THE EXTERIOR AND THE

INTERIOR OF THE EARTH

n.k.agarwal
ex-Director, GSI
Visiting Professor, UPES

Earth From Outer Space

The Exterior to Interior of Earth

The earth is a solid spherical body

having about 6371 km radius.
It is surrounded on its exterior by
different layers
of gases called
Atmosphere.
The entire amount of water occurring
on or below the surface of the earth is
called Hydrosphere.
The
solid earth
is called the
Lithosphere.

Atmosphere
The envelope of air that completely
surrounds the earth is known as the
atmosphere.
It is the presence of the atmosphere
with its abundant supply of oxygen
that makes the earth a unique planet in
the universe.
The oxygen is responsible for the
origin & growth of life on earth.

Atmosphere (contd.)
The atmosphere extends to about 1000km
from the surface of the earth.
99% of the total mass of the atmosphere
is found within 32km.
The atmosphere is made up of 78% of
Nitrogen, 21% of oxygen. The remaining
1% is made up of carbon dioxide, argon,
neon, helium, ozone, water vapor, dust
particles etc.

Atmosphere (contd.)

The atmosphere has a layered structure.

There are 5 distinct layers:

1. Troposphere
2. Stratosphere
3. Mesosphere
4. Thermosphere
5. Exosphere

1.Troposphere:

This is the first layer of the atmosphere.

It extends to a height of 18km at the
equator( as the air is hot and lighter) and
8km at the poles (as the air is cold and
dense).
In this layer, temp. decreases with height.
This is due to the fact that the density of
air decreases with height and so the heat
absorbed is less.

Troposphere (contd.):

Since the troposphere contains most of

the water vapor & clouds, So, all weather
changes occur in the
troposphere
(tropo means change).
Temperature decreases with height in the
troposphere, since the main heat source
is the solar radiation which is absorbed at
the ground level.

Troposphere (contd.):

The rate of decrease of temperature,

called the lapse of temperature which is
about 5C/km.
The height at which the temperature stops
decreasing is called tropopause.
( temp may be as low as 58C).

2. Stratosphere:
This is the 2nd layer of the atmosphere

It extends from the tropopause to about

50 km above the surface of the earth.
Temperature increases due to the
absorption of the ultraviolet radiation of
the sun by ozone present in this layer. The
temp. slowly increases to 4C.

Stratosphere (contd.):

This layer is free from clouds and

associated weather phenomena.
Free
from weather changes, it provides ideal
flying conditions for large jet planes.
At about 50 km, the temp begins to fall
again. This marks the end of the
stratosphere which is called stratopause
, where the temp. is about as high as at
the ground level.

Stratosphere (contd.):

The stratosphere is crucial to life on

earth. It contains ozone. The ozone layer is
located about 24km above the earth.
Ozone gas absorbs some of the
ultraviolet radiation of the sun.
Most of the worlds ozone is found in the
stratosphere, where it may exceed 5 ppmv
(parts per million by volume).
There is very little water vapor at these
heights .

Stratosphere (contd.):
At about 50km, the temp begins to fall
again. This marks the end of the
stratosphere
which
is
called
stratopause.
Since ozone is formed
in the
stratosphere, this zone is also called the
ozonosphere. The ozonosphere is of
utmost importance to the life on earth, as
it absorbs most of the U.V. radiations from
the sun , which would otherwise severely
harm all living things.

Stratosphere (contd.):
The ozone layer
is a natural shield
against the ultraviolet rays reaching the
earth from solar radiations.
It has been discovered that certain gases
(like CO2 originating from industrialized
world are producing destructive effects
on the size & volume of the ozone envelop.
Ozone
holes or gaps
are being
developed in this layer that are becoming
increasingly dangerous for the life system
of the planet.

Stratosphere (contd.):
One ozone hole was detected by NASA in
Sept.,2000 over Arctic that was of a size of
28 million sq.km.

Since then, a global scale effort has been

accelerated binding all the nations to
curtail generation of ozone destroying
gases
by
introducing
alternate
technologies.

