John Maurice Abel

September 9,2014

MSN Batch 11
ST.Paul University Quezon City
Question for Discussion

Chapter 1 Research and the Problem for Investigation

1. What is research? Why is its process considered cyclical in
nature?
the systematic investigation into and study of materials and
sources in order to establish facts and reach new conclusions. It
is cyclical in nature because whenever we finish or answer the
prior question another question will arise.
2. How is a problem known to be a research problem?
is a statement about an area of concern, a condition to be
improved, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a
troublingquestion that exists in scholarly literature, in theory,
or in practice that points to the need for meaningful
understanding and deliberate investigation.
3. What are the elements of a research problem?
Purpose of the problem
Subject matter to be investigated
Place or locale where the research will take place
Period or time of study in which the data are to be gathered
Population whom data are collected
4. How is a good research problem selected? What are the
guidelines in selecting a research
problem?

Relevance
(importance)

How large or widespread is the

problem? Who is affected? How
severe is the problem?

If a possible research topic

is not addressing a priority
problem, it is not
worthwhile researching it,
so you should drop it from
your list.

Avoidance of
duplication

Has the topic been investigated

before within the proposed study
area, or in another area with similar
conditions?

Can you find answers to the

problem in already
available, published or
unpublished information, or
just by using your common
sense? If so, you
should drop the topic from
your list.

Urgency of data How urgently are the results needed If the research cant be
needed
for making a decision or developing done in time, then there is
(timeliness)
interventions? Consider which
no point in doing it.
research should be done first and
which can be done later.
Political
acceptability

In general it is advisable for you to Avoid any topic which does

research a topic that has the
not have the support of the
interest and support of
relevant authorities.
theworeda authorities. This will
increase the chance that the results
of the study will be implemented.

Feasibility

Consider the complexity of the

problem and the resources you will
require to carry out your study.

If you dont have the

manpower, time,
equipment and money
available, then dont do the
research.

Applicability of Will your study be practically

results and
useful?
recommendatio
ns

If your research isnt going

to be useful, then dont do
it!

Ethical
acceptability

If you think the research

isnt ethical or might cause
harm or disturbance then
dont do it.

You should always consider the

possibility of inflicting harm on
others while carrying out research.
Always consider whether there are
any relevant ethical issues to be
concerned about.

(source: http://labspace.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=454414&section=8.5)

5. How is the title of a research problem formulated?

The Title of a research problem was formulated by the

questions and goals of a certain research. It is based on what
are the topics of the research and eventually the title
determines what the research is all about..
6. How are the general and the specific statement of the problem
formulated?
a. General area of investigation -- Madsens criteria:
i. Sustain your interest & stimulate your imagination
ii. Within your range of competencies
iii. Manageable in size
iv. Potential to make a contribution to body of
knowledge
v. Based on obtainable data
vi. Demonstrate your independent mastery of both the
vii. subject and method

b. Literature review usually limited at this point

i. Must make wise choices about what to investigate,
study,
ii. Is the topic better suited to a qualitative or
quantitative
paradigm?
1. Nature of the problem
Previously studied, much literature
2. quantitative
Exploratory study, lacking theory base -qualitative
7. Why are assumptions and hypotheses important in research? What
functions do they serve?
How are they formulated? Are hypotheses always explicit? Why?
A research hypothesis is the statement created by
researchers when they speculate upon the outcome of a research or
experiment.
Every true experimental design must have this statement at
the core of its structure, as the ultimate aim of any experiment.

The hypothesis are formulated with a number of means, but is

usually the result of a process of inductive reasoning where
observations lead to the formation of a theory. Scientists then
use a large battery of deductive methods to arrive at a
hypothesis that is testable, falsifiable and realistic.

Chapter 2 Review of Related Literature and Studies

1. What is the nature of related studies and literature?

The statement of the research problem and the literature
review

are

mutually

supportive.

The

statement

of

the

research problem clearly defines the subject area to be

treated.

