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Abstract
Arabic is a non-Germanic language and one may expect that Arab learners of English
face problems with structures found only in Germanic languages. This paper, hence,
investigates the avoidance of phrasal verbs, a structure found in Germanic languages only,
by EFL Arab college students in relation to proficiency levels (beginners, advanced) and
phrasal verb types (literal, figurative). The researcher used two research tools: a multiplechoice test and classroom observation. 39 female Arab students took the test, whereas two
groups of different proficiency levels have been observed with regards to speaking only.
Results showed that female Arab students do not avoid phrasal verbs including figurative
ones. One explanation for this is the fact that the group who took the test are advanced
language learners whose avoidance behavior regarding the phrasal verb structure is
diminished. Further, classroom observation showed no difference between beginners and
advanced language learners regarding their production of phrasal verbs. Each group produced
the same number of phrasal verbs suggesting that speaking, as a productive skill, should be
further examined using a different research tool and various elicitation activities.
Contents
1. Introduction----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------4
2. The avoidance phenomenon---------------------------------------------------------------------4
2.1 Definition -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------4
2.2 Types of avoidance-------------------------------------------------------------------------------5
2.3 Approaches used in the analysis of learner difficulty in acquiring a second language--5
2.4 Reasons behind avoidance suggested by different studies----------------------------------5
3. The phrasal verb------------------------------------------------------------------------------------7
3.1 Other terms-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------7
3.2 Definition-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------8
3.3 Reasons for the limited understanding of phrasal verbs--------------------------------------8
3.4 Reasons behind avoidance of phrasal verbs----------------------------------------------------9
4. Significance of the present study------------------------------------------------------------------10
5. Method------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------11
5.1 Participants------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------11
5.2 Data collection and analysis----------------------------------------------------------------------12
6. Results and discussion------------------------------------------------------------------------------14
7. Conclusion-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------15
8. References--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------17
9. Appendices-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------19
1. Introduction
Kamimoto, Shimura, and Kellerman (1992, as cited in Kano 2006, p. 1) provide the
following quoted words by a second language (L2) learner:
I never know which Dutch nouns have common or neuter gender, so I always
stick a diminutive suffix on the end of them, because then theyre always
neuter, bless the little things (British university professor after 25 years in
the Netherlands). (p. 251)
According to Kano (2006, 1), the advanced quotation manifests L2 learners difficulty when
communicating using the L2. Such learners want to use a specific structure in the L2, but they
cannot do so and; thus, they compensate for this nonuse by using other linguistic means that may
achieve the purpose without any errors. This behavior is known as avoidance which is defined
by Laufer and Eliasson (1993, as cited in Kano 2006, p. 1) as one of the strategies learners may
resort to in order to overcome a communicative difficulty (p. 36).
2. The avoidance phenomenon
2.1 Definition
Kano (2006, p. 7) states that avoidance is defined in two different ways. According to
Tarone (1981, as cited in Kano 2006, p. 8) avoidance can be viewed as a communication
strategy which attempts to bridge the gap between the linguistic knowledge of the secondlanguage learner and the linguistic knowledge of the target language interlocutor in real
communication situations (p. 288). On the other hand, Ellis (1994, as cited in Kano 2006, p.
8) states that avoidance has been seen as one of the manifestations of language transfer.
Manifestations besides avoidance include errors (negative transfer), facilitation (positive
transfer), and over-use. Furthermore, avoidance implies some passive knowledge of the
structure being avoided. As Kleinmann (1977, 1978) argues, to be able to avoid some
linguistic feature presupposes being able to choose not to avoid it, i.e., to use it (p. 97).