3.Mesosphere
Above
the
stratosphere,
lies
the
Mesosphere.
The mesosphere extends to a height of 80
km.
Here the temp. decreases again falling as
low as 90C .
The
mesosphere
has
the
temperatures in the atmosphere.

coldest

The end of this layer is known as the

mesopause.

4.Thermosphere
The thermosphere lies above the
mesosphere.
This layer extend upto a height of about
90 km.
In this layer, temp. rises dramatically,
reaching upto 1480C. This increase in
temp. is due to the fact that the gas
molecules in this layer absorb the cosmic
rays and the ultraviolet radiation of the
sun.

Thermosphere (contd.)
This results in the break up of the gas
molecules into +ively & -ively charged
particles known as ions. Thus, this layer
is also called ionosphere.
The electrically charged gas molecules of
the thermosphere reflect radio waves
(longer wave length) to the earth back
into space .
In this way, radio messages can be
transmitted.

Thermosphere (contd.)

The ionosphere protects us from meteors

and obsolete satellites, because the high
temp. burn nearly all the debris coming
towards the earth.

5.Exosphere

This layer lies above the thermosphere.

The exosphere extends
thermosphere upto 960km.

beyond

the

Till today, very little is known about it.

It is perhaps a low density, high temp
region.

R & D Efforts
The

subject of structure of the

atmosphere is being constantly enriched
with findings from artificial satellites.

Many new information is being gathered

about the physical, chemical, electrical,
thermal and other properties of the
atmosphere through new
tools of
investigations and the information are
under constant revision.

Hydrosphere

It is a collective name for all the natural water

bodies occurring on or below the surface of the
earth.

Although hydrosphere makes only 0.03% of

mass of the earth (5.97 1021 tonnes),
its
relevance to the existence of life on this planet
can be well understood.
The hydrosphere occupies as much as 70% area
of our globe.

More than 98% of the hydrosphere is made up of

huge surface bodies of saline water called sea &
ocean.

Hydrosphere (contd.)
The 4 important constituents of the hydrosphere :
1. Water contained in oceans & their associated
extensions, called seas and bays. The 5 major
oceans (the Pacific, the Atlantic, the Indian, the
Arctic & the Antarctica) and their associated
smaller extensions called seas & bays together
2. Water contained in rivers & lakes.
3. Frozen water in the form of glaciers and Ice
sheets.
4. Ground water stored in the rocks below the
earths surface.

Importance of Hydrosphere and Atmosphere

The presence hydrosphere and atmosphere
are the unique features of our planet which
are largely responsible for making life
possible in the earth.
Creating Geological Agencies like Rivers,
Glaciers,
Wind,
Oceans
etc.
that
continuously change the surface of the earth
by erosion and depositional processes.
Weathering of rocks take place due to the
presence of the
atmosphere and
hydrosphere.

Lithosphere)

While
the
atmosphere
&
the
hydrosphere constitutes the gaseous
and liquid realms of the earth, the
lithosphere represents the solid earth.

Salient Features of Earth

The earth is a solid nearly spherical body
Slightly Flattened at the Two Poles
Slightly Bulging at The Equator
The Polar Radius is 6357km

The Equatorial Radius is 6378km

The Mean Radius is 6371km
The Temperature Increases With Depth- The
Average Geothermal Gradient is ~30oC/km

Interior of the Earth

The interior of the earth is nowhere
exposed to our direct observation.
With our present scientific skills, we can
hardly penetrate up to a few km. below
the surface of the earth whereas the
average radius of the earth is about
6371 km.

Interior of the Earth

We have Limited Direct Knowledge of the
Interior of the Earth through :
Deep Mines which are only a few km deep
Deep Oil Well Drilling only a few km deep
Deep Ocean Drilling up to 12km
Our Knowledge About the Interior of Earth is Based on
Indirect Evidences (Seismology Study of Earthquakes)

Earth's Internal Structure

Our knowledge on the internal
structure of the earth is based on the
evidence obtained with the help of
seismic waves (earthquake waves)
That originate at the Focus and Travel
Through the Interior of the Earth in All
Directions.
The point on the surface vertically above the
Focus is Known as Epicenter

Earth's Internal Structure (contd.)