The

literature

review

demonstrates

that

the

research problem has received prior attention, and shows

that further research is needed to resolve the problem.
2. How are related literature and studies formulated?
To be formulated, a literature review must be CLEAR,
COHERENT, and PERSUASIVE analysis of the current state of
the literature and must be related to the main research that
would help in giving the certain facts in regards to the
research.
3. Why are related studies and literature important in research?
What are their functions?

Review and related literature and studies is very important

because it serves as the foundation of the proposed study.
Related literature and studies serve as a guide for the
researcher in pursuing his research venture.
4. What are the characteristics of good related literature and
studies?
a) The materials must be as recent as possible. This is
important
because
of
the
rapid
social.
Political,
scientific, and technological changes. Discoveries in
historical and archaeological research have also change some
historical facts. Researchers in education an psychology are
also making great strides.
b) Materials must be as objective and unbiased as possible.
Some materials are extremely one sided, either politically
or religiously biased. These should be avoided
c) Materials must be relevant to the study. Only materials that
have some similarity to or being on the problem researched
on, should be cited.
d) Surveyed materials must have been based upon genuinely
original and true facts or data to make them valid and
reliable. There are cases where fictitious data are supplied
just to complete a research report.
e) Materials must not be too few but not too many. They must be
sufficient enough o give the researcher insights into his
problem or to indicate the nature of the present
investigation. The number may also depend upon the
availability of related materials. Ordinarily fifteen to
twenty-five may do for a masters thesis and from twenty and
above for a doctoral dissertation, Depending upon their
availability and depth and length of discussion. For
undergraduate theses about ten may do.
5. From what sources may related literature and studies located?
a) Books, encyclopedias, almanacs and other similar references
b) Articles published in professional journals, magazines,
periodicals, newspapers and other publications.
c) Manuscripts, monographs, memoirs, speeches, letters and
diaries.
d) Unpublished theses and dissertations.
e) The Constitution and laws and statutes of the land.
f) Bulletins, circulars and other emanating from government
offices and departments, especially from the office of the
president of the Philippines and DepEd.

g) Records of schools, public and private, especially reports

and other activities.
h) Reports from seminars, educational or otherwise.
i) Official reports of all kinds, educational, social,
economic, scientific, technological, political, etc. from
the government and other entities.
Chapter 3 Historical Research
1. What is a historical research?
It is the type of research that examines past events or
combinations of events to arrive at an account of what has
happened in the past
2. How is a problem or topic chosen for historical research?
a) Uncover the unknown,
b) Answer questions,
c) Identify the relationship that the past has to the
present,
d) Record and evaluate accomplishments of individuals,
agencies, or institutions,
e) Aid in understanding the culture in which we live.
3. From where are the data for historical research gathered? What
are the sources?
a) Current issues in education
b) Desire to understand the impact of a specific individual,
an institution, or a social movement on an educational
policy or educational reform
c) You might want to understand the relationship among
different events (e.g., decisions to use busing and then
to drop busing to schools)
d) Desire to understand the historical roots of an
educational policy
e) You may even decide that past events have not been
presented accurately so you decide to write up your new
interpretation (which must be based on some evidence).
4. How are data analyzed by internal criticism? By external
criticism?

Garraghan divides source criticism into six inquiries:

1.When was the source, written or unwritten, produced (date)?
2.Where was it produced (localization)?
3.By whom was it produced (authorship)?
4.From what pre-existing material was it produced (analysis)?
5.In what original form was it produced (integrity)?
6.What is the evidential value of its contents (credibility)?
5. Why is it important to use both internal and external
criticism?
External criticism refers to determining the authenticity,
validity, or trustworthiness of the source (to see if the
source is what it claims to be); internal criticism refers
to the determination of the reliability or accuracy of the
information contained in the source; it is important for
determining what a good interpretation is of the information
contained in the source.

6. What are the guidelines in writing an effective historical

research?

