Académique Documents
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71 1-734, 1991
Printed in Great Britain.
@ 1991 IUPAC
ADONIS
206922209100080K
*Membership of the Commission during the period the report was prepared (1985-1989) was
as follows:
Chairmen: K. Niki (Japan; 1985-1987); G. Gritzner (Austria; 1987-1991); Vice Chairman:
L. R. Faulkner (USA; 1985-1987); Secretaries: G. Gritzner (Austria; 1985-1987); G. S. Wilson
(USA; 1987-1991); Titular Members: B. E. Conway (Canada; 1985-1989); L. R. Faulkner
(USA; 1983-1989); G. Gritzner (Austria; 1983-1991); D. Landolt (Switzerland; 1983-1991);
V. M. M. Lob0 (Portugal; 1985-1993); R. Memming (FRG; 1983-1987); K. Tokuda (Japan;
1987-1991); Associate Members: C. P. Andrieux (France; 1987-1991); J. N. Agar (UK; 19791987); A. Bewick (UK; 1983-1987); E. Budevski (Bulgaria; 1979-1987); Yu. A. Chizmadzhev
(USSR; 1987-1991); K. E. Heusler (FRG; 1983-1987); J. C. Justice (France; 1983-1987);
J. Koryta (Czechoslovakia; 1983-1991); B. Miller (USA; 1979-1987); 0. A. Petrii (USSR;
1983-1991); D. Pletcher (UK; 1987-1991); J. A. Plambeck (Canada; 1979-1987); W. Plieth
(FRG; 1987-1989); M. Sluyters-Rehbach (Netherlands; 1985-1989); K. Tokuda (Japan; 19851987);M. J. Weaver (USA; 1987-1991); A. Yamada (Japan; 1983-1987); National Representatives:
A. J. Arvia (Argentina; 1980-1991); M. L. Berkem (Turkey; 1987-1991); T. Biegler (Australia;
1985-1991); A. K. Covington (UK; 1979-1991); D. DraiiC (Yugoslavia; 1981-1991); E. Gileadi
(Israel; 1983-1991); C. Gutierrez (Spain; 1987-1991); G. Horinyi (Hungary; 1979-1991);
H. D. Hunvitz (Belgium; 1985-1991); R. W. Murray (USA; 1985-1989); K. Niki (Japan; 19871989); R. L. Paul (RSA; 1983-1989); D. Pavlov (Bulgaria; 1987-1991); S. Trasatti (Italy; 19851991); G. A. Wright (New Zealand; 1985-1991); Z. Zembura (Poland; 1983-1989); B. E.
Conway (Canada; 1979-1985).
Republication of this report is permitted without the need for formal IUPAC permission on condition that an
acknowledgement, with full reference together with IUPAC copyright symbol (0
1991 IUPAC), is printed.
Publication of a translation into another language is subject to the additional condition of prior approval from the
relevant IUPAC National Adhering Organization.
CONTENTS
1.
Introduction
1.1 Generalities
1.2 General concepts
71 2
71 2
713
2.
In Situ Methods
2.1 Drop weight (or volume)
2.2 Capacitance ratio
2.3 Parsons-Zobel plot
2.4 Hydrogen adsorption from solution
2.5 Oxygen adsorption from solution
2.6 Underpotential deposition of metals
2.7 Voltammetry
2.8 Negative adsorption
2.9 Ion-exchange capacity
2.10 Adsorption of probe molecules from solution
2.1 1 Mass transfer
71 5
71 6
71 7
719
720
721
722
723
724
724
725
Ex Situ Methods
3.1 Adsorption of Probe molecules from gas phase
3.2 X-ray diffraction
3.3 Porosimetry
3.4 Microscopy
3.5 Other methods
726
728
729
730
731
References
73 1
3.
4.
1.
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Generalities
T h e s u r f a c e a r e a w h i c h c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d w i t h o r d i n a r y t o o l s d e s i g n e d to
m e a s u r e a l e n g t h i s t h e g e o m e t r i c s u r f a c e a r e a , A s . It i s d e f i n e d ( r e f . 1 ) a s
the projection of the real surface o n a plane parallel to the m a c r o s c o p i c ,
712
713
visible p h a s e boundary..
T h u s , A= is calculated o n the b a s i s of k n o w n
geometric
dimensions
of
the
object
constituting
the
electrode,
whose
resolution is normally that of m a c r o s c o p i c m e a s u r e m e n t s . O n l y for liquids d o e s
the real s u r f a c e coincide in p r i n c i p l e w i t h the g e o m e t r i c s u r f a c e . In the case
of s o l i d s , a s p e r i t i e s are n o r m a l l y present w h o s e height m a y be o r d e r s of
m a g n i t u d e greater than the atomic o r m o l e c u l a r s i z e , though lower than the
v i s i b l e r e s o l u t i o n . in t h i s case the real s u r f a c e area is h i g h e r than AK and
experimental data must b e n o r m a l i z e d to the real s u r f a c e to b e c o m e u n i v e r s a l l y
comparable.
Electrode
quantities
Knowledge
Comparison
different
physically
surf ace.
(1)
Note thmt if the surfmce includes a macroscopic verticml step between two planar regions, a l s o the phmse boundary
haa a step whose ares is thus obviouely counted in the calculetion of A=. If the step is microscopic, i t turns out
not to be included into tho g8Omet?iC surface.