During an earthquake, 3 types of waves are
generated at the Focus (point of origin of
earthquake below the surface):
1. Primary or P waves (Push & Pull Motion)
2. Secondary or S waves (Transverse or Shear Motion)
3. Long or L waves (Elliptical and Perpendicular
Motion)

The waves can also be produced artificially by an

explosion.

Earth's Internal Structure (contd.)

The seismic waves radiate in all directions
from the focus passing through the earths
body.
Moving faster
in the higher density
medium.
Showing Abrupt Variation in Velocities
Across Boundary of Two Different Mediums
(Discontinuities & Densities)

Earth's Internal Structure (contd.)

The P & S waves travel through the body of the
earth and hence are distinguished as Body
waves.
The L waves are confined mostly to near the
surface of the earth and are thus known as
Surface waves.

The P & S waves are recorded on the surface after

having passed through materials deep within the
earth and thus, are considered important in the
study of internal structure of the earth.

Earth's Internal Structure (contd.)

These waves travel with characteristic
velocities through different media, so that
from their arrival times at Recording
Stations, many important conclusions are
drawn regarding the nature of the materials
lying in their path.

Earth's Internal Structure (contd.)

The P & S waves reach the surface after
being reflected & refracted at various
depths below.
If the earth were of a uniform nature from
the surface to the centre, seismic waves
travelling through it would be recorded
on the surface without any change in
their velocity.

Earth's Internal Structure (contd.)

The abrupt changes in the velocity of
seismic waves
at various depths
actually
represent
seismic
discontinuities and these depths are
taken as demarcating zones of different
material composition within earth.

The Two Most Significant Discontinuities are :

1. The Crust-Mantle Mohorovicic Discontinuity
2. The Mantle Core Discontinuity

These basic discontinuities demarcate 3 major

internal zones of the earth :
1. the Crust,
2. the Mantle and
3. the Core

The Mohorovicic Discontinuity

This is the first major discontinuity and is
named after its discoverer,
Mohorovicic, a
seismologist
of
Yugoslavia
who
first
discovered this discontinuity, in 1904,

It occurs at 3040 km below the continents , 5-6 km

below the oceans and 6070 km below the mountains.

Both the P & S waves on reaching depths

undergo sharp increase in their velocity.
The P waves attain 7.75 km/sec from 5.4km/sec
in overlying layer.

The S waves attain

km/sec.

4.35 km/sec from 3.35

The Crust
The Mohorovicic Discontinuity marks the lower
limit of the crust.
The crust is divided into two layers:
1. The upper layer called SIAL (Rich in Silica)
2. The lower Layer Called SIMA (Rich in Mafic
Minerals)
The crust makes just an insignificant part in the structure
of the earth when compared with the radius of the earth
(~ 6371km).

The Crust (contd.)

The Upper Layer - SIAL
It is made up of light rocks mainly Granite,
Sedimentary rocks with an average density
of 2.7.
The rocks on average have Silica 65-75%
with Alumina the other most abundant
constituent.
SIAL is Found only in the Continental Parts
of the Crust. It is Known as Continental
Crust. (not found in Oceanic Parts)
On an Average it is 30-40km Thick under
Continents but Under Mountains it is ~70km
Thick

The Crust (contd.)

The lower Layer - SIMA
It is made up of dark and heavy rocks mainly
Mafic rocks like basalts and related rocks (Rich
in Mafic Minerals) collectively known as Basic
Rocks, with an average density of 2.8-3.0 and
with ~50% Silica.
The basalts are associated with other heavier
rocks collectively known as Ultrabasic Rocks
with density of ~3.4 and 40-45% Silica.
The thickness of SIMA varies from 5-20km

The Mantle
Beneath the Mohorovicic discontinuity lies
still denser rock (average density 4.53).
This layer is called the Mantle.
Its thickness is About 2900 km.
Density increases with depth.
The rocks are rich in iron & magnesium but
poor in silica.