Despite the fact that many research papers have been written on avoidance, there are still
unanswered questions regarding the identification of avoidance and the reasons behind its
occurrence.
phenomenon in relation to Relative Clauses (RCs). Schachter has chosen Chinese, Japanese,
Persian, and Arabian learners as her participants. She found that Chinese and Japanese
learners produced fewer RCs comparing them to Persian and Arabian learners. She claims
that Chinese and Japanese learners find such a construction difficult to produce and thus
avoid using it. She concludes that if a student finds a particular construction in the target
language difficult to comprehend it is very likely that he will try to avoid producing it (p.
213). Such a difficulty was earlier predicted by CA. Hence, Schachter argues that EA was
deficient in explaining the avoidance phenomenon. As noted by Kano (2006), studies
following Schachter's can be divided into two classes:
1. Studies by Kleinmann (1977; 1978), Chiang (1980), Dagut and Laufer (1985),
Hulstijn and Marchena (1989), Seliger (1989), Laufer and Eliasson (1993), and Liao and
Fukuya (2004) which support Schachter's idea that avoidance is caused by structural or
semantic aspects of a target language.
2. Studies by Bley-Vroman and Houng (1988), Zhao (1989), Kamimoto et
al.(1992), and Li (1996) which argue that avoidance is a ''form of underproduction caused by
transfer of the frequency, distribution, and function patterns from the L1''. (Kano, 2006, p.
14).
Some such as Kleinmann (1977, p.106) added other reasons like the affective state of
learners. Moreover, Chiang (1980, as cited in Kano 2006, p. 10) states that linguistic
proficiency is a very important reason behind avoidance. Further, Hulstijn and Marchena
(1989, as cited in Kano 2006, p. 11) manifest that L1 L2 difference as well as L1 L2
similarity may contribute to avoidance.
Seliger (1989, as cited in Kano 2006, p. 12) points out two problems with the
definition of avoidance highlighted in the previous studies. He argues that it is very difficult
McArthur (1989, as cited in Waibel 2007, p. 15) claims that the term ''phrasal verb'' seems to
be the winning term.
3.2 Definition
Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech, and Svartvik(1985) offers syntactic and lexical
definitions for the phrasal verb. From the syntactic aspect, a phrasal verb is a verb ''followed
by a morphologically invariable particle, which functions with the verb as a single
grammatical unit (p. 1150). The lexical definition for the phrasal verb is that ''the meaning of
the combination manifestly cannot be predicted from the meaning of the verb [proper] and
particle in isolation (p. 1152); hence, they function as one lexical unit. According to CelceMurcia and Larsen-Freeman (1999, p. 282), the phrasal verb can be semantically divided into
three types: literal, idiomatic, and aspectual. The meaning of literal phrasal verbs can be
easily derived from the meanings of its constituents. The verb take down is an example. The
meaning of idiomatic phrasal verbs has no relation to the meanings of its constituents. In this
case, make up is one example. For aspectual phrasal verbs such as eat up, the meaning of the
verb proper is easily understood, but the particle ''contributes meanings, not commonly
understood, about the verbs aspect'' (p. 282).
3.3 Reasons for the limited understanding of phrasal verbs
According to Darwin and Gray (1999, p. 66), there is some limited understanding of
phrasal verbs which can be attributed to three different reasons. The first reason has to do
with the definition of phrasal verbs. Although linguists define the phrasal verb as a verb
followed by a particle which work together as one single unit, but the application of such a
definition is problematic. Brinton (1988, as cited in Darwin & Gray 1999, p. 66) would
consider drink up as a phrasal verb, whereas Quirk and Greenbaum (1990, as cited in Darwin
& Gray 1999, p. 66) are unsure about its classification. This confusion among researchers has
led to a similar confusion among students and teachers. Another reason is the fact that there
are few lists of the most common phrasal verbs prepared by researchers. Such researchers
depend entirely on their intuition when preparing these lists which is sometimes misleading.
The third reason is related to the method of presenting phrasal verbs which groups them
according to the verb proper. Frank (1993, as cited in Darwin & Gray 1999, p. 67), for
example, presents five phrasal verbs that begin with bring, four with make, and five with
take.
