Summary

2.1 Chemistrys Building Block: The Atom

The fundamental unit of matter is theatom, whose most important constituent parts are protons,
neutrons, and electrons. Protons and neutrons exist in the atoms nucleus; electrons move at some
distance around the nucleus. Protons are positively charged; electrons are negatively charged;
neutrons carry no charge. (p. 20)

An element is any substance that cannot be reduced to a simpler set of constituent substances
through chemical means. Each element is defined by the number of protons in its nucleus. (p. 21)

The number of neutrons in an atom can vary independently of the number of protons. Thus, a
single element can exist in various forms, called isotopes. (p. 22)

2.2 Chemical Bonding: The Covalent Bond

Atoms can link to one another in the process of chemical bonding. One form this bonding can
take is covalent bonding, in which atoms share one or more electrons. (p. 22)

Chemical bonding comes about as atoms seek their lowest energy state. An atom achieves
this state when it has a filled outer electron shell. (p. 22)

A molecule is an entity consisting of a defined number of atoms covalently bonded together. (p.

24)

Atoms of different elements differ in their power to attract electrons. The term for measuring this
power is electronegativity. Through electronegativity, a molecule can take on a polarity, meaning a
difference in electrical charge at one end compared to the other. Covalent chemical bonds can be
polar or nonpolar. (p. 25)

2.3 The Ionic Bond

Two atoms will undergo a process of ionization when the electronegativity differences between
them are great enough that one atom loses one or more electrons to the other. This process
creates ions: atoms whose number of electrons differs from their number of protons. The charge
differences that result from ionization can produce an electrostatic attraction between ions. This
attraction is an ionic bond, and the product of this bonding is an ionic compound: a collection of
the atoms of two or more elements that have become linked through ionic bonding. (p. 25)

2.4 The Hydrogen Bond

Hydrogen bonding links an already covalently bonded hydrogen atom with an electronegative
atom. (p. 30)

2.5 Three-Dimensional Shape in Molecules

Three-dimensional molecular shape determines the capacity molecules have to bind with one
another. (p. 30)

2.6 Water and Life

No living thing can be fully functional without a steady supply of water.Waters chemical
properties allow it to facilitate many of the chemical reactions that take place in living things. (p.

31)

Water has several other qualities that have affected life on Earth, among them cohesion and
high specific heat. (p. 33)

Some molecules do not interact with water and are called hydrophobic.Molecules or ions that do
interact with water, by virtue of being charged or polar, are called hydrophilic. (p. 34)

2.7 Acids and Bases

An acid is any substance that yields hydrogen ions when put in an aqueous (water) solution. A
base is any substance that accepts hydrogen ions in solution. A base added to an acidic solution
makes that solution less acidic, while an acid added to a basic solution makes that solution less
basic. (p. 35)

The concentration of hydrogen ions a solution has determines how basic or acidic that solution
is, as measured on the pH scale (running from 0 to 14, with 0 most acidic, 14 most basic, and 7
neutral). (p. 37)

The pH scale is logarithmic; a substance with a pH of 9 is 10 times as basic as a substance with a

pH of 8. Living things function best in a near-neutral pH. (p. 37)

Key Terms
acid 35
acid rain 37
alkaline 37
atomic number 21
ball-and-stick model 29
base 35
buffering system 37
chemical bonding 22
covalent bond 24
electron 20
electronegativity 25
element 21
hydrocarbon 34
hydrogen bond 30
hydrophilic 35
hydrophobic 35
hydroxide ion 37
ion 28
ionic bonding 28
ionic compound 30
isotope 22
law of conservation of mass 24
mass 19
molecular formula 29
molecule 24
neutron 20
nonpolar covalent bond 25
nucleus 20
pH scale 37
polar covalent bond 25
polarity 25
product 29
proton 20
reactant 29
solute 32
solution 32
solvent 32
space-filling model 29
specific heat 33

structural formula 29

Understanding the Basics

Multiple-Choice Questions
(Answers are in the back of the book.)
1. Carbon is an element with an atomic number of 6. Based on this information, which of the
following statements is
true? (More than one may be true.)
a. Carbon can be broken down into simpler component substances.
b. Carbon cannot be broken down into simpler component substances.
c. Each carbon atom will always have 6 neutrons.
d. Each carbon atom will always have 6 protons.
e. Number of protons number of electrons 6
2. Neon has an atomic number of 10 and thus has eight electrons in its second energy level. Thus
neon (select all that apply):
a. has a strong tendency to form covalent bonds.
b. has a filled outer shell.
c. has no tendency to form covalent bonds.
d. is polar.
e. all of these
3. Oxygen and hydrogen differ in their electronegativity. Thus:
a. They can share electrons, but unequally.
b. Sometimes oxygen takes electrons completely away from hydrogen.
c. They can share electrons equally.
d. Hydrogen is attracted to oxygen but does not bond with it.
e. They have the same number of protons.
4. A molecule that does not have a net electrical charge at one end as opposed to the other is:
a. an isotope.
b. a polar molecule.
c. a reactant.
d. a nonpolar molecule.
e. a solvent.
5. You add sugar to your coffee, and the sugar dissolves. Thus the coffee is the _________ and the
sugar is the
_________.
a. solute; solvent
b. solvent; solute
c. polar covalent bond; nonpolar covalent bond
d. nonpolar covalent bond; polar covalent bond
e. ionic bond; hydrogen bond
6. Near an ocean or other large body of water, air temperatures do not vary as much with the
seasons as they do in the
middle of a continent. This tendency of water to resist changes in temperature is the result of
waters:
a. high density.
b. low density.
c. being a good solvent.
d. low specific heat.
e. high specific heat.

7. Janine has dry skin, so she uses body oil every morning. The oil seals in some of the water on
her skin, so that
it doesnt get as dry. This is possible because oils:
a. are hydrophilic.
b. are rare in nature.
c. have a high specific heat.
d. are more dense than water.
e. are hydrophobic.
8. Some plants live in bogs in which the pH is about 2. Thus these plants are able to survive in a(n)
_________ external environment.
a. basic
b. buffered
c. acidic
d. neutral
e. alkaline

Brief Review (Answers are in the back of the book.)

1. As with most elements, carbon comes in several forms, one of which is carbon-14. What are
these forms called, and how does one differ from the other?
2. Compare the size of an atom with the size of its nucleus. Where are the electrons? In light of
this, what makes up most of the volume of an atom?
3. Draw a line and label one end complete or charge and the other end no charge to
indicate the charges on the molecules or ions after bonding has occurred. Along the line, indicate
where polar covalent bonds, nonpolar covalent bonds, and ionic bonds should be placed.
4. Why are atoms unlikely to react when they have their outer shell filled with electrons?
5. Give two examples of the ways in which water acts as a heat buffer.
6. Why do living things need to keep such a tight control on their internal pH?

Applying Your Knowledge

1. In the Middle Ages, alchemists labored to turn common materials such as iron into precious
metals such as gold. If you could journey back in time, how could you convince an alchemist that
iron cannot be changed into gold?
2. Why does a balloon filled with helium float? Hydrogen can make balloons float, but it is not used
for this purpose today because it is flammable. Based on chemical principles reviewed in the
chapter, can you see why helium is not flammable? (Hint: Think what you are adding to a fire when
you blow on it.)
3. How is waters importance to life reflected in the normal range of internal pH values that living
things are likely to have?