714
COMMISSION ON ELECTROCHEMISTRY
In v e r y general t e r m s , s u r f a c e r o u g h n e s s m a y be treated in c e r t a i n c a s e s u s i n g
the
theory
of
fractal
geometry
( r e f . 6). Recent
developments
in
the
u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the fractel n a t u r e of ( e s p e c i a l l y ) s u r f a c e r o u g h n e s s and of
its c o n s e q u e n c e s for a l l extensive interfacial q u a n t i t i e s , c o m p l i c a t e the
phenomenological a p p r o a c h adopted in the p r e v i o u s p a r a g r a p h s . F o r i n s t a n c e ,
the d i m e n s i o n of a " s u r f a c e area" is n o longer the s q u a r e of length in the
theory of fractals. Also "bulk properties" such a s electrical c o n d u c t i v i t y a r e
n o longer m e r e l y bulk but they b e c o m e ( p a r t l y ) interfacial. S i n c e t h i s
document is devoted to the experimental d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the s u r f a c e area and
not to its mathematical d e s c r i p t i o n , the c u s t o m a r y phenomenological a p p r o a c h
to the problem will be f o l l o w e d in the v a r i o u s sections.
P o l y c r y s t a l l i n e solid m a t e r i a l s consist of a n e n s e m b l e o f randomly o r i e n t e d
c r y s t e l l i t e s , w h i c h a r e the smallest u n i t s of single c r y s t a l s . In the c a s e of
a d i s p e r s e m a t e r i a l , two or m o r e c r y s t a l l i t e s m a y a g g r e g a t e through g r a i n
b o u n d a r i e s to f o r m particles. T h e s e are c h a r a c t e r i z e d by their d i m e n s i o n
(size), s h a p e and s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n . P a t c h w i s e m o d e l s s i m u l a t e
h e t e r o g e n e o u s s u r f a c e s a s a c o l l e c t i o n of h o m o g e n e o u s patches. H e t e r o g e n e i t y
is t h u s expressed in t e r m s of a spatial d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n .
T h e p a r t i c l e ( c r y s t a l l i t e ) s i z e is n o r m a l l y g i v e n in terms of a length, d,
w h o s e g e o m e t r i c s i g n i f i c a n c e d e p e n d s o n the p a r t i c l e s h a p e . H o w e v e r , d is
customarily referred to a s the p a r t i c l e (crystallife) diameter. F o r a g i v e n
m a t e r i a l , the experimental v a l u e of d is a l w a y s an a v e r a g e over the n u m b e r of
p a r t i c l e s examined.
V a r i o u s k i n d s of d m a y b e defined ( r e f . 7 ) . F o r c r y s t a l l i t e s of d i a m e t e r di
and n u m b e r n i , the n u m b e r a v e r a g e d i a m e t e r for a g i v e n p a r t i c l e s i z e
d i s t r i b u t i o n is g i v e n b y :
d = Znidi/Pni
(2)
the s u r f a c e a v e r a g e d i a m e t e r b y :
715
The above paragraphs, while not exhausting the problem, are illustrative of
the fact that the simple concept of "real surface area" may be misleading if
not related to the numerous other parameters which depend on the surface
structure and determines the reactivity of an electrode surface.
2.
IN SlTU METHODS
2.f.f Principles. For dropping electrodes, the rate of flow ( m ) of the liquid
metal down a glass capillary is measured by weighing the mass of metal dropped
in a given period of time. The area A of the extruded drop at a selected time
t of the drop life is calculated, assuming spherical shape, from the equation
(refs. 9,12,13):
A = 4n(3mt/4np)z/3
(1.1)
s-1,
in s and p
2 . 1 . 2 Limitations. Equation ( 1 . 1 )
is strictly valid only for the area of a
single drop at the end of the drop life. I t may be valid at a different moment
of the drop life only if i t is allowed to assume that the flow rate is not
significantly depending on time. However, the assumption of constant flow rate
is rendered invalid by the effect of the back pressure (refs. 12-16) given by
2y/r where y is the surface tension of the liquid metal and r the drop radius.
Thus, the action of the back pressure is maximum at the moment of drop
detachment. Consequently, the flow rate increases during the growth of a drop.
The back pressure is seen to decrease with drop size and drop life. Its
relative effect becomes smaller with increasing height of the liquid metal
head (pressure) over the capillary. The quantity m , measured as indicated
above, will be the average of the time-dependent flow rate, m ( t ) , over the
whole drop life, r , ie m = (l/r)J;rn(t)dt.
At T = r the area is correctly
calculated by eqn.(l.l). but a t t < r the real area will be smaller than the
calculated one. Since y is potential dependent, the back pressure effect is
also expected to depend on potential, being greatest at the potential of zero
charge ref. 3). On the other hand, there is a compensating effect caused by
the inertia of the Hg stream downwards the Capillary.
These problems do not occur if the weight of the drop is measured at exactly
the time where the electrochemical quantity is recorded, for instance, at
mechanically knocked-off electrodes and at the hanging-drop electrode.
The condition of perfect sphericity of the drop is not met toward the end of
the drop life especially with capillaries of relatively large bore. Under
similar circumstances the drop will become pear-shaped (refs. 11,12,17).
Part of the surface of the (assumed) sphere is actually excluded at the place
where the drop connects with the column in the capillary. Under similar
circumstances, the drop can be treated as a "truncated" sphere (refs. 18,19).
The excluded area is approximately equal to 7rrc2, where rc is the radius of
the capillary at the orifice (refs. 12,20).
An experimental approach to the determination of the excluded area resting on
the assumption of constant flow rate with drop life is the following. Under
similar circumstances i t is possible to write:
T C I / ( A I - A X ) = T C Z / ( A Z - A ~=)
...
= T C ~ / ( A ~ - A
= ~const()
)
(1.2)
where T C ~ ,T C Z , . . .TC,, are the total capacitances (ie not referred to unit
surface area) measured at some times t i , t z . . . t n of the drop 1 ife. Ai , Az
.An
are the surface areas determined at the various times by means of eqn.(l.l)
and Ax is the excluded area. By solving eqn.(l.l), an average value < A x > can
..
