UNIT 13: THE OTTO AND DIESEL CYCLES

Unit Structure

13.0

Overview

13.1

Learning Objectives

13.2

Gas Standard Power Cycles

13.2.1 Basic Definitions for Piston Cylinder Devices

13.3

The Otto Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Spark Ignition Engines
13.3.1 Representation of the Otto Cycle on T-s diagram
13.3.2 Energy Analysis of Otto Cycle

13.4

The Diesel Cycle

13.4.1 Representation of Diesel Cycle on T-s and P-v Diagrams
13.4.2 Energy Analysis of Diesel Cycles

13.5

Summary

13.6

Answers to Activities

13.0 OVERVIEW
In Unit 12, we have seen power generation cycles which are an important area of
application for thermodynamics. In this unit, you will study another important area of
application, namely gas power cycles which are the basis for the operation of
automobile engines. These cycles are open ones, since in automobile engines the
combustion gases are exhausted and replaced by fresh air-fuel mixture at the end of
each cycle. Also, automobile engines are internal combustion heat engines since the
heat is supplied by burning the fuel within the system boundary.

13.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you will be able to do the following:

1.

Unit 13

Explain the gas thermodynamics cycles in automobile engines.

2.

Model the spark ignition (Otto) engine and calculate its thermal efficiency.

3.

Analyse the Diesel engine and determine its thermal efficiency.

13.2 GAS STANDARD POWER CYCLES

In gas power cycles, the working fluid is a gas. Examples of devices that operate on
gas cycles are internal combustion engines such as spark ignition, automobile engines
and diesel engines. In these engines, energy is provided by burning a fuel within the
system boundaries. Therefore, the composition of the working fluid changes from air
and fuel to combustion products during the course of the cycle.

Air being

predominantly nitrogen which undergoes hardly any chemical reaction in the

combustion chamber, the working fluid closely resembles air at all times.

The gas power cycles are rather complex and certain approximations known as Air
Standard Assumptions are necessary to simplify the analysis.

1.

The working fluid is air, which continuously circulates in a closed loop and
always behaves as an ideal gas.

2.

All the processes that make up the cycle are internally reversible.

3.

The combustion process is replaced by a heat addition process from an

external source.

4.

The exhaust process is replaced by a heat rejection process that restores the
working fluid to its initial state.

5.

Air has constant specific heats whose values are determined at room
temperature. When this assumption is made, the air standard assumptions are
known as cold air standard assumptions.

A cycle for which the air standard assumptions are applicable is called an Air
Standard Cycle.

Unit 13

13.2.1

Basic Definitions for Piston Cylinder Devices

The reciprocating engine (piston cylinder) is the powerhouse of automobiles, trucks

and ships. Reciprocating engines are classified as spark ignition engines (SI) or
compression ignition engines (CI) depending on how the combustion process is
ignited in the cylinder.

SI engines: combustion of air fuel mixture initiated by a spark plug

CI engines: Air fuel mixtures are self-ignited as a result of compression of the
mixture above self-ignition temperature.

The basic components are as follows:

Intake valve

Exhaust valve

TDC
Bore

Stroke

BDC

Figure 13.1: Piston Cylinder Device in Automobile Engines

TDC (top dead centre): position where piston forms the smallest volume in cylinder
BDC (bottom dead centre): position where piston forms the largest volume in cylinder

The distance between TDC and BDC is the largest distance the piston can travel in
one direction and is called stroke of engine.

Unit 13

The diameter of piston is called the bore.

The air fuel mixture is drawn through intake valve and combustion products are
purged through exhaust valve.

The minimum volume in the cylinder when the cylinder is at TDC, is called the
clearance volume.

The volume displaced by the piston as it moves between TDC and BDC is called
displacement volume.

The ratio of the maximum volume formed in the cylinder to the minimum is called
compression ratio, r. (a volume ratio not a pressure ratio).

r=

Vmax V BDC
=
Vmin VTDC

MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE (MEP) is a parameter comparing performances of

reciprocating engines of same size.