7. What characteristic of a historical research?

Present historical investigations primarily aim
critical search for truth.

for

In making your historical report the actual events and the

conditions of the time are not violated,exaggerated,or
distorted.
8. What could be good topics for historical research?
a) Current issues in education

b) Desire to understand the impact of a specific individual,

an institution, or a social movement on an educational
policy or educational reform
c) You might want to understand the relationship among
different events (e.g., decisions to use busing and then to
drop busing to schools)
d) Desire to understand the historical roots of an educational
policy
e) You may even decide that past events have not been
presented accurately so you decide to write up your new
interpretation (which must be based on some evidence).
Chapter 4 Descriptive Research
1. Explain what is a descriptive research?
The descriptive research attempts to describe, explain and
interpret conditions of the present i.e. what is. The purpose
of a descriptive research is to examine a phenomenon that is
occurring at a specific place(s) and time. A descriptive research
is concerned with conditions, practices, structures, differences
or relationships that exist, opinions held, processes that are
going on or trends that are evident.
2. Give the characteristics of descriptive studies.
a. Descriptive research ascertains prevailing conditions
of facts in a group or case under study.
b. It gives either a qualitative or quantitative, or both,
description of the general characteristics of thegroup
or case under study.
c. What caused the prevailing conditions is not
emphasized.
d. Study of conditions at different periods of time may be
made and the change or progress that tookplace between
the periods may be noted or evaluated for any value.
e. Comparison of the characteristics of two groups or
cases may be made to determine their similaritiesand
differences.
f. The variables or conditions studied in descriptive
research are not usually controlled.
g. Descriptive studies, except in case studies, are
generally cross-sectional, that is, it studies the
differentsection belonging to the same group

h. Studies on prevailing conditions may or can be repeated

for purposes of verification and comparison
3. What are the advantages of descriptive researches?
The two main benefits of this research method is being able
to use various forms of data as well as incorporating
human experience. It givesresearchers the ability to look at
whatever they are studying in so many various aspects and
can provide a bigger overview as opposed to other forms of
research.
4. What techniques of research are used under descriptive
researches? Explain each.
Descriptive research is a multifaceted research approach. It
can include quantitative data such as the use of empirical
information, or can depict qualitative sources such as
patterns of disease. Descriptive research requires gathering
data that will describe an event and presenting the
information in an organized, and often visual, manner.
Description is used to explain the answer to "what is" and
to depict patterns that emerge during a study through a
variety of research techniques.
5. Differentiate between normative survey and case study.
Normative survey deals with standardized instruments like
mental ability test, stress and personality questionnaire,
morale and job satisfaction questionnaire.
Case study is an intensive and descriptive analysis of a
single subject. It examines a social unit as a whole, and
the unit may be a single typical individual, a family, a
social group, a social institution, or a community.

6. What are the advantages of surveys over case studies? Its

disadvantages?
Advantages

Typical, average or normal.

The result of the survey may be used for prediction.

It makes possible the formulation of generalization
Can provide information about many people since its
cheap and easy to do

Disadvantages

Provides information about behavior that cant be

observed directly
Relies on self-report data, which can be misleading
Doesnt allow conclusions about cause-and-effect
relationships
Sometimes gives incomplete information
Sometimes relies only on self-report data, which can be
misleading

7. What is content analysis? What are its uses?

is a method in the social sciences for studying
thecontent of those types of empirical documentation
which can be briefly referred to - with Hodder - as mute
evidence, "that is written texts and artifacts".
Chapter 5 Experimental Research
1. Explain the process of experimental research?
Construct an experimental design that represents all the
elements, conditions, and relations of the consequences.
1.
2.
3.
4.

Select sample of subjects.

Group or pair subjects.
Identify and control non experimental factors.
Select or construct, and validate instruments to
measure outcomes.
5. Conduct pilot study.
6. Determine place, time, and duration of the experiment.
7. Conduct the experiment.

Compile raw data and reduce to usable form.

Apply an appropriate test of significance.
2. Differentiate a dependent from an independent variable. What
are their functions in an
experimental research?
In an experiment, the independent variable is the variable
that is varied or manipulated by the researcher, and
the dependent variable is the response that is measured.
An independent variable is the presumed cause, whereas
the dependent variable is the presumed effect.
3. Give the distinguishing features of experiments.

Pretest-Posttest Design
Check whether the groups are different before the
manipulation starts and the effect of the manipulation.
Pretests sometimes influence the effect.