COMMISSION ON ELECTROCHEMISTRY
thus be estimated. S t r i c t l y , i t should result to be a function of potential
( c f above). T h e order of magnitude of Ax is about 1 % of the d r o p surface area.
Other complications which h a v e to be mentioned are shielding effects and
solution creeping. if the g l a s s of t h e capillary s h i e l d s a part of the drop
surface. a non-linear relationship m a y result b e t w e e n , eg capacitance or
c u r r e n t , and the surface area derived f r o m the d r o p w e i g h t . O n the other hand,
solution may creep into the capillary causing an o p p o s i t e effect. T h e
occurrence of solution creeping is usually shown by the erratic formation of
drops.
2 . 1 . 3 Evaluations. T h e back pressure effect is important only at the birth of
a drop. I t is observable at short times of the drop life. I t is minimized by
using relatively high v a l u e s of t , h i g h pressure over the capillary and
relatively high f l o w rates.
717
not n e c e s s a r i l y m e a n that i t m a y
m i n i m u m of H g at n e g a t i v e charges.
be
treated
as
equivalent
to
the
shallow
l/cS
(3.1)
COMMISSION ON ELECTROCHEMISTRY
~ / T =C ax-i/A
bxo/A
cxl/A
+.....
becomes:
(3.4)
The first term depends on the square root of the electrolyte concentration as
in the Gouy-Chapman theory, the second term is independent of the electrolyte
concentration a s the inner layer capacity does in the GCSG model, and the
third term becomes important only at high electrolyte concentrations, say
> 1 mol dm-3.
Although some evidence for the importance of the third term is experimentally
available (ref. 30),
in the electrolyte concentration range up to ca
1 mol dm-3 eqn.(3.4) is equivalent to eqn.(3.2) and can be used to derive the
real surface area. Thus, this method is in fact not bound to the validity of
any existing specific double layer theory.
2.3.2 Limitations. Equation (3.2) has been verified in the case of liquid
electrodes, including Ga. I t is however inconvenient for such electrodes since
a single-point experiment at the diffuse layer minimum may be sufficient ( c f
section 2). For liquid electrodes conformation to eqn.(3.2) is often used to
verify the absence of specific adsorption (ref. 25).
For the applicability of the method to solid electrodes the electrode surface
must be absolutely homogeneous and the measured capacitance must be frequency
face
independent. Thus, i t is strictly valid only for single crystal
electrodes (ref. 31).
lnhomogeneities on the surface result in a marked curvature of the plot of
l/TC v s 1 / C a (refs. 31.32). Paradoxically, the method is useful to measure
surface
roughness,
but
rough
surfaces
of
single
crystal
faces
are
inhomogeneous so that the requirements for the applicability of the method are
lost. In any case the asperities which can be "seen" by this method are those
of
height
greater
than
the
diffuse
layer
thickness
at
the
highest
concentration (normally 1 mol dm-3 since the mod,el probably breaks down in
more concentrated solutions). ie of the order of 1 nm.
Eveluetions. While the method is unacceptable for polycrystalline
surfaces in principle, i t can be reasonably used with polycrystalline metals
of low melting points (soft surfaces) since inhomogeneities are of minor
effect on the electronic structure of these surfaces. Thus, the method is to a
first approximation acceptable with P b , S n , Cd, In, Bi.
2.3.3
With single crystal faces the applicability of the method depends on the
extent of the surface defects. If the surface is perfect, the method serves to
give an exact measure of the geometric surface which in case of complex
electrode shape is difficult to determine optically. If the surface shows only
small deviations from ideality (roughness factor < l.l), the method will give
the real surface within a few percent (2-3X). Better resolution is probably
possible by a somewhat different approach based on trials (refs. 26.32). The
most probable roughness factor is that resulting in the most regular variation
of Ci with potential. The approach is more empiric because i t is not based on
a model but on an intuitive view of how a capacitance curve should be as a
function of potential around the zero charge. I t seems to work with silver,
but there are problems with Au. At the moment the latter approach lacks the
general validity necessary to be recommended here. I t necessitates further
investigation.
The applicability of the method to disperse systems (mainly ionic solids) is
still under evaluation (refs. 33.34).
2.4
719
Principles. T h e c h a r g e under
the v o l t a m m e t r i c p e a k s for h y d r o g e n
adsorption or d e s o r p t i o n ( o r a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the a p p r o p r i a t e s e c t i o n of the
potential-time curves). corrected for d o u b l e layer c h a r g i n g ( i e the c a p a c i t i v e
component), is assumed to correspond to a d s o r p t i o n of o n e h y d r o g e n a t o m o n
each metal a t o m of the s u r f a c e ( 9 ) . T h e c h a r g e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a one-to-one
H-M c o r r e s p o n d e n c e per unit s u r f a c e area ( Q s )
is c a l c u l a t e d o n the b a s i s of
the d i s t r i b u t i o n of metal a t o m s o n the s u r f a c e . T h i s i s well d e f i n e d for a
perfect s i n g l e crystal f a c e (ref. 42), w h e r e a s i t is taken a s a n a v e r a g e v a l u e
between the m a i n low-index f a c e s for p o l y c r y s t a l l i n e s u r f a c e s . T h e r e s u l t i n g
value is a s a rule v e r y c l o s e to that p e r t a i n i n g to the ( 1 0 0 ) f a c e ( r e f . 43).
