Lecture in AC Ckts

ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
Prepared by: Joana Joy N. Abonalla and Pal Maleter Domingo
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
BASIC CONCEPTS
GENERATION OF AC VOLTAGE
AC can be developed in a coil of wire in one of the three ways,
1.
2.
3.
Changing the flux through the coil

By moving the coil through a magnetic field so that the flux cutting results
By altering the direction of the flux with respect to the coil.
In the first of these, the voltage is said to be an induced emf and in accordance with Faradays law. Its
magnitude at any instant of time is given by equation,
e=N x 10-8
Volts
Where:
N = number of turns in the coil
rate at which the flux, in maxwells, changes through the coil.
Note:
By this method of developing an emf, there is no physical motion of coil or magnet; the
current through the exciting coil that is responsible for the magnetism is altered to change the flux
through the coil in which the voltage is induced.
By the second or third, There is actual physical motion of the coil of magnet, and in altered position of
coil or magnet flux through the coil changes.
A voltage developed in either of these ways is said to be generated emf and is given by the equation,
e=Blv x 10-8
Volts
where:
B = flux density in lines per sq.in
l = length of wire moved relatively in the flux
v = velocity of the wire, in/sec, with respect to the flux
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
How AC is generated
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
Sine Wave or Sinusoidal Wave
CYCLE
A complete change in value and direction of an alternating quantity. A cycle of alternating
voltage and current completes 360 electrical degrees. There are two alternations per cycle.
FREQUENCY (f)
The number of cycles per second expressed in hertz (Hz)
f=
PN
120
where:
f = frequency or hertz or cps
P = no. of poles
N = Speed, rpm
PERIOD (T)
The time it takes to complete one cycle.
T=
1
f
WAVELENGTH ()
The length of one complete cycle or wave or the distance traveled by the wave in one cycle.
=
velocity,
frequency, f
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
Note:
1. For electromagnetic waves,
= ,
2. For sound waves,
= ,
INSTANTANEOUS VALUE
The value of alternating quantity at any instant.
MAXIMUM VALUE
The value attained by an alternating quantity during positive or negative half cycle.
This called peak value or amplitude of alternating quantity.
AVERAGE VALUE
The average of all the instantaneous value of half (either positive or negative) cycle of alternating
quantity.
For sine waves,
2Vm
= 0.636 Vm
2Im
=
= 0.636 Im
Vave =
Iave
For other waves,
Area 1
=
Base T
Area 1
=
=
Base T
Vave =
Iave
t dt
0
T
t dt
0
where:
Base = Period (T)
Area = dA = t dt
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
From the above figure,

v(t) = Vm sin t volts
where:
v(t) = instantaneous value of voltage, volts
Vm = maximum value of voltage, volts
= angular frequency (2f), rad/sec
t = time, seconds
t = radian
Similarly, if the above voltage wave is a current wave, then the equation is
i(t) = Im sin t Amperes
where:
i(t) = instantaneous value of current, amperes
Im = maximum value of current, amperes
Note:
t whose unit is radian can be replaced by expressed in degrees.
Points in the figure:
1. v(t) = Vm sin (t+1)
+ slope (zero point)
2. v(t) = Vm cos (t+2)
+ slope (max. point)
3. v(t) = -Vm sin (t+3)
- slope (zero point)
4. v(t) = -Vm cos (t+3)
- slope (max. point)
EFFECTIVE VALUE
The value of the alternating quantity which when applied to a given circuit for a given time produces
the same expenditure of energy as when dc is applied to the same circuit for the same interval of
time.
Also called root-mean-square (rms) value.
For sine waves,

Vrms or V =
Irms or I =
Vm
2
Im
= 0.707 Vm
= 0.707 Im
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
For other waves,

1
T
1
=
T
Vrms 2 =
Irms
Form Factor =
Note:
2 t dt
0
T
2 t dt
0
Effective value
Average value
For sine wave, FF = 1.11
Crest or Peak Factor =

Note:
Maximum value
Effective value
For sine wave, Crest Factor = 1.414
One of the most important excitation is the sinusoidal forcing function. In EE, sinusoidal functions are
extremely important for numbers of reasons. The carrier signals generated for communication purposes are
sinusoids, and of course, it is the dominant signal in the electric power industry. Almost every useful signal in
EE can be resolved into sinusoidal components.
The more general sinusoidal expression is given by,
v(t) = Vm sin (t+)
where:
=+
And can be expressed as;
v1 leads v2 by
v2 lags v1 by
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
Thus far we have considered sine functions rather than cosine functions in defining sinusoids. It does
not matter which form we use since,
A + B = 90
complementary angles
In trigonometry,
sin A = cos (90 A) = cos B
so;
sin t = cos t 2
If we will rewrite v1;
Example:
v1(t) = Vm sin (t+)
1. sin 30 = cos 60
0.5 = 0.5
but;
A=
Then;
2. v1= 4 sin (2t+30)

v2= 6 sin (2t-12)
v1(t) = Vm sin A
= Vm cos
(t + )
v1(t) = -Vm cos ( + )
so;
30- (-12) = 42
PHASE DIFFERENCE
From the above figure:

where:
v(t) = Vm sin t
v1(t) = Vm sin (t+1)
v2(t) = Vm sin (t+2)
1= leading or ahead
2= lagging or behind
= phase angle or angle of displacement
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
REPRESENTATION OF PHASORS
Phasors are rotating vectors. It has magnitude and direction.
To specify a vector quantity, a magnitude and direction must be given. These two quantities can be
merged into a single expression to facilitate the use of this vector in equations. A possible notation is:
A = A
Where:
|A| = magnitude
= phase angle
= measured in counterclockwise direction with respect to the positive x
axis. It is used to specify direction.
This vector is shown,