Control Group
Control groups are designed to measure research bias and
measurement effects, such as the Hawthorne Effect or
the Placebo Effect. A control group is a group not
receiving the same manipulation as the experimental
group. Experiments frequently have 2 conditions, but
rarely more than 3 conditions at the same time.

Randomized Controlled Trials

Randomized Sampling, comparison between an Experimental
Group and a Control Group and strict
control/randomization of all other variables

Solomon Four-Group Design

With two control groups and two experimental groups. Half
the groups have a pretest and half do not have a pretest.
This to test both the effect itself and the effect of the
pretest.

Between Subjects Design

Grouping Participants to Different Conditions

Within Subject Design

Participants Take Part in the Different Conditions - See
also: Repeated Measures Design

Counterbalanced Measures Design

Testing the effect of the order of treatments when no
control group is available/ethical

Matched Subjects Design

Matching Participants to Create Similar Experimental- and
Control-Groups

Double-Blind Experiment
Neither the researcher, nor the participants, know which
is the control group. The results can be affected if the
researcher or participants know this.

Bayesian Probability
Using bayesian probability to "interact" with
participants is a more "advanced" experimental design. It
can be used for settings were there are many variables
which are hard to isolate. The researcher starts with a
set of initial beliefs, and tries to adjust them to how
participants have responded

4. Explain how experimental designs are conducted.

In quantitative research, the amount of data measured can
be enormous. Data not prepared to be analyzed is called
"raw data". The raw data is often summarized as something
called "output data", which typically consists of one
line per subject (or item). A cell of the output data is,
for example, an average of an effect in many trials for a
subject. The output data is used for statistical
analysis, e.g. significance tests, to see if there really
is an effect.
The aim of an analysis is to draw a conclusion, together
with other observations. The researcher
might generalize the results to a wider phenomenon, if
there is no indication of confounding
variables "polluting" the results.
If the researcher suspects that the effect stems from a
different variable than the independent variable, further
investigation is needed to gauge the validity of the
results. An experiment is often conducted because the
scientist wants to know if the independent variable is

having any effect upon the dependent variable. Variables

correlating are not proof that there is causation.

Chapter 6 Collection of Data

1. How are data classified according to source? What are their
advantages and disadvantages?
A primary source is a source cited for some new idea,
creative thought, or data originating in that source, and
not derived from another author or another source. Primary
sources usually have some immediate connection or contact
with the source of the new idea, thought, or data. For
example, the primary source of some experimental data might
be written by the scientist who performed the experiments.
The primary source of a quotation might be written by
someone who was present when the thing was said. The primary
source of a historical theory is usually written by the
historian who first conceived that theory. The primary
source of information about a fictional universe is usually
written by the author of that fictional universe.
A secondary source is any source cited for its second-hand
information from a different work. Secondary sources are not
the originators of new ideas, creative thoughts, or data;
they merely act as a conduit for such information. For
example, if an author compiles research data from several
scientists into a table for comparison, she is a secondary
source with respect to that data. If an author paraphrases a
quotation in another source, she is a secondary source with
respect to that quotation. If an author in
a historiography summarizes a historical theory from the
1800s, she is a secondary source as to that historical
theory. An encyclopedia about a fictional universe is a
secondary source as to the works of fiction defining that
fictional universe.
Some secondary sources, such as textbooks and treatises, are
further described as tertiary sources. However,

the tertiary source concept is not as significant and clearcut as the others, and the category has less relevance to
Wikipedia, except for the fact that Wikipedia is itself a
tertiary source.

2. What are the characteristics of a good research instrument?

Explain each.
Usability refers to the ease with which an instrument can be
administered, interpreted by the participant, and
scored/interpreted by the researcher
Validity is the extent to which an instrument measures what
it is supposed to measure and performs as it is designed to
perform. It is rare, if nearly impossible, that an
instrument be 100% valid, so validity is generally measured
in degrees. As a process, validation involves collecting and
analyzing data to assess the accuracy of an instrument.
There are numerous statistical tests and measures to assess
the validity of quantitative instruments, which generally
involves pilot testing
Reliability can be thought of as consistency. Does the
instrument consistently measure what it is intended to
measure? It is not possible to calculate reliability;
however, there are four general estimators that you may
encounter in reading research:
1. Inter-Rater/Observer Reliability: The degree to which
different raters/observers give consistent answers or
estimates.
2. Test-Retest Reliability: The consistency of a measure
evaluated over time.
3. Parallel-Forms Reliability: The reliability of two tests
constructed the same way, from the same content.
4. Internal Consistency Reliability: The consistency of
results across items, often measured with Cronbachs
Alpha.