T h e true s u r f a c e area is t h u s d e r i v e d f r o m :
A =
Q/Qs
(4.1)
COMMISSION ON ELECTROCHEMISTRY
720
2.5.1 Principles.
(ref. 51). O x y g e n
0 2 evolution with
52). T h i s implies
of the layer is:
8 = 2 e N ~ n A
(5.1)
(5.2)
= 2
(5.3)
The double
and equal
to
721
2.5.3 E v a l u a t i o n s . T h e m e t h o d
is
less r e l i a b l e than that based
on H
adsorption, but in s o m e c a s e s i t is the o n l y a p p l i c a b l e of the t w o ( e g A u ,
Pd). T h e r e l i a b i l i t y d e c r e a s e s a s the a f f i n i t y of the metal for o x y g e n
increases. T h u s , i t should b e the best f o r A u , for w h i c h h o w e v e r the
stoichiometry of the o x i d e formed is u n c e r t a i n . If anodic s w e e p s o r current
pulses are u s e d , QJ should b e d e t e r m i n e d d o w n to constant v a l u e s a s the
experimental parameter is v a r i e d . A l s o , the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the potential
range w h e r e
eqn.(5.3)
is v e r i f i e d
(for the m e t a l s a l l o w i n g t h a t ) m a y
constitute a n indicative c r i t e r i o n of the a b s e n c e of a n o m a l o u s effects. T h i s
e n t a i l s a careful s e l e c t i o n of the limits of the potential r a n g e w h e r e QJ
should b e d e t e r m i n e d . T h e c l e a n l i n e s s of the s u r f a c e and the s o l u t i o n should
b e ensured. U s i n g c a t h o d i c s w e e p o r current p u l s e s m a y e n a b l e a single-point
experiment to s u f f i c e . H o w e v e r , the c o n d i t i o n of 80 = 1 should b e a s c e r t a i n e d
if a n accepted p r a x i s d o e s not exist.
T h e m e t h o d c a n be used w i t h A u e l e c t r o d e s s i n c e H a d s o r p t i o n d o e s not take
p l a c e , but i t is to b e b o r n e in m i n d that the treatment the s u r f a c e is
subjected to m a y not b e without any effect o n i t s s t r u c t u r e , e s p e c i a l l y in the
case of s i n g l e crystal f a c e s .
(6.1)
Usually, A g and C u a d a t o m s a r e u s e d .
2.6.2 L i m i t a t i o n s . T h i s m e t h o d s u f f e r s f r o m the s a m e s h o r t c o m i n g s a s m e t h o d 4,
in p a r t i c u l a r the c o r r e c t i o n for d o u b l e layer c h a r g i n g is a r b i t r a r y and the
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of the end point for the metal a d s o r p t i o n is uncertain. In
a d d i t i o n , ( i ) the U P D r e g i o n m a y interfere w i t h h y d r o g e n o r o x y g e n a d s o r p t i o n ,
( i i ) the s u r f a c e d i s t r i b u t i o n of the U P D s p e c i e s m a y b e u n k n o w n , ( i i i ) the
adatom d e p o s i t i o n m a y o c c u r w i t h partial c h a r g e transfer t h u s m a k i n g the v a l u e
of Q * s p e c i f i c a l l y system-dependent, and ( i v ) the usual a s s u m p t i o n of one-too n e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e w i t h H and 0 a d s o r p t i o n m a y not b e valid in the c a s e o f U P D
b e c a u s e the n e w phase f o r m a t i o n m a y result in m o r e c o n d e n s e d m o n o l a y e r s .
m u l t i l a y e r s o r cluster g r o w t h (ref. 61). T h u s , in the case of P b o n C u ( 1 1 1 )
the coverage h a s b e e n found
(ref. 5 8 ) to correspond to a close-packed
c o n f i g u r a t i o n , w h i l e in the c a s e of P b o n R u the one-to-one c o r r e s p o n d e n c e
(epitaxial g r o w t h ) is m o r e probable (ref. 59). T h e o c c u r r e n c e of the o n e o r
the o t h e r p o s s i b i l i t i e s d e p e n d s o n a n u m b e r of f a c t o r s including s i z e r a t i o
b e t w e e n s u p p o r t i n g metal and UPD m e t a l , s t r e n g t h of the b o n d b e t w e e n o v e r l a y e r
and support in c o m p a r i s o n w i t h lateral i n t e r a c t i o n s in the m o n o l a y e r , 'etc.
T h e c a l c u l a t i o n of Q.
for p o l y c r y s t a l l i n e s u r f a c e s i s based o n empirical
c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . T h e s a m e is a l s o the c a s e of s i n g l e crystal f a c e s for w h i c h
the m e t h o d g i v e s s t r i c t l y the n u m b e r of s u r f a c e a c t i v e s i t e s r a t h e r than the
true s u r f a c e area. T h e response of the s i n g l e crystal
f a c e is h o w e v e r
different f r o m that o f the p o l y c r y s t a l l i n e s u r f a c e of a g i v e n metal b e c a u s e of
the p o s s i b l e p e n e t r a t i o n o f the d i s c h a r g e d a t o m s into g r a i n b o u n d a r i e s in the
latter case.
COMMISSION ON ELECTROCHEMISTRY
722
2.7 Voltammetry
In some cases none of methods 4-6 can be used because neither hydrogen nor
oxygen adsorption, nor UPD takes place. This may be the case of non-metallic
electrodes (refs. 66-68). Voltammetry. chronopotentiometry, current step and
potential
step techniques, differential chrono-potentiometry, etc.
(ref.
69.70). can be used to determine the apparent total capacitance of the
electrode surface. The voltammetric approach, which is the most popular, is
described in some details below.
