at ordinary temperatures retards the rate of corrosion. In the case of fretting
corrosion the relative movement raises the temperature and the oxide film is
rubbed off exposing fresh metal. Retardation is never realized and the rate of
corrosion can be high. The oxide itself can also act as an abrasive.
c.
Fretting damage can in turn lead to further deterioration by fretting fatigue.
25.1
NES 738
25.2
NES 738
26.
LUBRICATING OILS
a.
Corrosion of lubricated bearing surfaces can occur if oxidation of the

constituents of the oil produces acids. Similarly corrosive wear can occur in
internal combustion engines particularly when operating at low cylinder
temperatures. The gaseous combustion products condense as acids on the
cylinders and ring surfaces. Additives to lubricating oil can be made to combat
corrosion and corrosive wear.
26.1
NES 738
26.2
NES 738
ANNEX A.
RELATED DOCUMENTS
A.1
The following documents and publications are referred to in this NES:

See Clause
BS EN 10 002.1
Tensile Testing of Metallic Materials
9.1a.
BS EN 10 045.1
Part 1: Method of test at ambient

temperature
Test Method (V- and U-notches)
9.4a.
BS 131
Notched bar tests
BS 970
Part 1: The Izod impact test of metals
9.4a.
Part 2: The Charpy V-notch impact test

on metals
Part 5: Determination of crystallinity
9.4a.
9.13c.
Specifications for wrought steels for

mechanical and allied engineering
purposes
Part 1: General inspection and testing
procedures and specific requirements
for carbon, carbon manganese alloy and
stainless steels
TABLE 11.2
Part 3: Bright bars for general

engineering purposes
Part 4: Valve steels
TABLE 10.2
TABLE 11.2
BS 1400
Specification for copper alloy ingots and 13.d.,

copper alloy and high conductivity
TABLE 13.1,
copper castings
TABLE 13.2 and
TABLE 18.1
BS 1452
Specification for flake graphite cast iron 12.e., 12.g.,

TABLE 12.1
Specification for wrought aluminium
TABLE 15.1
and aluminium alloys for general
engineering purposes: plate, sheet and
strip
BS 1470
BS 1471

engineering purposes: drawn tube
BS 1472

TABLE 15.1
engineering purposes: forging stock and
forgings
BS 1473

engineering purposes: rivet, bolt and
screw stock
TABLE 15.1
BS 1474

engineering purposes: bars, extruded
round tubes and sections
TABLE 15.1
A.1
TABLE 15.1
ANNEX A.
NES 738
BS 1490
Specification for aluminium and

aluminium alloy ingots and castings for
general engineering purposes
TABLE 15.1
BS 1503
Specification for steel forgings for

pressure purposes
TABLE 10.3
BS 2789
Specification for spheroidal graphite or

nodular graphite cast iron
Specification for rolled copper and
copper alloys: sheet, strip and foil
Specification for copper and copper
alloys: rods and sections (other than
forging stock)
12.e., TABLE 12.1
Specification for copper and copper

alloys: plate
Steel boiler and super-heater tubes
13.d., TABLE 13.4

and TABLE 13.5
TABLE 10.2 and
TABLE 11.2
BS 2870
BS 2874
BS 2875
BS 3059
13.d., TABLE 13.4

and TABLE 13.5
13.d., TABLE 13.4
and TABLE 13.5
Part 1: Specification for low tensile

carbon steel tubes without specified
elevated temperature properties
Part 2: Specification for carbon, alloy
and austenitic stainless steel tubes with
specified elevated temperature
properties
BS 3071
Specification for nickel copper alloy

castings
BS 3072
Specification for nickel

alloys: sheet and plate
alloys: strip
alloys: seamless tube
alloys: wire
alloys: bar
BS 3073
BS 3074
BS 3075
BS 3076
BS 3100
BS 3332
BS 3468
BS 3602
and nickel
TABLE 14.1, 14.b.
and nickel
TABLE 14.1
and nickel
TABLE 14.1
and nickel
TABLE 14.1
and nickel
TABLE 14.1, 14.b.
Specification for steel castings for

general engineering purposes
Specification for white metal bearing
alloy ingots
Specification for Austenitic cast iron
TABLE 11.3
Specification for steel pipes and tubes

for pressure purposes
Part 1: Specification for Seamless and
electric resistance welded including
induction welded tubes
TABLE 10.2
TABLE 18.1
TABLE 12.1
Part 2: Submerged arc welded tubes