A
Represents,
AY
AX
A = AX + jAY
rectangular form of a vector
Note:
Two quantities cannot be combined to form a single number.
j = 1
j2 = -1
j3 = -j
j4 = 1
j = operator which is irreducible that would keep

the two quantities separate from each other.
Relationship,
Polar to Rectangular Form
AX = |A| cos = the real component
Ay = |A| sin = the quadrature component
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
Rectangular to Polar Form

|A| = AX 2 + AY 2
= tan1
AY
AX
From the Mclaurins series expansion of sine, cosine and exponential functions that:
ej = cos + j sin = 1
where:
j = 1
Note:
ej = and the Phasor A is read as A cis, where cis stands for
cosine,imaginary,sine.
i = j in vector analysis
OPERATIONS OF PHASORS
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF PHASORS
Z2
Given:
Z1 = X1 + j Y1
Z2 = X2 + j Y2
Z=
Z1
Z2
-Z2
Z1
Thus;
Za = Z1 + Z2 = (X1+ X2) + j (Y1+ Y2)
ZS = Z1 - Z2 = (X1- X2) + j (Y1- Y2)
Z=
Z1
-Z
Z1
Z2
MULTIPLICATION OF PHASORS
1.
Rectangular Form:
Two phases expressed in rectangular forms can be multiplied using the distribution rule.
Given:
Z1 = X1 + j Y1
Z2 = X2 + j Y2
Then;
Z1 Z2 = (X1 + j Y1)( X2 + j Y2)
= X1X2 + j X1Y2 + j X2Y1 + j2 Y1 Y2
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ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
Hence;
Z1 Z2 = (X1X2 - Y1Y2) + j (X1Y2 + X2Y1)
2. Polar Form:
Given:
Z1 = Z1 1
Z2 = Z2 2
Then;
Z1 Z2 = Z1 1 Z2 2
= Z1 cos1 + j Z1 sin1 Z2 cos2 + j Z2 sin2
= Z1 Z2 cos1 cos2 sin1 sin2 + j cos1 sin2 + sin1 cos2
= Z1 Z2 cos 1 + 2 j sin 1 + 2
Thus;
= +
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ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
DIVISION OF PHASORS
1. Rectangular Form:
Given:
Thus;
Z1 = X1 + j Y1
+ + ( )
Z2 = X2 + j Y2
Then;
1
2
X1 + j Y1 X2 j Y2
X2 + j Y2 X2 j Y2
2. Polar Form:
Given:
Z1 = Z1 1
Z2 = Z2 2
Then;
1
2
Z 1 1
Z 2 2
Z1
cos1 +j sin1
cos2 j sin2
Z2
cos2 +jsin2
cos2 j sin2
Z1
cos1 cos2 +sin1 sin2 j cos1 sin2 + j cos2 sin1
Z2
cos2 2 + sin2 2
1
Z1
=
cos 1 2 + j sin 1 2
2
Z2
Thus;
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ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
THE FUNCTIONAL TRANSFORMATION

Ac voltage and current circuits, expressed as functions of time, must undergo a functional
transformation in order to convert them into Phasors.
FUNCTIONAL TRANSFORMATION converts the original function into a new function.
The two functions are related to each other in a definite manner. In addition, the original
function should be obtainable from the new function by an inverse transformation process.
Why do we perform functional transformation?
The good reason is to avoid the use of differential equations.
With the use of Phasors, we can write and solve circuit equation using phasor algebra. In
addition, circuit elements represented by phasors can be dealt with in the same manner as circuit in
a dc circuit.
In general, ac voltage v is transformed in the manner.
t = Vm sin (t + )
to
V = Vrms
It also requires a conversion from peak value to rms values.

This enable us to use circuit equations developed for DC circuits with little or no modification. Phasor
Solutions are applicable only for single frequency or sinusoidal forms only. It can only give the steady state
condition.
The phasor angles are defined at the time, the snap-shot is taken. Sinusoidal waveforms will
maintain the same relative phase positions even as time advances.
SUM OF TWO VOLTAGES EXPRESSED AS FUNCTIONS IN TIME

Given:
v1(t) = Vm1 sin (t+)
v2(t) = Vm2 sin (t+)
Then;
V = v1(t) + v2(t)
= Vm1 sin (t+) + Vm2 sin (t+)
= (Vm1 sint cos + Vm1 cost sin ) + (Vm2 sint cos + Vm2 cost sin )
= sint (Vm1cos + Vm2 cos) + cost (Vm1sin + Vm2 sin)
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ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
Let:
A = Vm1cos + Vm2 cos
B = Vm1sin + Vm2 sin
C = A2 + B 2
From which,
v1+ v2 = A sint + B cost
The sum of sine and cosine wave.
SUM OF THE SINE WAVE AND COSINE WAVE

The sum of sine and cosine wave of the same frequency is another sinusoid of that frequency.
A cost + B sint =
A2 + B 2
A
A2 + B 2
cost +
B
A2 + B 2
sint
Consider;
A cost + B sint =
A cost + B sint =
A2 + B 2 cost cos + sint sin

A2 + B 2 cos t
Where by:
= tan1
B
A
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ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
COMPLETE RESPONSE
It is the sum of a natural and forced response
1. The Natural Response
It is obtained from the dead ciruit and therefore is independent of the sources or
excitations.
2. The Forced Response (if)
It depends directly on the type of excitation applied to the circuit.
*In case of dc source, the forced response is a dc steady state response and so
on.*
FREQUENCY DOMAIN ANALYSIS
First we must establish the relationship between the current and phasor voltage at terminals of the
passive circuit elements.
Relationship for RESISTOR
i = Im cos (t + i )
v = Vm cos (t+ v)
Waveform Diagram:
since,
v = Ri
v(t)
Then,
Vm ej(t+ v) = R Im ej(t+ i)
v
i
By dividing both sides by ej t ,