2.7.1 Principles. Voltammetric curves are recorded in a narrow potential range
(a few tens of mV) at different sweep rates (ref. 69). The current in the
middle of the potential range is then plotted as a function of the sweep rate.
Under the assumption that double layer charging is the only process, a
straight
line should be obtained, whose slope gives the differential
capacitance (total value) of the interface:
(7.1)
(7.8)
The method is not different in substance from that in sec. 2 except for the
fact that the technique used is not specific for capacitance measurement and
is generally applied to large surface area and porous electrodes.
2.7.2 Limitations. This method has been several times applied to oxide
electrodes. The assumption of 0 = 60 pF cm-2 for the capacitance of the unit
true surface area of an oxide (irrespective of its nature) (ref. 67) is not
established. The dependence of capacitance on potential for oxides is unknown,
so that the error may be very large. Since voltammetric curves of oxides show
maxima related to surface redox processes, the value of capacitance may differ
in different potential regions (ref. 71).
723
experimental conditions.
The comparison of capacitance values between different oxides is also
invalidated by the fact that the fraction of surface sites being oxidised or
reduced in a given potential range may differ for different systems. The
determination of an absolute capacity has been attempted in some cases by
using an independently determined BET surface area (ref. 68). However, while
this approach does not add anything to the validity of an internal comparison,
i t adds the vexing question of the relative meaning of in situ and ex situ
surface area determinations, relevant also to other methods dealt with in this
document .
2.8 Negative adsorption
The method has been proposed for large surface area solids suspended or
colloidal ly dispersed in an electrolyte solution (ref. 73). In principle, i t
can also be used with massive systems.
2 . 8 . 1 Principles. The method assumes the validity of the diffuse layer model.
Ions are repelled from surfaces carrying charges of like sign. The GouyChapman theory predicts that their negative surface excess (depletion) is
charge (potential) dependent and reaches asymptotically an almost constant
value at relatively small charges ( a t potentials in the OHP, outer Helmholtz
plane, not too far from zero). A s a consequence of the repulsion into the
solution, the concentration level of these species is increased in the bulk
since they are excluded from all the interfacial regions (refs. 7 4 - 7 6 ) .
The method usually employed involves the analytical determination of the
change in the concentration of the negatively adsorbed ion in the solution.
The surface area is proportional to the measured A c through the following
equation:
A =
B Vt (Ac/c)c1/2
(8.1)
Vt is the total liquid volume where the solid is suspensed and B is a constant
for a given electrolyte type and charge sign on the solid surface. Normally,
negative adsorption is measured at negatively charged surface since the
probability of specific adsorption of cations is more remote.
2 . 8 . 2 Limitations. Since the increase in concentration (Ac) is usually small,
this sets a lower size limit to the specific area that can be measured. The
potential at the OHP or the charge of the diffuse double layer must be known
to apply the method not far enough from the zero charge condition where
negative adsorption has not yet reached its limiting value. With porous
solids, the negative adsorption from the pores is incomplete because of double
layer overlap. In some cases the response of the method is unreliable because
the technique is extremely sensitive to the release of traces of impurities
from the solid.
The potential a t the OHP should not be < 1 5 0 m V , otherwise i t should be fairly
accurately known ( c f sec. 8 . 2 ) ; the surface area to be measured must be
greater than 1 m2 g - 1 ; the interparticle distance in the suspension should be
more than 10 times the diffuse layer thickness. The analytical technique to
determine Ac should be precise owing to the small value of Ac. A method to
alleviate the strict analytical requirements has been proposed (ref. 78).
However, i f all recommended conditions are met, the accuracy may be of the
order of f l O X .
The method is not a routine one and must be assessed case by case.
COMMISSION ON ELECTROCHEMISTRY
724
MnloH
I
Znz+
OH
M n / Zn
I
o/
2H+
(9.1)
The method
is based
o n the d e t e r m i n a t i o n ( r a d i o c h e m i c a l l y or b y o t h e r
analytical m e a n s ) of the amount of c o m p l e x i n g ions taken u p by the o x i d e
surface. T h e s u r f a c e area i s then c a l c u l a t e d by assigning a g i v e n crosss e c t i o n to the a d s o r b a t e (ref. 82).
2.9.2 L i m i t a t i o n s . S p e c i f i c a d s o r p t i o n d o e s not n e c e s s a r i l y g o to c o m p l e t i o n ,
i e not all a v a i l a b l e s u r f a c e s i t e s u n d e r g o ion e x c h a n g e ( c f 9.3). T h i s h a s
b e e n a s c e r t a i n e d e v e n in the case of M n O z . T h e m a x i m u m amount taken u p by the
o x i d e s u r f a c e d e p e n d s o n the n a t u r e of the s o l i d , presumably o n its acid-base
p r o p e r t i e s ( r e f . 81). T h e p H of the s o l u t i o n p l a y s a paramount role and the
amount adsorbed will depend o n i t (ref. 79).
T h e cross-sectional
area assigned to the a d s o r b a t e ( Z n + + is that usually
r e c o m m e n d e d ) will depend o n the d i s t r i b u t i o n of the a d s o r b i n g s i t e s o n the
o x i d e s u r f a c e and h a s n o d e f i n i t e physical m e a n i n g , s i n c e i t is a s a rule
established so a s to b r i n g the c a l c u l a t e d area into agreement w i t h the B E T
surface area. T h i s m a k e s the m e t h o d not an a b s o l u t e o n e , s i n c e the r e s u l t s are
complicated by the p r o b l e m of identity b e t w e e n B E T and in s i t u wet s u r f a c e
area.