BS EN 10025
ANNEX A.
Specification for hot rolled products of

non-alloy structural steels and their
technical delivery conditions
A.2
TABLE 10.1
NES 738
BS 4844
BS 5447
Specification for Abrasion resisting

TABLE 12.1
white cast irons
Methods of test for plane strain fracture 9.12b.
toughness (KIc) of metallic materials
BS 5762
Methods of crack opening displacement

(COD) testing
9.12b.
BS 6681
Specification for malleable cast iron
DEF STAN 012

DEF STAN 035
Guide to engineering alloys used in

Naval service
Electroless nickel coating of metals
12.e., 12.f.,
TABLE 12.1
6.1c.
DEF STAN 036
Guide to flame spraying processes
8.22a.
DEF STAN 038
Electro-deposition of tin
8.15a.
8.16a.
DEF STAN 0310 Electro-deposition of nickel and

chromium
8.15a.
DEF STAN 0311 Phosphate treatment of iron and steel
8.20a.
DEF STAN 0319 Electro-deposition of cadmium
8.15a.
DEF STAN 0320 Electro-deposition of zinc
8.15a.
ASTM E813
9.12b.
NES 704
Standard Test for JIc. A measure of

fracture toughness
Requirements for Cathodic Protection
21.a.
Part 1: Common Requirements
NES 706
NES 719
NES 729
NES 736
Part 2: Impressed Current Cathodic

Protection
Part 3: Sacrificial Anode or
Self-Energized System
Part 4: Ship Fitting-out, Ship in Refit or
Laid-up
Part 5: General Information on
Bimetallic Couples
Welding and Fabrication of Ship
Structure
Sea Water Systems for HM Surface
Ships
Requirements for Non-Destructive
Examination Methods
Part 1: Radiographic
21.a.
Part 2: Magnetic Particle
9.18a.
Part 3: Eddy Current
9.18a.
Part 4: Liquid Penetrant
9.18a.
Part 5: Ultrasonic
9.18a.
21.a.
21.a.
21.a.
4.3h. 6.1b. 6.1c.
6.2b. 6.3a., 15.b.
20.7b.
9.18a.
Requirements for Q1 (Navy) Steel

Part 1; Plates
TABLE 10.1
Part 2: Forgings
TABLE 10.3
Part 3: Steel Castings
TABLE 10.4
A.3
ANNEX A.
NES 738
NES 745
NES 747
Classification, Inspection Requirements

and Acceptance Standards for Castings
Part 1: Copper and Nickel Alloy
Castings
Nickel Aluminium Bronze Castings and
Ingots
Part 1: Requirements for NAB (Naval
Alloy) Centrifugal Castings and Ingots
Alloy) Sand Castings and Ingots
Part 3: Requirements for NAB
(Commercial Alloy) Sand Castings and
Ingots
13.c.
TABLE
TABLE
TABLE
TABLE
TABLE
TABLE
13.1 and
13.2
13.1 and
13.2
13.1 and
13.2

Alloy) Sand Castings with Restricted
Welding
NES 749
Part 5: Requirements for the Design and

Manufacture of NAB Sand Castings
Requirements for
TABLE 13.4 and
AluminiumNickelSilicon Brass
TABLE 13.5
Part 1: Sheet Strip and Plate
Part 2: Forgings, Forging Stock, Rods
and Sections
Part 3: Tubes
NES 770
Welding and Fabrication of Q1N HY80

and QT35 Steel
Part 1: General
6.1b., 6.1c., 6.2b.,

6.3a.
NES 779
Requirements for 90/10 CopperNickel

Alloy Materials
Part 1: Sheet, Strip and Plate
TABLE 13.4 and

TABLE 13.5

and Sections
Part 3: Tubes
NES 780
Requirements for 70/30 CopperNickel

Alloy Material
Part 1: Sheet, Strip and Plate
TABLE 13.4 and

TABLE 13.5

and Sections
Part 3: Tubes
TABLE
TABLE
TABLE
TABLE
20.12a.
NES 781
Process and Procedure Requirements

for the Protection of Sea Water Systems
using Sodium Dimethyldithiocarbamate
NES 791
Requirements for Weldable Structural