The Core
It is the 3rd and the innermost structural
shell of the earth.
It starts at a depth of about 2900km below
the surface and extends right up to the
centre of the earth, at a depth of 6371 km.
The behavior of P & S waves below the
depth of 2900 km throws sufficient light on
the existence of the 3rd layer called the
Core.

The Core (Cont.)

At depth of 2,900 km there exists the second
discontinuity which is called Mantle Core
Boundary.
It was first discovered from seismic records by
B. Gutenberg in 1918 and in his honour it is
named as Gutenberg Discontinuity.
The record of seismic waves indicates that the
core has 2 distinct zones:
1. The Outer Core
2.
The Inner Core

The Outer Core

The Outer Core comprises the region
from a depth of 2900 to 5170 km below
the earth surface.
This region behaves like
liquid
because the S waves from the
earthquake shocks are not transmitted
through
this
zone
(it
is
the
characteristic of S waves that they are
unable to travel through liquids)

The Inner Core

The Inner Core with a thickness of about
1216 km is believed to be solid metallic
body.
At the base of the mantle, density is about
5.7 gm/cc that jumps to 9.7 gm/cc at the
top of the core.
The density reaches to ~12.0 gm/cc at the
boundary of inner core and becomes 16.0
gm/cc at the centre of the earth.

The Inner Core

The chemical composition of the inner
core is believed to be iron and nickel.
The velocity of P waves recorded in the
core bear close resemblance to
that
recorded for nickel iron alloys.

Density of Core
It is fairly established that the mean
density of the earth is 5.517 gm/cc.
The average density of the rocks of the
crust is 2.8-2.9 gm/cc
The average density of the materials of
mantle is 4.53 gm/cc.
Hence, all calculations suggest a density
of 9.71-16.0 gm/cc for the material of the
core which is comparable to alloys of
nickel & iron.

Inside the Earth

Crust thickness varies
From 5-70 km

Crust

6357 km at Poles

3486 km
1216 km

Mantle

0
Liquid
Core
Solid
Core

Density (gm/cm3)
Earth

5.517

Continental Crust

2.80

Oceanic Crust

2.90

Mantle

4.53

Outer Core

9.71

Inner Core

16.0

48

Earth's Internal Structure

The Earth's interior is
characterized by a gradual
increase in temperature,
pressure and density with
depth.
At only 100 km depth, the
temp is ~1300C.
At the Earth's center, the
temperature is >6700C.

The pressure in the crust

increases ~280 bars for
every kilometer depth.

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Earth's Internal Structure (contd.)

Depth wise the Earth
consists of 3 major
divisions marked by
differences in chemical
composition Crust,

Mantle and Core

Crust: Outermost rigid

layer - 2 types:
1. oceanic - 5-20 km
thick and is
composed of basalt
(igneous). Young
(<180 million years
old).
2. continental - up to 70
km thick comprising of a
wide variety of rock
types Ranges from
young to old (>3.8 billion
years old).

50

Earth's Internal Structure (contd.)

Mantle: comprises
~82% of the Earth by
volume (~2900 km).
The mantle is
characterized denser
rocks and is able to
flow (plastically) at very
slow rates.

Core: composed of
iron, nickel and other
minor elements.
The outer core is
liquid capable of flow
and source of the
Earth's magnetic field
(~2270km).
The inner core is solid
Fe-Ni (~1216km).

51

Moho at 3040 km below the

continents , 5-6 km below the
oceans and 6070 km below the
mountains.

A = Sedimentary Rock; B = Granitic (SIAL) Layer;

( SIMA) Layer

C = Basaltic

Summary :
This chapter helps you in understanding :
1)
What is Atmosphere, Hydrosphere and Lithosphere,
the three layers of Earth?
2)
What is the importance of Atmosphere and
Hydrosphere in relation to changes on the surface of
the earth, on the rocks and deposition of sediments?
3)
How information about the Interior of Earth is
obtained?
4)
What is the Internal Structure of Earth?
53

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