Vm ej v = R Im ej i
V = RI
i
+
v = Ri
+
R
Resistive element
carrying sinusoidal
current or time
domain.
v = RI
A plot shows that the voltage is and

current at the terminals are
IN PHASE.
Frequency domain
equivalent circuit of
a resistor
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ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
PURE RESISTANCE
where:
V = effective or RMS voltage
I = effective or RMS current
R = effective or ac resistance
For sinusoidal voltage supply,

V=
I=
Vm
2
Im
2
= 0.707 Vm
= 0.707 Im
Vm = Im R
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ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
Relationship for INDUCTOR

i = Im cos (t + i )
di
v L= L dt
since,
Waveform Diagram:
v(t)
di
v L= L dt
i
v
Then,
di
d Im cos t + i
=
dt
dt
di
= Im sin t + i
dt
t
90
Now;
= LIm sin t + i
= LIm cos t + i 90
The phasor representation;
Voltage leads the Current by 90 (ELI)

or Current lags Voltage by 90
= LIm ej( i90)

= LIm eji ej90
= jLIm eji
=
Note: ej90 = cos 90 j sin90 = j
We can also express the phase shift in

seconds. A phase shift of 90 corresponds to
of period; hence the voltage leads the current by T/4
or 1/4f seconds.
i
But;
V = XL I
= L90 Im i
= +
Or
= ( + + )
v =XLi
Inductive element
carrying sinusoidal
current or time
domain.
V =XLI
XL
Frequency domain
a inductor.
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ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
PURE INDUCTANCE
where:
f= frequency ; L = inductance in Henry
XL = 2fL = L = inductive reactance
V=
Vm
2
; I=
Im
2
Vm = Im X L
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ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
Relationship for CAPACITOR

dv
iL= C dt
v= Vm cos (t + v )
Phasor Diagram:
v(t)
then,
1
jC
V=
v
i
Equation demonstrates that the equivalent

Circuit for the capacitor in the phasor domain is,
i
+
90
v =XCi
V =XCI
XC
Capacitive element
carrying sinusoidal
current or time
domain.
Note: =
Current leads Voltage by 90 (ICE)

or Voltage lags Current by 90
Frequency domain
a capacitor.
1
jC
The voltage across the terminals of a capacitor

behind the current by exactly 90.
But;
V = XC I
190
C
Im i
( + )
Or
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ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
PURE CAPACITANCE
where:
1
1
XC = 2fC = = capacitive reactance in ohms
C = capacitance in farad (f)
V=
Vm
2
; I=
Im
2
Vm = Im XC
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ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
OWERS AND POWER TRIANGLE
1. Real or True or Active or Average Power

P = VI cos watts
P=
V m Im
2
cos watts
=
2. Reactive Power
Q = VI sin volt amp reactive (vars)
Q=
V m Im
2
sin vars
3. Apparent Power
S = VI va
S=
Vm Im
va
2
where:
= power factor (pf) angle or phase angle
pf = power factor = cos = P/S
f= reactive factor = sin = Q/S
tan = Q/P
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ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
ENERGY EXPENDED:
1. =
2. For pure L, since = 90
P = VI cos 90 = 0 watts
Q = VI sin 90 vars = VI
S=Q
=
3. For pure C, since = 90

P = VI cos 90 = 0 watts
Q = VI sin 90 vars = VI
S=Q
=
IMPEDANCE, ADMITTANCE, CONDUCTANCE AND SUSCEPTANCE

Impedance is defined as the opposition of circuit to flow of alternatine current.
It is denoted by Z and its unit is ohms.
Admittance is the reciprocal of impedance.
It is the overall ability of an electric circuit to pass alternating current
The letter symbol for admittance is Y
where Y= 1/Z = G jB in siemens or mhos.
Conductance is the measure of the ability of resistance to pass electric current.
Reciprocal of resistance.
The letter symbol for conductance is G. where G = 1/R.
The unit of conductance is the siemens or mho.
Similarly, the reciprocal of reactance is susceptance.
It is the ability of inductance or capacitance to pass alternating current.
The letter symbol for susceptance is B.
where B = 1/X.
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ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
R and L in Series
rf = sin =
VL
V
XL
Z
If all the sides of the voltage are divided by

current, we get
Impedance Triangle
where:
Z = impedance =
V
I
R = resistance =
VR
I
VR 2 + VL 2
V=
V = I R2 + X L 2
=
XL = inductive reactance =
VL
I
From this impedance triangle, we can see that the

x-component of impedance Z is R, and it is given by
where:
Z = impedance in ohms
For R-L series circuit, it can be observed from the

phasor diagram that the current lags behind the
applied voltage by an angle . From the voltage
triangle, we can write,
tan =
VL
VR
pf = cos
X
= RL , and
V
R
= R=
V
Z
and y-component of impedance is XL and is given

by
=
In rectangular form, the impedance is denoted as,
= +
while in polar form, it is denoted as,
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ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
= tan1
XL
R
where:
=
R2 + XL 2
Solving for powers of R-L Circuits:

VR 2
P = VI pf = I R =
watts
R
2
VL
Q = VI rf = I 2 XL =
vars
XL
V2
S = VI = I 2 Z =
va
Z
2
For R-C series circuit, it can be observed from the

phasor diagram that the current lags behind the
applied voltage by an angle . From the voltage
triangle, we can write,
tan =
VC
VR
pf = cos =
rf = sin =
R and C in Series
XC
,
R
VR
V
VC
V
and
R
=Z
XC
Z
If all the sides of the voltage are divided by

current, we get
Impedance Triangle
where:
V=
VR 2 + VC 2
V = I R2 + X C 2
Z = impedance =
V
I
R = resistance =
VR
I
XC = capacitive reactance =
VC
I
From this impedance triangle, we can see that the

x-component of impedance Z is R, and it is given by
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ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
=
=
and y-component of impedance is Xc and is given
by
=
where:
=
R2 + XC 2 ; = tan1
In rectangular form, the impedance is denoted as,