Steels
Part 1: Mild SteelPlate Sections and
Bars
ANNEX A.
A.4
13.4 and
13.5
13.4 and
13.5
TABLE 10.1
NES 738
Part 2: Notch Tough Mild SteelPlate
TABLE 10.1
Part 3: B Quality Mild SteelPlates and TABLE 10.1

Sections
NES 797
Part 4: BX Quality SteelPlates
TABLE 10.1
Pipework Engineering
19.1b.
Part 2: Composite CRYOFIT Couplings

NES 824
CopperNickelChromium Sand
Castings and Ingots
Part 1: Production Requirements
TABLE 13.2
Part 2: Guide to Production Methods

NES 830
Requirements for Gunmetal Ingots and

Castings
Part 1: GunmetalSand Castings and
Ingots
Part 2: GunmetalContinuously Cast
TABLE 13.1 and

TABLE 13.2
NES 831
Requirements for Aluminium Alloy

Parts 1 and 2
TABLE 15.1
NES 833
Requirements for NickelAluminium

Bronze
and Sections
Requirements for AluminiumSilicon
Bronze
Part 1: Sheet Strip and Plate
13.d. TABLE 13.4

and TABLE 13.5

and Sections
TABLE 13.4 and

TABLE 13.5
NES 835
Requirements for High Strength

CopperNickelManganese Alloy
Sections
TABLE 13.4 and

TABLE 13.5
NES 836
Requirements for Crown Metal Cast

Bearings
Requirements for Copper Tubes
TABLE 18.1
NES 834
NES 837
13.c.
TABLE 13.1 and

TABLE 13.2
TABLE 13.4 and

TABLE 13.5
NES 838
Requirements for Phosphor Bronze

Rods
Part 1: Continuously Cast
NES 839
Requirements for White Metal Ingots
TABLE 18.1
NES 848
Requirements for CarbonManganese

and Low Alloy Steel Forgings
Part 1: CarbonManganese Steel
Forgings
Steel Castings for Structural
Engineering Pressure Purposes
TABLE 10.3
Turbine rotor forgings 3% chromium

molybdenum steel
TABLE 10.3
NES 849
NES 380
A.5
TABLE 10.4
ANNEX A.
NES 738
NES 380
Turbine rotor forgings.

Nickelchromiummolybdenum
vanadium steel
TABLE 10.3
DGS 6017
Forgings for and heat treatment of

carburized and hardened gears
TABLE 10.3
DGS 6019
(*NES 381)
Forgings for and heat treatment of

nitrided gears
TABLE 10.3
DGS 6022
Forgings for through-hardened gears
TABLE 10.3
DGS 6142
Carbon steel steam piping
TABLE 10.2
* In the course of preparation. When published, it will supersede the stated

document.
ANNEX A.
A.6
NES 738
ANNEX B.
DEFINITIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS
B.1
For the purpose of this NES the following definitions apply:

Anelasticity
The non-elastic behaviour of solids, eg a material

which after rapid removal of a load appears to be
permanently deformed but over a period of time
the deformation disappears.
Anisotropy
Where materials have different properties in

different directions.
A steel whose composition is such that after
heating above the upper critical point it can be
hardened by cooling in air.
Air Hardening
Age Hardening (aged)
The increase in hardness of an alloy with time at

room temperature by the mechanism of
precipitation hardening.
Artificial Ageing
Ageing at a higher temperature so that

precipitation hardening occurs.
Acidity or Alkalinity (pH)
The acidity of a solution is due to the

concentration of hydrogen ions and the alkainity of
a solution is due to the concentration of hydroxide
ions. The pH value is a measure of the acidity or
alkalinity and equals the log of the reciprocal of
the hydrogen ion concentration per litre. Acids
have pH values less than seven, while alkalis have
pH values greater than seven.
Ceramics
Inorganic non-metallic materials which in general