Chapter 7 The Questionnaire

1. What is a questionnaire?
A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a
series of questions and other prompts for the purpose of
gathering information from respondents. Although they are
often designed for statistical analysis of the responses,
this is not always the case.
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using a
questionnaire as a means of gathering
data?
The advantages of questionnaires
a) Practical
b) Large amounts of information can be collected from a large
number of people in a short period of time and in a
relatively cost effective way
c) Can be carried out by the researcher or by any number of
people with limited affect to its validity and reliability
d) The results of the questionnaires can usually be quickly and
easily quantified by either a researcher or through the use
of a software package
e) Can be analysed more 'scientifically' and objectively than
other forms of research
f) When data has been quantified, it can be used to compare and
contrast other research and may be used to measure change
g) Positivists believe that quantitative data can be used to
create new theories and / or test existing hypotheses
The disadvantages of questionnaires
a) Is argued to be inadequate to understand some forms of
information - i.e. changes of emotions, behaviour, feelings
etc.

b) Phenomenologists state that quantitative research is simply

an artificial creation by the researcher, as it is asking
only a limited amount of information without explanation
c) Lacks validity
d) There is no way to tell how truthful a respondent is being
e) There is no way of telling how much thought a respondent has
put in
f) The respondent may be forgetful or not thinking within the
full context of the situation
g) People may read differently into each question and therefore
reply based on their own interpretation of the question i.e. what is 'good' to someone may be 'poor' to someone
else, therefore there is a level of subjectivity that is not
acknowledged
h) There is a level of researcher imposition, meaning that when
developing the questionnaire, the researcher is making their
own decisions and assumptions as to what is and is not
important...therefore they may be missing something that is
of importance

3. What are the guidelines in the formulation of questions in a

questionnaire? Explain, justify and
give examples each.

The purpose of the investigation or research project must

be established before the questionnaire is drawn up. The
purpose dictates what type of information should be
obtained with the questionnaire. At this stage the
researcher must do a thorough literature study on the
subject under investigation.
Decide whether a questionnaire is the most suitable method
to capture the desired information.
The purpose of the investigation will determine the target
group, that is the respondents to whom the questionnaire
is directed.
The target group will determine the manner in which the
questionnaire is to be completed. In other words whether
the questionnaires will be posted to the respondents,
completed in a group under supervision, be completed
during personal interviews, etc.
Consider the conditions under which the questionnaire is

to be completed. The conditions in a hut in the informal

sector differ considerably from conditions in an airconditioned hall with comfortable desks.
Discuss the size of the sample, the definition of the
population and the actual drawing of the sample with a
statistician. The final draft of the questionnaire must
also be discussed with the statistician and the research
consultant. The hypotheses to be tested must preferably be
formulated
beforehand
to
ensure
that
all
relevant
information is included in the questionnaire.
Ensure that all information which may later be necessary
for evaluation of
the realisation of the sample is
included in the questionnaire.
The question of anonymity must be addressed. It must be
clearly explained to the respondent that all information
will be considered confidential and that no personal
information will be published. No information that can
identify the respondent should be on the questionnaire.
For example, the questionnaires should not be numbered
prior to sending it to the respondent. An exception must
be made in the case of studies where information must be
obtained before and after certain events or actions and
the two sets of data must be linked. In this case
information such as a student number must be used and the
situation must be explained to the respondent.

Chapter 8 The Interview

1. What is an interview? What are the functions of the
participants in an interview?
An interview is a conversation between two or more people
where questions are asked by the interviewer to elicit
facts or statements from the interviewee. Interviews are a
standard part of journalism and media reporting, but are
also employed in many other situations, including
qualitative research.

Interviews are completed by the interviewer based on

what the interviewee says.