=
while in polar form, it is denoted as,
Solving for powers of R-L Circuits:
VR 2
watts
R
VC 2
Q = VI rf = I 2 XC =
vars
XC
P = VI pf = I 2 R =
V2
S = VI = I Z =
va
Z
2
R LC in Series
VR 2 + VL VC
V = I R2 + XL XC
V=
=
where:
Z = R2 + X L X C 2
V
R
pf = cos = VR = Z
V L V C X L X C
= Z
V
V L V C X L X C
= R
VR
rf = sin =
1
XC = 2fC =
tan =
XL = 2fL = L
Note:
Transpose XL and XC if XC >XL
XL
R
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ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
P = VI pf = I 2 R =
VR 2
watts
R
Q = VI rf = I 2 XL XC =
V2
S = VI = I Z =
va
Z
VL 2 VC 2
vars
XL
XC
Also,
S=
P 2 + Q2
RESONANCE IN SERIES RLC CIRCUIT

We know that both XL and XC are the functions of frequency f. When f is varied both XL and XC also get
varied. At a particular frequency, XL becomes equal to XC. Such a condition when XL = XC for a certain frequency
is called series resonance. At resonance, the reactive part in the impedance of RLC series circuit is zero. The
frequency at which the resonance occurs is called resonant frequency denoted as r, rad/sec or fr, Hz.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SERIES RESONANCE

In a series resonance, the voltage applied is constant and frequency is variable. Hence, following
parameters o series RLC circuit get affected due to change in frequency:
1. XL; As XL=2fL. As frequency is changed from 0 to , XL increases linearly and graph of XL against f is
straight line passing through origin.
2. XC; As XC=1/2fC. As frequency is changed from 0 to , XC reduces and graph of XC against f is
rectangular hyperbola. Mathematically, sign of XC is opposite to XL hence graph of XL versus f is shown
in the first quadrant while XC versus f is shown in the third quadrant.
3. Total Reactance
4. Impedance
5. Current, I
6. power factor, cos
At f = fr the value of XL = XC at this frequency.

As X = XL - XC, the graph of X against f is shown in the figure below.
For f < fr the value of XC >XL and net reactance is capacitive while for f > fr the value of XC < XL and net
reactance is inductive.
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ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
Note:
= + = + but at f = fr the value of XL = XC and X = 0. Hence, the net impedance
Z = R which is purely resistive. So the impedance is minimum and current is maximum at series
resonance.
Now power factor cos = R/Z and at f=fr as Z= R, the power factor is unity and at its maximum at
series resonance. For f < fr it is leading in nature while for f > fr it is lagging in nature.
EXPRESSION FOR RESONANT FREQUENCY

Let fr be the resonant frequency in Hz at which,
XL = XC
2fr L =
fr
fr =
r =
. Series resonance
1
2fr C
1
42 LC
1
2 LC
1
LC
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ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
BANDWIDTH OF SERIES R-L-C CIRCUIT

At series resonance, I is maximum and Z is minimum. Now, power consumed in a circuit is
proportional to the square of the current as P=I2R. So at series resonance as current is maximum, power is also
at its maximum, Pm. The figure below shows the graph of current and power against frequency.
It can be observed that at two frequencies f1 and f2

the power is half of its maximum value. These
frequencies are called half power frequencies.
The difference between the half power frequencies f1 and f2 at which power is half of its maximum is
called bandwidth of series RLC circuit.
In the bandwidth, the power is more than half the maximum value. The bandwidth decides selectivity.
The selectivity is defined as the ratio of the resonant frequency to the bandwidth.
Thus, if the bandwidth is more, the selectivity of the circuit is less. Out of the two half power
frequencies, the frequency f2 is called upper cut-off frequency while frequency f1 is called lower cut-off
frequency.
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ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
EXPRESSION FOR LOWER AND UPPER CUT-OFF FREQUENCIES

The current in a series RLC circuit is given by the equation,
Z = R + j XL XC
but
R2 + XL XC
At resonance, =
and
=
2
R2 + L
1
C
(maximum value)
2
At half power point,

=
=
=
at half power frequency
Equating;
R2 + L
2R
2R =
1
C
R2 + L
R2 + L
2R2 = R2 + L
1
C
2
1
C
1
C
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ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
R2 =
1
C
From the equation above, we can find two values of half power frequencies which are 1 and 2
corresponding to f1 and f2.
+ =
and
Adding equations;
1 L
1
1
+ 2 L
= R + + R
1 C
2 C
1 + 2 L
1
1 1
+
=0
1 2 C
1 + 2 L =
1
1 1
+
1 2 C
1 + 2 L =
1 + 2 1
1 2 C
=
But:
Then;
1 2 = r
f1 f2 = fr
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ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
The equation shows that the resonant frequency is the geometric mean of the two half power
frequencies.
=
QUALITY FACTOR
The quality factor of the R-L-C series circuit is the voltage magnification in the circuit at resonance.
=
Now, = =
And at resonance, =
at resonance
and
VL =
r L
Therefore;
=
r L
= r L
This is nothing but Quality Factor, Q.
=
=
=
Hence;
r L
but
r =
while
BW =
1
LC
R
2L
1 L R
1
=
= fr
2L 2 LC
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ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
SIGNIFICANCE OF QUALITY FACTOR CAN BE STATED AS,

1. It indicates the selectivity or sharpness of the tuning of a series circuit.
2. It gives the correct indication of the selectivity of such series RLC circuit which is used in many radio
circuits.
Note: At the resonant frequency, the impedance is minimum and hence the circuit is known as acceptor
circuit at resonance.
AC PARALLEL CIRCUITS
A parallel circuit is one which has two or more impedances connected in parallel across the supply
voltage. Each impedance may be a separate series circuit. Each impedance is called branch of the parallel
circuit.
The circuit shown is a parallel circuit consisting of three

impedances connected in parallel across an ac supply of V
volts.
Note: The voltage across each impedance is the same as the voltage supply. Thus,
= = = =
The current taken by each impedance is different.
= 1 + 2 + 3
1 2 3
= + +
1 2 3
32
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
= + +
1 2 3
Therefore;
=
+
+

where ZT is called equivalent impedance. This result is applicable for n such impedance connected in parallel.
CURRENT DIVIDER PRINCIPLE