The larger the MEP, the greater the net work per cycle, therefore the better the
performance of the engine. It is a fictitious pressure which if acted on the piston
during the entire power stroke, would produce the same amount of net work as that
produced during the actual cycle.

Wnet = MEP (piston area) (stroke) = MEP (displacement volume)

MEP =

Unit 13

Wnet
(Vmax Vmin )

13.3 OTTO CYCLE: THE

IGNITION ENGINES

IDEAL

CYCLE

FOR

SPARK

The ideal cycle for spark ignition engines, the Otto cycle was first proposed by
Nikolaus Otto who built a successful four stroke engine in 1876.

In most Spark Ignition engines, the piston executes 4 complete strokes within the
cylinder (2 mechanical cycles). These engines are known as four stroke internal
combustion engines and are shown in Figure 13.2.

Unit 13

Unit 13

Initially, intake and exhaust valves are closed and piston is at BDC.
1

During compression stroke, the piston moves upwards, compressing air and
fuel.

Spark plug fires and mixture ignites increasing P and T of the system. The
high pressure forces the piston down, performing useful work during
expansion stoke (also power stroke)

Piston moves upwards expelling combustion products during the exhaust

stroke

Piston draws in fresh air fuel mixture during the intake stroke.

For analysis purposes, the actual four stroke cycle represented in Figure 13.2 is
simplified significantly by using the air standard assumptions. The resulting cycle
(Figure 13.3) which closely resembles the actual operating conditions is the ideal Otto
cycle. It consists of four internally reversible processes:
12: isentropic compression
23: constant volume heat addition
34: isentropic expansion
41: constant volume heat rejection

Note: There are 2 stroke engines which execute the 4 functions in the actual four
stroke SI engine in just 2 strokes; the power and compression strokes. They are less
efficient than the 4-stroke counterpart because of incomplete expulsion of exhaust
gases. However, they are relatively simple and inexpensive with high power to
weight and volume which make them suitable for motorcycles, lawn mowers.

13.3.1

Representation of the Otto Cycle on T-s diagram

On a T-s diagram, the four processes in the ideal Otto cycle will constitute a cycle
with two vertical lines for the isentropic processes and two constant volume lines as
follows:

Unit 13

T
qin

2
4
qout

1
s
Figure 13.4: Representation of Otto Cycle on T-s Diagram
Heat in, qin = Tds for process 2 - 3
Heat out, q out = Tds for process 4 - 1

And work done = qin qout = area inside the cycle

One parameter is introduced in the Otto cycle, which is the compression ratio,
denoted by r, which is the ratio

V1
where V1 = volume before compression
V2

V2 = volume after compression

13.3.2

Energy Analysis of the Otto Cycle

The Otto cycle is executed in a closed system and thus, the first law relation for any of
the processes is expressed, on a unit mass basis as:

q w = u

(kJ/kg)
T

v=cst

2
4
1

v=cst
s

Figure 13.5

Processes 2-3 and 4-1 are constant volume processes. Therefore, no work is involved.

Unit 13

q 23 = u 3 u 2 = CV ( T3 T2 ) = qin
q 41 = u1 u 4 = CV ( T1 T4 ) = q out
If we assume Cv to be independent of temperature, then
Thermal efficiency of Otto cycle:
nth, Otto =

q out
wnet
(T T1 )
T (T / T 1)
= 1
= 1 4
= 1 1 4 1
(T3 T2 )
qin
qin
T2 (T3 / T2 1)

Since processes 1 2 and 3 4 are isentropic and

v2 = v3 ;

v1 = v4 , we have the following relation whereby

1

T
T1 v 2
v
= = 3 = 4
T2 v1
v4
T3
1
442443 14
42443
isentropic

nth, Otto =

v
T
1 1 = 1 2
T2
v1

isentropic

= 1

1
v1

v2

where r = compression ratio =

= 1

1
r

V1
v
also equal to 1 since mass of air is
V2
v2

assumed to be constant from the air standard assumptions.