Interviews are a far more personal form of research

than questionnaires.

In the personal interview, the interviewer works

directly with the interviewee.

Unlike with mail surveys, the interviewer has the

opportunity to probe or ask follow up questions.

Interviews are generally easier for the interviewee,

especially if what is sought are opinions and/or
impressions.

Interviews are time consuming and they are resource

intensive.

The interviewer is considered a part of the measurement

instrument and interviewer has to be well trained in
how to respond to any contingency.

Interview provide an opportunity of face to face

interaction between two persons;hence it reduces
conflicts

2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using the

interview as a means of gathering
data?
There are many methods. When considering what type of
qualitative research method to use, Qualitative Interviewing
has many advantages. Possibly the greatest advantage of
Qualitative Interviewing is the depth of detail from the
interviewee. Interviewing participants can paint a picture
of what happened in a specific event, tell us their
perspective of such event, as well as give other social
cues. Social cues, such as voice, intonation, body language
etc. of the interviewee can give the interviewer a lot of
extra information that can be added to the verbal answer of
the interviewee on a question. This level of detailed
description, whether it be verbal or nonverbal, can show an

otherwise hidden interrelatedness between emotions, people,

objects unlike many quantitative methods of research.
In addition, Qualitative Interviewing has a unique advantage
in its specific form. Researchers can tailor the questions
they ask to the respondent in order to get rich, full
stories and the information they need for their project.
They can make it clear to the respondent when they need more
examples or explanations.
Not only can researchers also learn about specific events,
they can also gain insight into peoples interior
experiences, specifically how people perceive and how they
interpreted their perceptions. How events affected their
thoughts and feelings. In this, researchers can understand
the process of an event instead of what just happened and
how they reacted to it.
Another advantage of Qualitative interviewing is what it can
give to the readers of academic journals and papers.
Research can write a clearer report to their readers, giving
them a fuller understanding of the experiences of our
respondents and a greater chance to identify with the
respondent, if only briefly.
Now Qualitative Interviewing is not a perfect method for all
types of research. It does have its disadvantages. First,
there can be complications with the planning of the
interview. Not only is recruiting people for interviews
hard, due to the typically personal nature of the interview,
planning where to meet them and when can be difficult.
Participants can cancel or change the meeting place at the
last minute. During the actual interview, a possible
weakness is missing some information. This can arise from
the immense multitasking that the interviewer must do. Not
only do they have to make the respondent feel very
comfortable, they have to keep as much eye contact as
possible, write down as much as they can, and think of
follow up questions. After the interview, the process of

coding begins and with this comes its own set of

disadvantages. First, coding can be extremely time
consuming. This process typically requires multiple people,
which can also become expensive. Second, the nature of
qualitative research itself, doesnt lend itself very well
to quantitative analysis. Some researchers report more
missing data in interview research than survey research,
therefore it can be difficult to compare populations

3. What are the types of interviews?

Screening Interview
Telephone Interview
Video Conferencing
One-on-One Interview
Panel Interview
Group Interview
General Group Interview/Information Session
Sequential/Serial Interview
4. What are the steps necessary for an effective interview?
Explain each.
a. Do your preparation
Focus on areas of most relevance to the vacant role
Pay more attention to the candidates recent experience
Design your key questions with an emphasis on desired
competencies
Investigate any gaps in employment or illogical career
moves
Manage time expectations..if the candidate is expecting
the interview to last an hour and you close it after half an
hour then they may assume they have not done well
b.

Choose an appropriate environment

 Interviewing is about attracting as well as assessing so

the right environment is important
Try to avoid large rooms / boardrooms they can be
intimidating
Avoid sitting behind a desk or opposite the candidate
this can create a barrier and appear confrontational.
Sit the candidate with their back to any distractions
c. Relax the interviewee
It is your responsibility to establish rapport, not the
candidates
d. Structure the interview and stick to it

Greet the candidate

Outline the interview agenda
Move onto the main questioning stage
Describe the organisation and the role
Answer the candidates questions
Close the interview

e. Ask Effective Questions

The interview should not be a form of conversation, it
should be structured to obtain information about the
candidate in order to make a good recruitment decision
DO
Use open questions
Use probing and clarifying questions
AVOID..
Closed questions
Leading questions
Loaded questions
Multiple questions
f. Encourage the candidate to talk
Remember that the candidate should be the one doing the
talking. Where a good conversation is 50:50, in an interview

the candidate should be talking for approx. 75% of the time.