Just like in DC circuit, the process of solving branch currents is the same. The only difference is that
were no longer dealing with scalar quantity R but were considering an impedance Z which is a vector
quantity having magnitude and direction.
If there are two impedance connected in parallel and if IT is the total current, then current division rule
can be applied to find the individual branch currents.
I1
IT
I2
1 1 =
Z1
Z2
1 =
1 =
12
1 + 2
Hence;
and
33
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
CONCEPT OF ADMITTANCE
Just as the conductance, the reciprocal of resistance, prove to be useful quantity in the analysis of
resistive circuits, so does the reciprocal of the impedance offer some convenience in the sinusoidal steady
state analysis of a general RLC circuit.
Admittance is defined as the reciprocal of the impedance. It is denoted as Y and is measured in unit
siemens or mhos.
Now, the current equation of the three impedance comnnected in parallel is,
= 1 + 2 + 3
1
1
1
1
= 1
+ 2
+ 3
1
2
3
= 1 1 + 2 2 + 3 3
= 1 + 2 + 3
Hence,
= + +
where Y is the admittance of the total circuit. The three impedances connected in parallel can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit, where three admittance are connected in series,
Admittance is also defined as the ratio of phasor current to phasor voltage. Thus,
=
and thus,
= +
34
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
where G is the real part of admittance called conductance and B is the imaginary part of the called
susceptance.
The equations should be crutinized carefully. To obtain the relation of Y and Z, we may rationalize it. making,
+ =
=
+ =
+

+
Separating the real and imaginary part of the admittance makes,

+ =
+
+
From the above equation, we can realize that,

=
and
Therefore, it does not state that the real part of the admittance is equal to the reciprocal of the real part of
the impedance.

except in th purely resistive case (X=0)
Similarly that the imaginary part of the admittance is equal to the reciprocal of the imaginary part of
the impedance.
except in th purely reactive case (R=0)
Note: Admittance, Conductance and Susceptance are all measured in siemens (S) or mho.
REMEMBER :
The term IMMITANCE is the combination of the words IMPEDANCE and ADMITTANCE.
35
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
Note also:
R
G
If
Y1
Z1
Z2
G1
Y2
B1
G2
R and L in Parallel
where:
Z=
RX L
R 2 +X L 2
I
pf = cos = IR = R
T
rf = sin =
IL
IT
=X
tan = I L = X
P = VI pf = I 2 R =
V2
R
watts
V2
Q = VI rf = I 2 XL = X vars
L
B2
36
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
S = VI = IT 2 Z =
IR 2 + IL 2 = V
IT =
V2
Z
va
R 2 +X L 2
RX L
IT = Z Amperes
R and C in Parallel
where:
Z=
RX C
R 2 +X C 2
I
pf = cos = IR = R
T
IC
Z
=
IT X C
I
R
= IC = X
R
C
rf = sin =
tan
P = VI pf = IR 2 R =
V2
R
V2
watts
Q = VI rf = IC 2 XC = X vars
C
S = VI = IT 2 Z =
IR 2 + IC 2 = V
IT =
V2
Z
R 2 +X C 2
RX C
IT = Z Amperes
37
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
R LC in Parallel
IR 2 + IL IC
IT =
=V
IT = Z Amperes
where:
Z=
RX L X C
X L 2 X C 2 +R 2 X L X C 2
IR Z
=
IT R
I L I C Z X L X C
=
IT
XL XC
pf = cos =
XC =
1
2fC
XL = 2fL = L
IR =
rf = sin =
tan =
I L I C
IR
V
V
V
; IL =
; IC =
Amperes
R
XL
XC
R X L X C
XL XC
X L 2 X C 2 +R 2 X L X C 2
RX L X C
38
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
RESONANCE IN PARALLEL RLC CIRCUIT

Similar to a series a.c. circuit, there can be resonance in parallel ac circuit. When the power factor of a
parallel ac circuit is unity, that is when the voltage and current is in phase at a particular frequency, then the
parallel circuit is said to be at resonance. The frequency at which the parallel resonance occurs is called
resonant frequency denoted as fr. Unlike a series circuit, however, the total current feeding all branches is
the minimum because algebraic sum of quadrature current component is zero.
IT
VT
IR
R
IL
IC
L
At resonance,
IL IC = 0
IL = IC
V
V
=
XL
XC
1
1
=
XL
XC
=
and,
0
IT =
IR 2 + IL IC
IT = IR
VT
VT
=
Z
R
=
maximum
39
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
maximum
minimum
The term ANTIRESONANCE is sometimes used for unity power factor parallel circuits to distinguish it
from a similar condition I series circuits.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PARALLEL RESONANCE