possess very low thermal conductivity with poor
thermal and mechanical shock characteristics but
good high temperature properties.
Cermets
A composite material containing metal and

ceramic constituents. The metal additions improve
the thermal and shock characteristics of ceramics
while retaining good high temperature properties.
Cold Short (steel)
A steel with low ductility and dynamic properties

at room temperature. High phosphorus steels are
cold short.
Cold Working
Cold working is defined as plastic deformation at

temperatures below the recrystallization
temperatures.
Critical Points
The temperatures at which phase transformations

occur in the solid state in steels.
The addition of alloying elements in steel which
tend to form oxides which are removed as slag
leaving deoxidized steel.
Deoxidation (steel)
Ductility
Elastic Strain Energy
Capacity of a material to undergo deformation

under tension without rupture.
The work done in producing an elastic strain is
stored and reappears on removal of the load.
B.1
ANNEX B.
NES 738
Electrical Conductivity and

Resistivity
An important feature of metals. Resistivity is a

measure of the resistance of a conductor of unit
length and unit cross-sectional area. The inverse is
conductivity.
EMP
Electromagnetic pulsean intense pulse of

electromagnetic radiation produced at the instant
of detonation of a nuclear weapon.
Forging Burst
An internal crack produced during heating and

forging.
The size and orientation of the solidified metallic
grains. The size of the grain depends on the
temperatures from which the metal is cooled, the
cooling rate and the temperature of the metal. The
orientation depends on the direction of cooling and
the working the metal receives.
Grain Structure
Hardenability
The susceptibility to hardening by quenching.
HAZ
Heat affected zonethat part of the base metal

which is metallurgically affected by the heat of
welding or cutting but not melted.
Homogeneous Alloy
An alloy whose constituents are uniformly

distributed.
Hot Shortness
Poor ductility at forging temperatures leading to

cracks while hot.
That which is formed when two metals react
chemically on solidification. The compound is
usually extremely hard but very brittle.
Intermetallic Compound
Ion
Ionization
Isotropic
Internal Stress
Killed Steel
Malleability
Nimonics
ANNEX B.
An atom which possesses a charge because it has

had electrons added or removed.
The process of adding or removing electrons to or
from neutral atoms.
Having the same properties in all directions.
Locked up residual stresses arising from elastic
strains internally balanced.
Steel that has been completely deoxidized in the
refining process and in which there is practically
no gas evolution on solidification.
The capacity of a material to deform under
compression without rupture.
Nickelchromium-based alloys with other alloying
additions which will resist oxidation and
mechanical stress at very high temperatures.
Noble Potential
A potential towards the positive end of a scale of

electrode potentials. The potential of an electrode
which is made cathodic is said to become more
noble or more positive.
Notch Sensitivity
A reduction in mechanical properties by the

presence of stress concentrations.
Passivation
The condition in which normal corrosion is

impeded by an absorbed film on the surface of the
metal.
B.2
NES 738
Phase (metallic)
A physically homogeneous part of a metallic

material formed from two or more elements and
which may coexist with one or more other phases.
Plasticity
The property of a material by virtue of which it

may be permanently deformed when it has been
subjected to an externally applied force great
enough to exceed the elastic limit.
Quench Cracks
Cracking in a metallic material on quenching due

to volumetric change or pressure set up by phase
changes.
Recrystallization
The formation of new annealed grains from

previously strain-hardened grains.
A standard half cell against which the potential of
a cathodically protected structure is measured.
Locked up stresses arising from elastic strains
internally balanced.
The largest diameter bar which can be hardened
and tempered to develop a selected combination of
mechanical properties at the axis of the bar.
Reference Electrode
Residual Stress
Ruling Section
Segregation
Heterogeneities in composition; may be gross or

chemical segregation or may be caused during
grain formation when it is known as dendritic
segregation.
Strain Hardening
Increased hardness and strength resulting from

plastic deformation.
Solute atoms are distributed throughout the
crystal grains with the crystal structure being the
same as the pure metal which is the solvent.
Solid Solution
Stress Concentration Factor The ratio of the maximum stress due to a notch to
the mean stress which would exist in the absence
of the notch.
Temper Brittleness
The loss of ductility, and particularly notch