Note: In the thermodynamics analysis, the volumes of cylinder at TDC and BDC are
approximated by the volumes of gas inside the cylinder at states 1, 2, 3 and 4. So
specific volumes of gas are used.

Activity 1

1. (a) What constitutes the Otto Cycle?

(b) The compression ratio in an air-standard Otto cycle is 8. At the beginning of
the compression stroke, the pressure is 1 atm and the temperature is 160C. The
heat transfer to the air is 1858 kJ/kg air.
Determine
(a)

The temperature and pressure at each point in the cycle.

(b)

The thermal efficiency

(c)

The mean effective pressure for the cycle.

( = 1.4, Cv = 0.739 kJ/kg.K)

Unit 13

13.4 THE DIESEL CYCLE- Ideal Cycle for Compression Ignition

Engines (CI)
The Diesel cycle is the ideal cycle for CI reciprocating engines. The CI engine was
first proposed by Rudolph Diesel in the 1890s and is very similar to the SI engine
discussed in the last section, differing mainly in the method of initiating combustion
as shown in the table below:

Spark Ignition Engines

Compression Ignition Engine

(1)

Gasoline Engines

(1) Diesel Engines

(2)

Air fuel mixture compressed to

(2) Air compressed to a temperature

a temperature below

above auto ignition temperature

auto-ignition temperature and

of fuel. Combination starts on

combustion process initiated by

contact as the fuel is injected

firing a spark plug

into hot air.

(3) Spark plug and carburator

(3) Fuel injector

Spark plug

Fuel Spray Injector

Air Fuel

Air

Figure 13.6(a)

Figure 13.6(b)

The diesel engine has some advantages over the spark ignition engine in that it is
designed to operate at high compression ratios (12~24) as only air is compressed
during the compression stroke and less refined fuels can be used.

The Diesel Cycle is composed of similar processes as for the Otto Cycle except that
the constant volume heat addition process is now replaced by a constant pressure

heat addition since the combustion process takes place longer and the heat of
combustion can be approximated as heat addition at constant pressure.

Unit 13

10

13.4.1 Representation of Diesel Cycle on T-s and P-v Diagram.

1 2: Isentropic compression.
2 3: Constant pressure heat addition.
3 4: Isentropic expansion.
4 1: Constant volume heat rejection.

qin

qin

P=cst

3
4

qout

3
4

qout

v=cst

V
Figure 13.7(a)

S
Figure 13.7(b)

Two parameters are used in Diesel cycles, the compression ratio, r =

V1
same as in
V2

Otto cycles and the cut-off ratio denoted by rc which is the ratio of the cylinder
volumes,

13.4.2

V3
, after and before the combustion process.
V2

Energy Analysis of Diesel Cycles

The diesel cycle, like the Otto cycle, is executed in a piston-cylinder device, forming
a closed system.

Utilising cold air standard assumptions:

qin = q 23 = w23 + u 23 = p 2 (v3 v 2 ) + (u 3 u 2 )

= (p 3 v3 + u 3 ) ( p 2 v 2 + u 2 )
= h 3 - h 2 = C p (T3 T2 )

q out = q 41 = u 41 = + u 4 u 1 = C v (T4 T1 )

Unit 13

11

Thermal efficiency of Diesel cycles, nth Diesel is given by

nth Diesel =

(T T1 )C v
|qout|
1 T (T / T 1)

= 1 4
= 1 1 4 1
(T3 T2 )C p
| qin |
T2 T3 / T2 1

under isentropic conditions,

T1 V2
=
T2 V1

T1
1
= 1
T2 r

Equation 13.1

But V3 = rc V2 and V4 = V1 , therefore

T1 V2
=
T2 V1

V
= 3
rcV4

1 V3
1 T
= 1 4
1
rc V4
Vc T3
144424
443

Equation 13.2

isentropic process

From (1) and (2),

T1
1 T T
1 T
= 1 4 4 = rc 3
T2 rc T3 T1
T2

and

T3 V3
=
= rc , for a constant pressure process.
T2 V2

1 rc 1 rc 1

(r ) 1 rc 1
nth diesel =
rc 1
1
= 1

(r ) 1 rc 1
1

Activity 2

At the beginning of the compression process of a standard Diesel cycle operating with
a compression ratio of 18, the temperature is 300 K and the pressure is 0.1 MPa. The
cut-off ratio is 2.