Consider a practical parallel circuit used for the parallel resonance as showm in the figure.
The one branch consists of resistance R in series with

inductor L. So it is series RL circuit with impedance ZL. The other
branch is pure capacitive with a capacitor C. Both the branches are
connected in parallel across a variable frequency constant voltage
source.
The current drawn by inductive load is IL while the current
drawn to capacitive load is IC.
IL =
V
where ZL = R + jXL
ZL
And
IC =
V
1
where XC =
XC
2fC
The current IL lags the voltage V by an angle L which is

decided by R and XL while the current IC leads the voltage V by 90. The
total current I is the phasor addition of IL and IC.
For the parallel resonance V and I must be in phase. To achieve
this unity pf condition,
40
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
I = IL cos L
and
IC = IL sin L
From the impedance triangle of RL series circuit, we can write,

tan L =
XL
cos L =
ZL
sin L =
XL
ZL
As the frequency is increased, inductive reactance XL increases due to which ZL =
R2 + XL 2 also
increases. Hence power factor cos L decreases and reactive factor sin L increases. As ZL increases, the
current IL also decreases.
At resonance f = fr and IL cos L is at its minimum. Thus, at resonance, current is minimum while the
total impedance of the circuit is at maximum. As admittance is reciprocal of impedance, as frequency is
changed, admittance decreases and is minimum at resonance. The three curves are characteristics of parallel
circuit shown below.
At resonance,
IC = IL sin L
V
V XL
=
XC
ZL ZL
V
VXL
=
XC
ZL 2
ZL 2 = XL XC
R2 + X L 2 = X L X C
R2 + 2fr L
R2 + 2fr L
= 2fr L 2f
=
rC
as f = fr
41
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
R2
2fr L
2fr L
1 R2
=
L2
fr =
1
1
R2
2
2 L
R2
Thus if R is very small compared to L and C, L 2
fr =
1
2
This is the same as that for series resonance.
Note: The net susceptance of the whole circuit is zero at resonance.
A paralle circuits can exhibit properties of resonance only when one or more branches contain an
excess of inductive reactance with respect to other branches that have an excess of capacitive reactance.
In this case of two branches connected in parallel, one path being series RL and the other a series RC. When
the two branch parallel cirucit is in resonance, the quadrature component of currents IC and IL are equal.
Thus,
42
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
IT
IL
IC
Z1
Z2
VT = V1 = V2
At resonance, IC = IL
V1 BL = V2 BC
BL = BC
XL
R2 + X L
XC
R2 + X C 2
1
C
=
2
1 2
R2 +
C
L
C
= 2 2 2
2
2
2
R + L
R C +1
L
2
R + L
R2 2 C 2 L + L = R2 C + 2 L2 C
R2 2 C 2 L 2 L2 C = R2 C L
2 LC R2 C L = R2 C L
2 LC = 1
2 =
=
1
LC
1
LC
2fr =
fr =
1
LC
1
2
43
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
DYNAMIC IMPEDANCE AT RESONANCE

The impedance offered by the parallel circuit at resonance is called dynamic impedance denoted as
ZD. This is maximum at resonance. As current drawn at resonance is minimum, the parallel circuit at resonance
is called rejector circuit. This is indicates that it rejects the unwanted frequencies and hence it is used as filters
in radio receiver.
FromIC = IL sin L , we have seen that,

ZL 2 =
L
C
while
I = IL cos L =
I=
VR
ZL
V
ZL
R
ZL
VR
ZL 2
VR
V
=
L
L
C
RC
where
= is called the Dynamic Impedance
44
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
QUALITY FACTOR OF PARALLEL CIRCUIT

The parallel circuit is used to magnify the current and hence known as current resonance circuit.
The Quality Factor of the parallel circuit is defined as the current magnification in the circuit at
resonance.
The current magnification is defined as,
RC
=
=
=
=
L R
L
C
as
=
L
C
This is nothing but the Quality Factor at resonance.
45
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
POWER IN COMPLEX FORM
1. Voltage Conjugate Method
2. Current Conjugate Method
S = Current x conjugate of voltage
S = Voltage x conjugate of Current
S = IV
S = VI
S = P jQ
S = P jQ
S=
P2 + Q2
va
Note: (used in Series)
S=
P 2 + Q2
va
Note: (used in Parallel)
+j = Q is capacitive (pf is leading)
-j = Q is capacitive (pf is leading)
-j = Q is inductive (pf is lagging)
+j = Q is inductive (pf is lagging)
Where:
S = Apparent power, va
P = Real or true or average power, watts
Q = Reactive power, vars
I = current, amperes
V = voltage, volts
V = conjugate of voltage
I = conjugate of current
= power factor angle
46
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
POWER FACTOR
Power Factor is defined as a factor by which the apparent power must be multiplied in order to obtain
the true power.
It is the ratio of true power to apparent power

=
=

The numerical value of cosine of the phase angle between the applied voltage and the current drawn
from the supply voltage gives the power factor. It cannot be greater than 1.
It is also defined as the ratio of resistance to the impedance.
=
Note:
The nature of power factor is always determined by the position of current with respect to the
voltage.
If the current lags voltage, power factor is said to be lagging. If current leads voltage, power factor
is said to be leading.
So, for pure inductance, the power factor is cos (90). Therefore, it means that the power factor is
zero lagging. For pure capacitance, the power factor is cos (90). Therefore, it means that the power factor is
zero leading. For purely resistive circuit, voltage and current are in phase. Therefore the theta = 0. The
power factor is cos (0) = 1. Such circuit is called unity power factor.
Note:
= is the angle between supply voltage and current.