2.9.3 Evelustions. T h i s m e t h o d h a s b e e n scrutinized o n l y for MnOz and the
procedure h a s b e e n n o r m a l i z e d to t h i s p a r t i c u l a r o x i d e . T h e m a x i m u m s u r f a c e
coverage o n A1203 h a s been found to b e lower than o n MnOz ( r e f . 81). A n
attempt w i t h RuOz h a s resulted in a s u r f a c e area t h r e e times lower than the
B E T v a l u e ( r e f . 83). M o r e o v e r , a l s o in the case of M n O z , the claimed 1 to 1
correlation between B E T and Z n + + a d s o r p t i o n s u r f a c e area d e v i a t e s at h i g h
s u r f a c e area v a l u e s p r o b a b l y b e c a u s e of p o r e e x c l u s i o n (ref. 81). F i n a l l y , the
a d s o r b a b i l i t y of Z n + + d e c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g c a l c i n a t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e , a
fact w h i c h m a k e s t h i s m e t h o d fully a p p l i c a b l e ( r e l i a b i l i t y a p a r t ) o n l y w i t h
h y d r o u s o x i d e s (ref. 80).
is
insufficiently
established,
it
is not
recommended
for
(10.1)
c m - 2 and A*
is the p r o j e c t e d area
725
@)/nFr.
(10.2)
where Q is the charge associated with the anodic oxidation of the probe
molecule, Gb is the charge spent in the same potential range in the absence of
adsorbate (background charge), n is the charge number of the oxidation
reaction ( C O + C 0 2 ; 1 + 1 0 3 - 1 , F the Faraday c o n s t a n t , and r. the c a 1 c u l e t e d
saturation coverage in mol c m - 2 .
2.10.2 Limitations. In the non-electrochemical
version of this method, the
major drawback is that the orientation and conformation of the adsorbate may
depend o n surface charge, on surface c o v e r a g e , and on the nature of the
adsorbent and of the solvent (refs. 6 2 , 9 2 ) . T h e r e f o r e the value of A* d o e s not
possess a certain physical significance. In a d d i t i o n , the adsorbing s p e c i e s
may produce m i c e l l e s in solution and at the surface, a s well a s multilayers,
so that i t is often necessary to introduce a correcting factor (refs. 9 3 , 9 4 ) .
(11.1)
COMMISSION ON ELECTROCHEMISTRY
726
From ( 1 1 . 1 )
and (11.2) the measured current is related to the surface area by:
A = I(nDt)l/2/nFDc
(11.3)
I = nFADcC(nDt)-1/2
I = nFADcC(nDt)-i/2
I = nFADcC(nDt)-1/2
+
+
+
(spherical electrode)
..I (disk electrode)
O.5r-1
..I (cylindrical electrode)
1-11
r-1
(11.4)
(11.5)
(11.6)
where r is the radius of the sphere, the disk or the cylinder, respectively.
Thus, a plot of I vs t - 1 1 2 wi 1 give a straight line of slope nFAcCD/n)1/2 for
linear diffusion ( c f eqn.Cll.3)). while i t can be approximated to a straight
line with the same slope for non-linear diffusion.
~
= A(kn3/2&1/2cg)v1/2
(11.7)
where & and CB are the diffusion coefficient and the bulk concentration of
the reacting species B , respectively. n is the charge number of the electrode
reaction, v the potential sweep rate and k a numerical constant which is
determined empirically. The method is tested by checking the functional
dependence of j, on the two parameters, A and v.
Equation (11.7) was originally derived for one-dimensional convection-free
linear diffusion, but i t is also obeyed in experiments with unshielded
electrodes possessing a hemispherical diffusion domain in chronopotentiometry
and chronoamperometry for short transition times.
2 . 1 1 . 2 Limitations. The method is not limited by the surface size but simply
by the sensitivity of the measuring apparatus. Nevertheless, the applicability
calls for an homogeneous distribution of current which is difficult to achieve
precisely a t surface asperities. Since the diffusion layer thickness has a
macroscopic order of magnitude, the surface roughness detected by this
technique is of the same order of magnitude, ie >lo-100 pm.
2.11.3 Evaluations.
This
method
is
not
suitable
for
surface
area
determinations to be used in systems where atomic roughness is important. I t
is applicable to systems for which knowledge of a self-consistent macroscopic
surface area, which may be higher than A s , but lower than the real surface
area, (eg large electrode surfaces of complicated shapes) is all that is
needed.
3.
EX SlTU METHODS
727
3 . 1 . 1 P r i n c i p l e s . P r o b e m o l e c u l e s a r e a d s o r b e d f r o m t h e g a s phase o n t o the
solid s u r f a c e a s a f u n c t i o n of g a s pressure. T h e amount adsorbed in a monolayer ( s a t u r a t i o n s u r f a c e c o n c e n t r a t i o n , r.) i s d e r i v e d f r o m a n a p p r o p r i a t e
treatment of the a d s o r p t i o n data o n the b a s i s of a s p e c i f i c a d s o r p t i o n
isotherm. F i n a l l y , the s u r f a c e area is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m fr a f t e r assignment of
a n effective cross-sectional area A* to the a d s o r b a t e m o l e c u l e (ref. 102).
= 1.091( M / P N A 1 2 1 3
(12.1)
I t is v e r y difficult to e s t a b l i s h a f i r m c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n the B E T ( o r
o t h e r ) s u r f a c e area and the electrochemical a c t i v e s u r f a c e a r e a , e a c h m e t h o d
m e a s u r i n g a s u r f a c e w h i c h r e s p o n d s to the specific probing. H o w e v e r , the B E T
is a r o u t i n e m e t h o d and its u s e for a first a p p r o x i m a t i o n assessment is a l w a y s
COMMISSION ON ELECTROCHEMISTRY
I t is to be m e n t i o n e d in t h i s context that m o d e r n s u r f a c e s p e c t r o s c o p i c
t e c h n i q u e s such a s A E S , h a v e b e e n recently u s e d to extract information about
a d s o r b a t e a b s o l u t e p a c k i n g density
( r e f . 113).