toughness, of some steels on tempering at certain
temperatures.
TREE
Transient Radiation Effect on Electronics, the

effect on electronic devices of neutron and gamma
radition resulting from a nuclear explosion; the
devices produce spurious outputs and may recover
or remain inoperative.
Vapour Pressure
The pressure at which molecules escape from a

substance as vapour.
Same as strain hardening, the increased hardness
and strength resulting from plastic deformation.
Work Hardening
B.3
ANNEX B.
NES 738
ANNEX B.
B.4
NES 738
ALPHABETICAL INDEX
A
Abrasion, 3.3
Aluminium alloy, exfoliation of, 20.5
Aluminium and aluminium alloys, 15.1, 15.2, 15.3
Aluminium silicon bronze, 13.4, 13.7, 13.9, 13.12
Anelastic damping, 17.1
Annealing, 7.1
Anodizing, 8.4
Antifouling methods, 23.1
Austenitic stainless steel, 11.1
B
Bacterial fouling, 22.1
Bearing alloys, 18.1, 18.3
Beryllium copper, 13.1
Bonderizing, 8.4
Brittle fracture, 4.1, 4.2
Bulge explosion tests, 9.4, 9.5
INDEX.1
INDEX
NES 738
C
Calorizing, 8.4
Carbide precipitation in stainless steel, 11.3
Carbon steels, 10.1
Carbon-nitriding, 8.2
Carburizing, 8.1
gas, 8.1
liquid, 8.1
pack, 8.1
Carburizing v nitriding, 8.2
Cast irons, 12.1
ductile iron, 12.1
for naval use, 12.1
grey iron, 12.1
SNG, 12.1
Cast metals, 5.1
Castings, advantages and disadvantages, 5.2
Cathodic protection, 21.1
impressed current, 21.1
sacrificial anode, 21.1
Cavitation, 20.5
Centrifugal casting, 5.1
Charpy test, 9.3
Chip forming, in machining, 6.2
Chromium plating, 8.3
Clad metals, 5.4
Cleanness, material, 9.10, 9.11
Coatings
electroplated, 8.3
hot dipped, 8.3
Cold forming, 6.1
Cold working, 5.3
Continuous casting, 5.1
Copper and copper alloys, 13.1, 13.12
Corrosion, 3.5, 3.6, 4.5, 20.1
cavitation, 20.5
crevice, 20.4
estuarine waters, 20.6
fatigue, 3.5
fretting, 25.1
galvanic, 20.1
hot gas, 24.1
hot spot, 20.5
impingement, 20.4
lubricating oils, 26.1
mechanism of, 20.1
pitting, 20.5
protective films, 20.3
selective phase, 20.3, 20.4
surface films, 20.3
Crack arrest tests, 9.5
Creep, 3.4, 9.11
Crevice corrosion of stainless steel, 11.2, 11.3
Cupro-nickel, 13.9, 13.12
INDEX
INDEX.2
NES 738
D
Damping alloys, 17.1
Damping capacity of metals, 3.1
Die casting, 5.1
Drop weight test, 9.4
Duplex stainless steels, 11.2
Dye Penetrant, 9.13
E
Eddy current, 9.12
Elastic constants, 3.1
Elastic limit, 3.1
Elastic modulus, 3.1
Electroless plating, 8.4
Electroplated coatings, 8.3
Elongation in tensile test, 3.1
Environmental conditions, 2.1
Estuarine waters, corrosion, 20.6
Exfoliation of aluminium alloys, 20.5
Extrusion, 5.3
F
Failure, modes of, 4.1
Fatigue, 3.5, 4.3, 4.4
Fatigue limit, 9.11
Ferromagnetism, 3.1
Flame hardening, 7.2
Forging, 5.3
Forming
cold, 6.1
hot, 6.1
Fouling, 22.1
by bacteria and fungi, 22.1
marine, 22.1
of sea water systems, 22.1
outer bottom, 22.1
Fracture mechanics test, 9.7, 9.8, 9.10
G
Gas carburizing, 8.1
Gunmetal, continuous cast, 13.1
Gunmetal, 13.4, 13.7
INDEX.3
INDEX
NES 738
H
Harbour and estuarine waters, corrosion, 20.6
Hardening
flame, 7.2
induction, 7.2
precipitation, 7.2, 7.3
surface, 8.1
Hardness, 3.3, 9.2
Heading, upset forging, 5.3