Nature of power factor always tells the position of the currrent with respect to the voltage.
47
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
DISADVANTAGES OF LOW POWER FACTOR
The power factor plays an importance role in a.c. circuits since power consumed depends upon this factor.
=
It is clear from above that for fixed power and voltage, the load current is inversely proportional to the power
factor. Lower the power factor, higher is the load current and vice-versa. A power factor less than unity results
in the following disadvantages:
(i) Large kVA rating of equipment.
The electrical machinery (e.g., alternators, transformers, switchgear) is always rated in *kVA.
Now,
kVA = kW cos
It is clear that kVA rating of the equipment is inversely proportional to power factor. The smaller the
power factor, the larger is the kVA rating. Therefore, at low power factor, the kVA rating of the
equipment has to be made more, making the equipment larger and expensive.
(ii) Greater conductor size.
To transmit or distribute a fixed amount of power at constant voltage, the conductor will have to carry
more current at low power factor. This necessitates large conductor size. For example, take the case
of a single phase a.c. motor having an input of 10 kW on full load, the terminal voltage being 250 V. At
unity p.f., the input full load current would be 10,000/250 = 40 A. At 08 p.f; the kVA input would be
10/08 = 125 and the current input 12,500/250 = 50 A. If the motor is worked at a low power factor of
08, the cross-sectional area of the supply cables and motor conductors would have to be based upon
a current of 50 A instead of 40 A which would be required at unity power factor.
(iii) Large copper losses.
The large current at low power factor causes more I2R losses in all the elements of the supply system.
This results in poor efficiency.
(iv) Poor voltage regulation.
The large current at low lagging power factor causes greater voltage drops in alternators,
transformers, transmission lines and distributors. This results in the decreased voltage available at the
48
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
supply end, thus impairing the performance of utilisation devices. In order to keep the receiving end
voltage within permissible limits, extra equipment (i.e., voltage regulators) is required.
(v) Reduced handling capacity of system.

The lagging power factor reduces the handling capacity of all the elements of the system. It is because
the reactive component of current prevents the full utilisation of installed capacity.
Causes of Low Power Factor
Low power factor is undesirable from economic point of view. Normally, the power factor of the whole load
on the supply system in lower than 08. The following are the causes of low power factor:
(i) Most of the a.c. motors are of induction type (1and 3 induction motors) which have low
lagging power factor. These motors work at a power factor which is extremely small on light load
(02 to 03) and rises to 08 or 09 at full load.
(ii) Arc lamps, electric discharge lamps and industrial heating furnaces operate at low lagging power
factor.
(iii) The load on the power system is varying; being high during morning and evening and low at other
times. During low load period, supply voltage is increased which increases the magnetisation
current. This results in the decreased power factor.
49
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
POWER FACTOR CORRECTION
The electrical energy is almost exclusively generated, transmitted and distributed in the form of
alternating current. Therefore, the question of power factor immediately comes into picture. Most domestic
loads (such as washing machines, air conditioners, and refrigerators) and industrial loads (such as induction
motors) are inductive and operate at a low lagging power factor. The low power factor is highly undesirable as
it causes an increase in current, resulting in additional losses of active power in all the elements of power
system from power station generator down to the utilisation devices. In order to ensure most favourable
conditions for a supply system from engineering and economical standpoint, it is important to have power
factor as close to unity as possible.
In order to improve the power factor, some device taking leading power should be connected in
parallel with the load. One of such devices can be a capacitor. The capacitor draws a leading current and partly
or completely neutralises the lagging reactive component of load current. This raises the power factor of the
load. The process of increasing the power factor without altering the voltage or current to the original load is
known as power factor correction.
Since most loads are inductive, as shown in Fig. (a), a loads power factor is improved or corrected by
deliberately installing a capacitor in parallel with the load, as shown in Fig. (b). The effect of adding the
capacitor can be illustrated using either the power triangle or the phasor diagram of the currents involved.
Figure 11.28 shows the latter, where it is assumed that the circuit in Fig. (a) has a power factor of cos 1, while
the one in Fig. (b) has a power factor of cos 2. It is evident from Fig. that adding the capacitor has caused the
phase angle between the supplied voltage and current to reduce from 1 to 2, thereby increasing the power
factor. We also notice from the magnitudes of the vectors in Fig. that with the same supplied voltage, the
circuit in Fig. (a) draws larger current IL than the current I drawn by the circuit in Fig. (b). Power companies
charge more for larger currents, because they result in increased power losses (by a squared factor, since
P=I2R). Therefore, it is beneficial to both the power company and the consumer that every effort is made to
minimize current level or keep the power factor as close to unity as possible. By choosing a suitable size for
the capacitor, the current can be made to be completely in phase with the voltage, implying unity power
factor.
50
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
(a)
(b)
We can look at the power factor correction from another perspective. Consider the power triangle,
We can look at the power factor correction from another perspective.
Consider the power triangle in Figure in the left. If the original
inductive load has apparent power S1, then
P = S1 cos 1, Q1 = S1 sin 1 = P tan 1
If we desire to increase the power factor from cos 1 to cos 2
without altering the real power (i.e., P = S2 cos 2), then the new
reactive power is
Q2 = P tan 2
The reduction in the reactive power is caused by the shunt capacitor,
that is,
QC = Q1 Q2 = P (tan 1 tan 2)
But from equation QC = V2rms/XC = CV2rms. The value of the required shunt capacitance C is determined as
( )
=
51
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
Note that the real power P dissipated by the load is not affected by the power factor correction
because the average power due to the capacitance is zero. Although the most common situation in practice is
that of an inductive load, it is also possible that the load is capacitive, that is, the load is operating at a leading
power factor. In this case, an inductor should be connected across the load for power factor correction. The
required shunt inductance L can be calculated from
where QL = Q1 Q2, the difference between the new and old reactive powers.
EX
Importance of Power Factor Improvement
The improvement of power factor is very important for both consumers and generating stations as discussed
below :
(i) For consumers.
A consumer* has to pay electricity charges for his maximum demand in kVA plus the units consumed.
If the consumer imporves the power factor, then there is a reduction in his maximum kVA demand and
consequently there will be annual saving due to maximum demand charges. Although power factor
improvement involves extra annual expenditure on account of p.f. correction equipment, yet improvement of
p.f. to a proper value results in the net annual saving for the consumer.
(ii) For generating stations.
A generating station is as much concerned with power factor improvement as the consumer. The
generators in a power station are rated in kVA but the useful output depends upon kW output. As station
output is kW = kVA cos , therefore, number of units supplied by it depends upon the power factor. The
greater the power factor of the generating station, the higher is the kWh it delivers to the system. This leads
to the conclusion that improved power factor increases the earning capacity of the power station.
52
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
53
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
Inductance Circuit
= =
This means;
v(t)
sin
=
sin
i
v
sin
t
90
u=t
du= dt
nf= 1/
Then,
=
cos
=
cos
but;
Voltage leads the Current by 90 (ELI)