A l t h o u g h not
explicitly
developed
for s u r f a c e area m e a s u r e m e n t s ,
the a p p r o a c h c o n t a i n s such a
p o t e n t i a l i t y implicitly ( r e f . 92).
= Win2
Wpr2
(13.1)
d = KX/W.~ c o s
(13.2)
= 6&
(13.3)
w h e r e a s i t is a m i n i m u m for spherical p a r t i c l e s :
A
= n&
(13.4)
3.2.2 L i m i t a t i o n s . T h e m e t h o d i s r e s t r i c t e d t o c r y s t a l l i n e s o l i d s of about
3.5-60 n m p a r t i c l e size. B e l o w 3.5 n m the d i f f r a c t i o n line is v e r y broad and
d i f f u s e o r even a b s e n t , w h i l e a b o v e c e 60 n m the change in lineshape is too
small. T h e c r y s t a l l i t e s i z e obtained w i t h t h i s approach is a v e r a g e d o v e r the
sample v o l u m e penetrated by the incident r a d i a t i o n , t h e r e f o r e the r e s u l t i n g
value is a v o l u m e a v e r a g e d i a m e t e r ( c f m e t h o d 15). S t r i c t l y , the s u r f a c e area
calculated by m e a n s o f eqns.(13.3) and ( 1 3 . 4 ) is t h u s not the true s u r f a c e
area s i n c e the latter i s r e l a t e d to the s u r f a c e a v e r a g e c r y s t a l l i t e size.
O t h e r f a c t o r s m a y c o n t r i b u t e to the o b s e r v e d linewidth, e g d i f f e r e n c e in
lattice
parameters
of
the
individual
particles.
Moreover,
the
exact
geometrical s h a p e of the p a r t i c l e s is not known. T h e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n m a y be
v e r y w i d e (ref. 124).
In the c a s e o f supported m a t e r i a l , p e l l e t s and layers the w h o l e s u r f a c e of
each s i n g l e p a r t i c l e is not exposed to the environment. A p a c k i n g f a c t o r is to
be adopted to t a k e account of the e x c l u d e d area (ref. 122). A l s o in the case
of d i s p e r s e s y s t e m s and p o w d e r s , the g r a i n s m a y b e composed of m o r e than o n e
c r y s t e l l i t e w h i c h c a u s e s the real s u r f a c e area to d e v i a t e f r o m the c a l c u l a t e d
one the m o r e t h e smaller the p a r t i c l e s i z e (ref. 125).
3.2.3 Evaluations. T h i s t e c h n i q u e is v e r y useful to o b t a i n rapid information
about the d i s p e r s i o n d e g r e e of a catalyst present at the s u r f a c e of a support
729
3.3 Porosimetry
T h e m e t h o d s considered a b o v e m a k e i t p o s s i b l e to e s t i m a t e the specific area of
solids and a l s o in principle to find the p o r e d i s t r i b u t i o n a c c o r d i n g to the
radius. T h e s e m e t h o d s could b e n a m e d m o l e c u l a r o r atomic probe m e t h o d s ( r e f .
127). In a d d i t i o n , a n u m b e r of n o n a d s o r p t i v e m e t h o d s of p o r o s i t y d e t e r m i n a t i o n
have b e e n developed to e s t i m a t e the real s u r f a c e area.
3.3.1 P r i n c i p l e s . T h e m e t h o d is based o n the r e l a t i o n b e t w e n the real
area of a s a m p l e and i t s p o r o s i t y 8 :
surface
(14.1)
where r m i n and r m a x a r e the minimal and maximal pore r a d i i , and
Bf is the
shape f a c t o r . F o r c y l i n d r i c p o r e s , Bf = 2 , for p o r e s b e t w e e n g l o b u l a , Br =
1.45. Av is the s u r f a c e area per unit v o l u m e of the m a t e r i a l . T h e r e f o r e , ( 1 B o ) is the true v o l u m e o c c u p i e d by the solid phase (total v o l u m e m i n u s p o r e
volume). P o r o s i t y B0 i s the r a t i o of the v o l u m e of o p e n p o r e s ( c o n n e c t e d w i t h
the o u t e r surface of a s o l i d ) to the total v o l u m e of the p o r o u s solid.
According to the eqn.(l4.1), the real s u r f a c e area c a n b e calculated f r o m the
integration of the integral curve of r a d i u s p o r e d i s t r i b u t i o n 8(r). S u c h a
curve is called a n integral porosimetric curve o r a porogram.
A c t u a l l y there are m a n y m e t h o d s for m e a s u r i n g p o r o g r a m s : ( 1 ) the m e t h o d of
pressing m e r c u r y into m e r c u r y u n w e t t a b l e p o r o u s s o l i d s ( m e r c u r y porosimetry);
( 2 ) small a n g l e X-ray s c a t t e r i n g ; ( 3 ) e l e c t r o n and optical m i c r o s c o p y ; ( 4 )
centrifugal p o r o s i m e t r y ; ( 5 ) capillary displacement of w e t t i n g liquids by g a s ;
( 6 ) m e t h o d s based on g a s p e n e t r a t i o n ; (7) m e t h o d of s t a n d a r d porosimetry.
While in individual c o n c r e t e c a s e s each of these m e t h o d s can be u s e d , the
m e t h o d s of m e r c u r y and standard p o r o s i m e t r y are the most universal o n e s .