Heat treatments, 7.1
Hot dipped coatings, 8.3
Hot forming, 6.1
Hot gas corrosion, 24.1
Hot pressing, 5.3
Hysteretic damping, 17.1
I
Impressed current cathodic protection (ICCP), 21.1
Inconel, 14.2
Inconel 625, 14.1
Inconel 718, 14.1
Induction hardening, 7.2
Interrupted quenching, 7.1
Investment casting, 5.1
Ion nitriding, 8.2
Ion plating, 8.4
Isothermal crack arrest test, 9.5
Izod test, 9.3
J
J-integral, 4.5, 9.8
L
Lead, 19.1
Limit of proportionality, 3.1
Liquid carburizing, 8.1
Low alloy steels, 10.2
Low energy ductile tearing, 4.5
INDEX
INDEX.4
NES 738
M
Machining, 6.2
Magnetic particle testing, 9.12
Magnetic permeability, 3.1
Marine fouling, 22.1
Mechanical testing of metals, 9.1
Metal processes, 5.1
Metal spraying, 8.5
Modulus of rigidity, 3.1
Monel 400, 14.1, 14.2
Monel K 500, 14.1, 14.2
N
Naval brass, 13.4, 13.7, 13.9, 13.12
Nickelaluminium bronze, 13.4, 13.7, 13.9, 13.12
Nickel and nickel alloys, 14.1, 14.2, 14.3
Nickel plating, 8.3
Nitriding, 8.2
Nitriding v carburizing, 8.2
Non-destructive examination, 9.12
Normalizing, 7.1
Notch toughness, 3.3, 3.4
Notch toughness tests, 9.3
O
Outer bottom fouling, 22.1
P
Pack carburizing, 8.1
Paramagnetism, 3.1
Parkerizing, 8.4
Phosphating, 8.4
Phosphor bronze, 13.4, 13.7, 13.9, 13.12
Phosphor bronze, continuous cast, 13.1
Pitting corrosion, 20.5
Plastic collapse, 4.1
Poissons ratio, 3.1
Powder metallurgy, 5.3, 5.4
Precipitation hardening, 7.2, 7.3, 15.1
Proof stress, definition, 3.1
Q
Quality assurance, 9.13
Quenching, 7.1
Quenching, interrupted, 7.1
INDEX.5
INDEX
NES 738
R
Radiography, 9.12
Reduction of area in tensile test, 3.1
S
Sacrificial anode system, 21.1
Sand casting, 5.1
Selecting metals for use, 3.6, 3.8
Shape memory effect (SME) alloys, 19.1
Shear properties, 3.1
Shell moulding, 5.1
Sheradizing, 8.4
Sintering, 5.3
Sintering, to produce bearings, 18.3
Solution treatment, 7.2, 7.3
Spinning, 6.1
Stainless steels, 11.1, 11.2, 11.3, 11.5
austenitic, 11.1
carbide precipitation, 11.3
corrosion resistance, 11.2, 11.3
duplex (austenitic ferritic), 11.2
ferritic, 11.1
for naval use, 11.5
in stress corrosion cracking, 11.3
martensitic, 11.1
precipitation hardening, 11.2
Steel
carbon, 10.1
for carburizing, 8.1
for Naval use, 10.2
for nitriding, 8.2
stainless, 11.1, 11.2, 11.3, 11.5
Stress
corrosion, 3.6, 4.5
relaxation, 3.4
relief, 7.2
rupture, 9.11
Sulphanizing, 8.2
Surface
coatings, 8.2
hardening, 8.1
treatment, 8.1
INDEX
INDEX.6
NES 738
T
Tensile properties, 3.1, 9.1
Tensile test, 9.1, 9.2
Test
bulge explosion, 9.4, 9.5
Charpy, 9.3
corrosion fatigue, 9.11
crack arrest, 9.5
drop weight, 9.4
dynamic tear, 9.6
fatigue, 9.11
fracture mechanics, 9.7, 9.8
isothermal crack arrest, 9.5
of metallic materials, 9.1
stress corrosion cracking, 9.12
welding and brazing, 9.12
wide plate, 9.5
Titanium, 16.1
Toxicity of metals, 3.8
Tufftriding, 8.2
U
Ultrasonics, 9.12
Upset forging, 5.3
W
Welding and brazing tests, 9.12
Weldments, shaping, 6.1
White metal bearings, 18.3
Wide plate test, 9.5
Working processes, 5.3
Wrought metals, 5.2
Z
Zinc, 19.1
Zinc plating, 8.3
INDEX.7
INDEX
NES 738
INDEX
INDEX.8
Inside Rear Cover
Crown Copyright 2000