or Current lags the Voltage by 90
when:
= 0; =
cos = sin(90 )
; = 0
2
= ; =
=
3
=
; = 0
2
=
So;
sin(90 )
=
sin( 90)
=
sin( 90)
Now,
=
note:
=
=
90 = ; =
2
Hence,
=
Then;
= =
2
2
54
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
Considering =
or
Then,
=
sin
= =
sin
sin
For Energy Stored in Inductor;
Hence;
W(joules) = pt (watt-sec)
=
Now,
=
=
Power of Inductor;
sin 2
= sin cos
sin 2
Note:
= sin cos
u=2t
du= 2 dt
nf= 1/2
=
note:
2sinAcosA = sin 2A
2sin cos = sin 2
but: =
Then;
=
then;
sin 2
=
2
2
2
cos 2 cos 2
2
2
1 + 1
2

=
=
but;
=
Hence;
=
= 2 =
55
56
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
Hence;
=
= cos
= cos
but;
cos = sin(90 )
or
() =
So;
= sin 90 +
Capacitive Circuit
= sin + 90
note:
= =
; =
2
Hence,
note;
90 =
= =
= +
and
This means;
Then;
sin =
v(t)
v
i
= sin
sin
=
90
note:
=
sin
;
= cos
Current leads the Voltage by 90 (ICE)
So;
Voltage lags the Current by 90

= cos
when:
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
= 0; =
= ; = 0
2
= ; =
=
3
=
; = 0
2
=
=
Then;
=
Now,
= 90 =
Considering =
Then,
= sin +
= sin +
=
3
sin
2
sin 2
2
but;
=
Hence;
=
or
Hence;
= =
=
For Energy Stored in Capacitor;
Power of capacitor;
W(joules) = pt (watt-sec)
=
= sin
Now,
cos
= sin cos
note:
2sinAcosA = sin 2A
2sin cos = sin 2
=
=
=
sin 2
but: =
then;
sin 2
Note:
u=2t
57
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2
AC Circuits
du= 2 dt
nf= 1/2
=
= 2 =
2
2
Hence;
Then;
=
2
0
cos 2
cos 2(0)
2
2
or
1+1
2

=
=
() =
SUMMARY
INDUCTOR
= L
1
=
CAPACITOR
di
dt
+ (0 )
0
+ (0 )
= C
= i = Li
=
di
dt
d
dt
= i = Cv
1 2
Li
2
d
dt
1 2
C
2
58

Lecture in AC Ckts

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Lecture in AC Ckts

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ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2

Prepared by: Joana Joy N. Abonalla and Pal Maleter Domingo

Changing the flux through the coil

rate at which the flux, in maxwells, changes through the coil.

Prepared by: Joana Joy N. Abonalla and Pal Maleter Domingo

Prepared by: Joana Joy N. Abonalla and Pal Maleter Domingo

Sine Wave or Sinusoidal Wave

Prepared by: Joana Joy N. Abonalla and Pal Maleter Domingo

Prepared by: Joana Joy N. Abonalla and Pal Maleter Domingo

From the above figure,

+ slope (zero point)

2. v(t) = Vm cos (t+2)

+ slope (max. point)

3. v(t) = -Vm sin (t+3)

- slope (zero point)

4. v(t) = -Vm cos (t+3)

- slope (max. point)

For sine waves,

Prepared by: Joana Joy N. Abonalla and Pal Maleter Domingo

For other waves,

For sine wave, FF = 1.11

Crest or Peak Factor =

For sine wave, Crest Factor = 1.414

Prepared by: Joana Joy N. Abonalla and Pal Maleter Domingo

If we will rewrite v1;

v1(t) = Vm sin (t+)

2. v1= 4 sin (2t+30)

v1(t) = -Vm cos ( + )

From the above figure:

Prepared by: Joana Joy N. Abonalla and Pal Maleter Domingo

This vector is shown,

rectangular form of a vector

j = operator which is irreducible that would keep

Prepared by: Joana Joy N. Abonalla and Pal Maleter Domingo

Rectangular to Polar Form

Prepared by: Joana Joy N. Abonalla and Pal Maleter Domingo

Prepared by: Joana Joy N. Abonalla and Pal Maleter Domingo

cos1 cos2 +sin1 sin2 j cos1 sin2 + j cos2 sin1

Prepared by: Joana Joy N. Abonalla and Pal Maleter Domingo

THE FUNCTIONAL TRANSFORMATION

It also requires a conversion from peak value to rms values.

SUM OF TWO VOLTAGES EXPRESSED AS FUNCTIONS IN TIME

Prepared by: Joana Joy N. Abonalla and Pal Maleter Domingo

The sum of sine and cosine wave.

SUM OF THE SINE WAVE AND COSINE WAVE

A2 + B 2 cost cos + sint sin

Prepared by: Joana Joy N. Abonalla and Pal Maleter Domingo

By dividing both sides by ej t ,

A plot shows that the voltage is and

Prepared by: Joana Joy N. Abonalla and Pal Maleter Domingo

For sinusoidal voltage supply,

Prepared by: Joana Joy N. Abonalla and Pal Maleter Domingo

Relationship for INDUCTOR

The phasor representation;

Voltage leads the Current by 90 (ELI)

= LIm ej( i90)

Note: ej90 = cos 90 j sin90 = j

We can also express the phase shift in

Prepared by: Joana Joy N. Abonalla and Pal Maleter Domingo

Prepared by: Joana Joy N. Abonalla and Pal Maleter Domingo

Relationship for CAPACITOR

Equation demonstrates that the equivalent

Current leads Voltage by 90 (ICE)

The voltage across the terminals of a capacitor