Use verbal affirmations i.e. mmm, aha etc. and nod your
head
Use positive body language, avoid crossing your arms,
frowning or looking bored

f. Be a conscious listener
Do not make snap decisions or make assumptions about a
candidates ability by their appearance, degree of eye
contact etc.
Make every effort not to make a decision within a matter
of minutes. A candidate is, understandably, not always at
their best in the first few minutes of an interview.
If using a pre-planned questionnaire be prepared to adapt
and adjust these depending on the candidate

g. Note down key information

Take notes throughout the interview which should be clear
and concise
Notes should be evidence based fact versus opinion
Not subjective for example No personality or Is a
star
Remember that candidates have the right to view all notes
taken during the interview.
h. Sell the Company
Remember that the candidate will be assessing the company
during the interview. As the interviewer you are the
representative of the Company
Treat the candidate with professionalism at all times
dont keep them waiting, make sure they have all the
information they need at the start and finish of the
interview
Present a positive image of the organisation, its culture
and the team they may join
Remember that information given should be consistent with

the messages given by other interviewers and everyone else

the candidate encounters during the selection process.
Contradictory information might put the candidate off
Dont oversell. Be realistic about the position and what
the individuals working life might be like if they join the
company
i. Close the interview professionally
Once the candidate has been given the opportunity to ask
their questions, the interviewee should bring the meeting to
a close
Thank the candidate for their time and explain the next
step
Provide timeframes if possible
Make sure the candidate leaves the interview with a good
impression
Chapter 9 Observation
1. Define observation in research.
Observation is a fundamental way of finding out about the
world around us. As human beings, we are very well equipped
to pick up detailed information about our environment
through our senses. However, as a method of data collection
for research purposes, observation is more than just looking
or listening. Research, simply defined, is systematic
enquiry made public (Stenhouse, 1975). Firstly, in order to
become systematic, observation must in some way be
selective. We are constantly bombarded by huge amounts of
sensory information. Human beings are good at selectively
attending to what is perceived as most useful to us.
Observation harnesses this ability; systematic observation
entails careful planning of what we want to observe.
Secondly, in order to make observation public, what we see
or hear has to be recorded in some way to allow the
information to be analysed and interpreted
2. Why is observation needed in research? What are its purposes?
The term 'systematic' observation is usually associated
with observation undertaken from the perspective

of quantitative research where the purpose is to provide

reliable, quantifiable data. This usually involves the use
of some kind of formal, structured observation instrument or
schedule. The observation method being used will clearly
identify: the variables to be observed, perhaps by means of
some kind of behavioural checklist; who or what will be
observed; how the observation is to be conducted; and when
and where the observations will take place
Observation can provide rich qualitative data, sometimes
described as 'thick description' (Geertz, 1973), for
example, where the relevant phenomena have been carefully
observed and detailed field notes have been
recorded. Typically, the researcher would not approach
the observation with pre-determined categories or questions
in mind. Because of this openness, observation in
qualitative research is often referred to as unstructured.
3. What are the types of observation? Explain each.
Casual and Scientific observation An observation can be
sometimes casual in nature or sometimes it may act
scientifically. An observation with a casual approach
involves observing the right thing at the right place and
also at the right time by a matter of chance or by luck
whereas a scientific observation involves the use of the
tools of the measurement, but a very important point to be
kept in mind here is that all the observations are not
scientific in nature.

Natural
Observation
Natural
observation
involves
observing the behaviour in a normal setting and in this
type of observation, no efforts are made to bring any type
of change in the behavior of the observed. Improvement in
the collection of the information and improvement in the
environment of making an observation can be done with the
help
of
natural
observations.