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Ministry of Defence

Defence Standard 02-738 (NES 738)

Metals And Corrosion Guide

Incorporating NES 738 Category 3

Signature and Date

Naval Engineering Standard

METALS AND CORROSION GUIDE

This NES Supersedes

NAVAL ENGINEERING STANDARD 738

The issue and use of this Standard

It is to be applied as required by any Ministry of Defence contract to provide general

If it is found to be technically unsuitable for any particular requirement the Sponsor is to be

MOD Tender or Contract Process

British Standards Institution,

Directorate of Standardization and Safety Policy,

Naval Engineering Standards

CSE3a, CSE Llangennech, Llanelli,

Tender or Contract Sponsor to advise.

Note: Tender or Contract Sponsor can advise in cases of difficulty.

Health and Safety

PROPERTIES AND SELECTION OF METALLIC

FIGURE 4.3 TYPICAL SN CURVE FOR MANY

METAL FORMS AND PROCESSES . . . . . . . . . . .

Hot Dipped Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

TESTING AND QUALITY ASSURANCE . . . . . . .

CARBON AND LOW ALLOY STEELS . . . . . . . . .

CAST IRONS (GREY FLAKE AND DUCTILE

COPPER AND COPPER ALLOYS . . . . . . . . . . . . .

NICKEL AND NICKEL ALLOYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

ALUMINIUM AND ALUMINIUM ALLOYS . . . . .

HOT GAS CORROSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

DEFINITIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS . . . . . . . .

Metallic materials must be selected with the right properties in addition to

PROPERTIES AND SELECTION OF METALLIC MATERIALS

Electrical conductivity and resistivity.

Magnetic permeabilityis a measure of the ease with which a magnetic

Dampingcertain metals and alloys have a damping capacity which can

The properties of metallic materials may be divided into:

The way metals respond to externally applied force is controlled by their

Tensile and Shear Properties

Limit of proportionality (N/mm 2)that part of the stress/strain curve

FIGURE 3.1 TYPICAL STRESS-STRAIN CURVES

Elastic Limit (N/mm 2)closely related to the limit of proportionality and

Yield stress (N/mm 2)the stress marking the onset of plastic

Ultimate Tensile Strength (N/mm 2)the stress corresponding to

Elongation (%)measured in the tensile test and expressed as a

Reduction of Area (%)expressed as a percentage of the original

Shear Strength (N/mm 2)the stress corresponding to maximum load in

Elastic Modulus (Youngs Modulus)the modulus of elasticity for pure

(10) Shear Modulussometimes known as the Modulus of Rigidity and

Hardness and Abrasion

Hardness is specifically a measure of resistance to penetration.

High hardness may be required to resist wear or abrasion. In some

Hardness can indicate the yield strength of a material. It is not representative

Notch toughness is a measure of the resistance of a metal to brittle fracture. (See

Brittle fractures frequently originate at a notch. In a normal tensile test a metal

Risk of failure in way of a notch is increased with an increase in the rate of

Notch toughness is a property which is also highly temperature-dependent.

Creep is a time-dependent property of a metal which is of particular significance

Stress relaxation is the property of some materials whereby a slow decrease in

FIGURE 3.2 STRESS RELAXATION BEHAVIOUR FOR TWO BOLTING MATERIALS

Most failures of engineering components that are subjected to alternating

Fatigue life is shortened still further if the component is working in a corrosive

The chemical properties of a metallic material which are of prime concern to