W h e n using the method of m e r c u r y porosimetry ( r e f . 128) the s i d e s u r f a c e of
p o r e s into w h i c h m e r c u r y is pressed can be o b t a i n e d d i r e c t l y by integration of
the Young-Dupr6 e q u a t i o n :
(14.2)
w h e r e B i s the contact a n g l e of m e r c u r y o n the solid b o u n d a r y , y the m e r c u r y
surface t e n s i o n , p the p r e s s u r e , V, the v o l u m e of m e r c u r y pressed into the
sample,
the p r e s s u r e a s the p o r e s are completely filled w i t h m e r c u r y .
T h e m e t h o d of standard p o r o s i m e t r y ( r e f . 129) i s based o n the m e a s u r e m e n t of
the e q u i l i b r i u m curve of r e l a t i v e m o i s t u r e c a p a c i t y , that is the r e l a t i o n s h i p
between the liquid c o n t e n t s of a test s a m p l e and of a standard o n e w i t h a
k n o w n pore d i s t r i b u t i o n . T h e m o i s t u r e capacity is the r a t i o of the v o l u m e of
the liquid content in a solid to the v o l u m e of the s o l i d . If the s a m p l e
c o n t a i n s h y d r o p h i l i c (metal. o x i d e , e t c ) and h y d r o p h o b i c ( p o l y m e r i c b i n d e r )
c o m p o n e n t s , w h e n u s i n g the method of s t a n d a r d p o r o s i m e t r y w i t h two different
w e t t i n g liquids (eg, w a t e r and liquid h y d r o c a r b o n s ) i t i s p o s s i b l e to identify
h y d r o p h i l i c , h y d r o p h o b i c and mixed pores. T h u s , the p o s s i b i l i t y a r i s e s of
c h a r c a t e r i z i n g the real s u r f a c e a r e a s w i t h the above-mentioned different types
of pores.
3.3.2. Limitations.
The main
difficulty
lies
in
the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of
m i c r o p o r e s w i t h radii ( 2 n m , i e of m o l e c u l a r s i z e s ( r e f . 130). S u c h p o r e s
could f o r m the m a i n part of the real s u r f a c e area v a l u e in s o m e materials. T h e
lower limit in pore d i a m e t e r m e a s u r a b l e by the H g p o r o s i m e t e r is set by the
highest p r e s s u r e at w h i c h the H g can be forced into the p o r e s of the s a m p l e .
In t h i s r e s p e c t , the t e c h n i q u e p r e s e n t s the difficulty that h i g h p r e s s u r e c a n
disrupt the p o r e s y s t e m to be m e a s u r e d .
A n o t h e r c o m p l i c a t i o n is related to the d i f f i c u l t y of c h o o s i n g the s h a p e f a c t o r
f o r real m a t e r i a l s . In the method of m e r c u r y porosimetry the v a l u e of A
730
COMMISSION ON ELECTROCHEMISTRY
depends on the 8 estimation. The latter depends on the nature of the material
and also whether during the measurements mercury is pressed into pores o r , on
leaves them (ref. 1 3 1 ) ,
and on the possibility of
the contrary, i t
amalgamation and contamination of mercury. The last two factors also change y .
The often observed hysteresis phenomena also complicate the measurements and
the interpretation of the results (ref. 1 3 2 ) .
3 . 3 . 3 . Evaluations. The method can be applied to materials with sufficiently
extended surface. The reliability of results depends largely on the choice of
the method of porogram measurement and of its conditions. For electrode
materials, especially multicomponent porous electrodes, the most promising is
the standard porosimetry method, which allows to distinguish the surface by
the hydrophobicity factor. Other advantages of this method are its relative
simplicity, the possibility of acheeving conditions of measurement resembling
most closely the real operating ones and of monitoring the surface area during
the measurements thanks to the nondestructive nature of this method.
3.4 Microscopy
Microscopy is one of the direct physical methods of determination of the real
surface area. The capacity of resolution goes from the macroscopic to the
atomic size depending on the technique. Thus, the order of magnitude of the
range of observation of the optical microscopy is the millimeter, that of the
scanning electron microscopy (SEM) the micrometer, and that of the scanning
tunneling microscopy (STM) the nanometer. The progress in the development of
STM is making its use in s i t u possible (ref. 1 3 3 ) .
3 . 4 . 1 Principles. The method is based on the determination of the particle
size of the material by optical or electron microscopes (refs. 7 , 1 3 4 ) . In its
simplest version the specific surface area is calculated according to the
equation :
Am = (Bd/p)(2nidi2/2nidi3)
(15.1)
where p is the real density of the material. and ni is the number of particles
with size di. The shape factor Bd amounts to 6 for strictly spheric and cubic
particles, while i t exceeds 6 for any other shape. Since the size of
individual particles can be determined with this technique, the results of the
microscope
can be
compared both with
data
from direct
surface area
measurements, giving values based on cis, and with those from the X-ray
analysis, giving values based on dv.
In the method of projections, the surface area is calculated via the Cauchy
expression:
A = (42a,/n)
(15.2)
A V = (4npNmZap/n)
(15.3)
or
on the
surface
oriented
interference
area without
731
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
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732
COMMISSION ON ELECTROCHEMISTRY
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83.
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
733
106.
107.
108.
109.
110.
90.
91.
92.
93.
94.
95.
96.
97.
98.
99.
100.
101.
102.
103.
104.
105.
191 ( 1 9 8 2 ) .
111.
112.
113.
225 ( 1 9 8 8 ) .
134.
135.
136.
137.
138.
K.
of
D.
D.
G.
J.
734
COMMISSION ON ELECTROCHEMISTRY