Unit 13

12

Determine

(a)

the temperature and pressure at the end of each process of the

Cycle

(b)

the thermal efficiency

(c)

the mean effective pressure (MEP)

Solve with cold air assumption and use

Cp
Cv

for air = 1.4.

13.5 SUMMARY
A cycle during which a net amount of work is produced is called a power cycle, and a
power cycle during which the working fluid remains a gas is called a GAS POWER
CYCLE.

The actual gas cycles are rather complex. The approximations used to simplify the
analysis are known as the air-standard assumptions. If in addition, air is assumed to
have constant specific heats at room temperature, the air standard assumptions are
called cold-air standard assumptions.

The Otto Cycle is the ideal cycle for the spark ignition reciprocating engines and it
consists of four internally reversible processes: isentropic compression, constant
volume heat addition, isentropic expansion and constant volume heat rejection.

The Diesel cycle is the ideal cycle for the compression ignition reciprocating engines.
It is very similar to the Otto cycle, except that the constant volume heat addition
process is replaced by a constant pressure heat addition process.

Unit 13

13

13.6 ANSWER TO ACTIVITIES

Activity 1 (a)

The Otto cycle is comprised of an isentropic compression followed by a constant

volume heat addition, an isentropic expansion and a constant volume heat rejection as
follows:

3
2
4
1
S
Figure 13.9

Activity 1(b)

r=8

P1 = 1 atm

T1 = 16 0 C
v1 = 0.817 m 3 / kg
From r = 8; v 2 = 0.1021 m 3 / kg
and since

T2 v1
=
T1 v 2

T2 = 663K
1.4

P2 v1
= P2 = 1.84 MPa
P1 v 2
Process 2 3 Qin = C v (T3 T2 ) = 1858 KJ / kg
1858
= 3177 K
0.739
v3 = v 2 = 0.1021m 3 / kg

T3 = T2 +
and P3 = 77.7 MPa

Unit 13

0.4

14

v
Figure 13.10

0.4

v
T
Process 3 - 4, 3 = 4 T4 = 1382.8 K
T4 v3
q L = cv (T1 T4 ) = 0.739 (289 1382.8) 808 KJ/kg

wnet = (1858 808) = 1049.6

MEP =

KJ / kg

n th =

1049.6
= 1468 KPa
(0.817 0.1021

Activity 2

State 1:

P1 = 0.1 MPa
T = 300k
1
v1 = 0.8596m 3 / kg

P
2

3
4
1

V
Figure 13.8

Isentropic Process; P1V1 = P2V2

Compression ratio r =

Unit 13

V1 v1
= = 18
V2 v2

15

1049.6
= 0.565
1858

v2 =

0.8596
= 0.048m 3 / kg
18

V
1. 4
P2 = 1 P1 = (18) 0.1 = 5.72
V2

MPa T2 =

v
T2 can also be evaluated as T2 = T1 1
v2

23: Constant Pressure Process

P3 = 5.72 MPa

rc = 2 =

v3
v3 = 0.096m 3 / kg
v2

v
T3 = T2 3 = 2 958 = 1916 K
v2

3 4 : P3 v3 = P4 v 4 and v 4 = v1
1.4

0.096
P4 = 5.72
= 0.266 MPa
0.8596
0.266 0.8596 29.10 3
T4 =
= 798 K
8.31

= 1

nth

( c )MEP

C v (T4 T1 )
C P (T3 T2 )

= 0.629
C p (T3 T2 ) C v (T4 T1 )
=
V1 V2
= 0.696 MPa

with

Unit 13

Cp

= 1 .4
= 1 KJ / kg .k

Cv

= 0.739 KJ / Kg .K

16

P2 v 2 M
= 958 K
Ru