Subjective
and
Objective
observation
All
the
observations consist of the two main components, the
subject and the object. The subject refers to the observer
whereas the object refers to the activity or any type of
operation that is being observed. Subjective observation
involves the observation of the ones own immediate
experience whereas the observations involving observer as
an entity apart from the thing being observed, are
referred to as the objective observation. Objective
observation is also called as the retrospection.

Direct and Indirect observation With the help of the direct

method of observation, one comes to know how the observer is
physically present in which type of situation is he present
and then this type of observation monitors what takes place.
Indirect method of observation involves studies of mechanical
recording or the recording by some of the other means like
photographic or electronic. Direct observation is relatively
more straight forward as compared to the indirect
observation.
Participant
and
Non
Participant
observation
Participation by the observers with the various types of
operations of the group under study refers to the
participant
type
of
observation.
In
participant
observation, the degree of the participation is largely
affected by the nature of the study and it also depends on
the type of the situation and also on its demands.But in
the non participant type of observation, no participation
of the observer in the activities of the group takes place
and also there occurs no relationship between the
researcher and the group.

Structured
and
Unstructured
observation
Structured
observation works according to a plan and involves
specific information of the units that are to be observed
and also about the information that is to be recorded. The
operations that are to be observed and the various
features that are to be noted or recorded are decided well
in advance. Such observations involve the use of especial
instruments for the purpose of data collection that are
also structured in nature. But in the case of the
unstructured observation, its basics are diametrically
against the structured observation. In such observation,
observer has the freedom to note down what he or she feels
is correct and relevant to the point of study and also
this approach of observation is very suitable in the case
of exploratory research.

Controlled
and
Non
Controlled
observation: Controlled
observations are the observations made under the influence
of some of the external forces and such observations rarely
lead to improvement in the precision of the research
results. But these observations can be very effective in
the working if these are made to work in the coordination
with mechanical synchronizing devices, film recording etc.
Non controlled observations are made in the natural
environment and reverse to the controlled observation these
observations involve no influence or guidance of any type
of external force.

4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using observation

as a means of gathering data?
a) It makes it possible to collect different types of data.
Being on site over a period of time familiarizes the

researcher to the community, thereby facilitating

involvement in sensitive activities to which he/she
generally would not be invited.
b) It reduces the incidence of "reactivity" or people acting in
a certain way when they are aware of being observed.
c) It helps the researcher to develop questions that make sense
in the native language or are culturally relevant.
d) It gives the researcher a better understanding of what is
happening in the culture and lends credence to one's
interpretations of the observation. Participant observation
also enables the researcher to collect both quantitative and
qualitative data through surveys and interviews.
e) It is sometimes the only way to collect the right data for
one's study

Chapter 10 Ethical Standards

1. Why are ethical standards important in research?
First, norms promote the aims of research, such as
knowledge, truth, and avoidance of error. For example,
prohibitions against fabricating, falsifying, or
misrepresenting research data promote the truth and avoid
error. Second, since research often involves a great deal of
cooperation and coordination among many different people in
different disciplines and institutions, ethical standards
promote the values that are essential to collaborative work,
such as trust, accountability, mutual respect, and fairness.
For example, many ethical norms in research, such as
guidelines for authorship, copyright and patenting policies,
data sharing policies, and confidentiality rules in peer
review, are designed to protect intellectual property

interests while encouraging collaboration. Most researchers

want to receive credit for their contributions and do not
want to have their ideas stolen or disclosed prematurely.
Third, many of the ethical norms help to ensure that
researchers can be held accountable to the public. For
instance, federal policies on research misconduct, conflicts
of interest, the human subjects protections, and animal care
and use are necessary in order to make sure that researchers
who are funded by public money can be held accountable to
the public. Fourth, ethical norms in research also help to
build public support for research. People more likely to
fund research project if they can trust the quality and
integrity of research. Finally, many of the norms of
research promote a variety of other important moral and
social values, such as social responsibility, human rights,
animal welfare, compliance with the law, and health and
safety. Ethical lapses in research can significantly harm
human and animal subjects, students, and the public. For
example, a researcher who fabricates data in a clinical
trial may harm or even kill patients, and a researcher who
fails to abide by regulations and guidelines relating to
radiation or biological safety may jeopardize his health and
safety or the health and safety of staff and students.