3.4 Reasons behind avoidance of phrasal verbs
In the literature of avoidance, there are five studies that focus on the avoidance of
phrasal verbs. Dagut and Laufer (1985, as cited in Liao & Fukuya 2004, p. 75) argue that
Hebrew learners of English, whose language lacks phrasal verbs, prefer one-word verbs to
their phrasal verb equivalents. They conclude that L1-L2 structural differences is a
significant reason behind one's avoidance of phrasal verbs.
In a study by Hulstijn and Marchena (1989, as cited in Liao & Fukuya 2004, p. 75), the
participants are Dutch whose language has phrasal verbs. Dutch learners of English avoid
using figurative phrasal verbs that have literal counterparts in Dutch. They conclude that L1
L2 similarity may trigger avoidance.
Laufer and Eliasson (1993, as cited in Liao & Fukuya 2004, p. 76) conduct their study
on Swedish learners whose L1 language has phrasal verbs. Such learners do not avoid
idiomatic phrasal verbs that have identical counterparts in Swedish. Thus, they conclude that
the best predicator of avoidance is L1 L2 difference.
In a study by Liao and Fukuya (2004), the subjects are intermediate and advanced
Chinese English language learners whose language lacks phrasal verbs. Intermediate learners
avoid phrasal verbs especially the idiomatic ones. On the other hand, advanced learners do
not avoid phrasal verbs. The researchers argue that L1-L2 structural differences as well as
semantic complexity of the phrasal verbs are causes of avoidance. They further demonstrate
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their fourth level in the college. Their speaking class was observed on Monday 1.12.2008 at
11:00 p.m. The speaking lesson was taped and later transcribed by the researcher. It was of
47 minutes focusing on training students in debate skills through special kinds of activities.
The pictures in Appendix B illustrate some of the activities. Those fourth-level students are
taking Writing 4 (2 hours), Reading 4 (2 hours), Listening 4 (2 hours), Language and Culture
1 (2 hours), Introduction to Translation (2 hours), Salam 1 (2 hours), 217 and 215 Arab (6
hours).
In semesters 1 through 4, students are required to take courses in speaking, reading,
writhing, grammar, and listening. In semesters 6 to 10, students at the COLT are required to
read and translate texts in medicine, science, education, religion, engineering, oil industry,
agriculture, law, social and political sciences, mass media, literature, computer science,
business administration, military affairs, and public safety. Besides these written translations,
students are required to do oral translations such as bilateral translation 1 (2 hours) and
consecutive translation 1 (2 hours) on the sixth level. On the eighth level, they are required to
do consecutive translation 2 (2 hours). On the tenth level, students do simultaneous
translation (2 hours) and bilateral translation 2 (2 hours). As advanced above, students are
required to do written and oral translations. Thus, it is necessary to investigate the avoidance
phenomenon in speaking as well as in writing.
5.2 Data collection and analysis
The test used in this paper was developed by Liao and Fukuya (2004). The test is of 15
short dialogues. The verb in each dialogue was left blank. The participants were asked to fill
in each blank with one of the four verbs presented below the dialogue: the PV, its one-word
equivalent, and two distractor verbs. Among the 15 phrasal verbs, 4 were literal phrasal
verbs, whereas 11 were figurative. The participants were given 15 minutes to fill in the
blanks. In each item, there are two correct answers: the phrasal verb and its one word
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equivalent. Thus, students are asked to answer all the questions and choose the most suitable
verb. Such a test was particularly chosen because the phrasal verbs get up, go off, hold on,
make up, turn down, run into, come in presented in items 1, 5, 6, 8, 10, 11, 15 respectively
were discussed in Vocabulary 1. So, students have some knowledge of these phrasal verbs
and of their one-word equivalents that is necessary in determining avoidance. The number of
students taking the test will be multiplied by the number of the items. The resultant number
will be used as the standard. Each student's choice for a phrasal verb or its one-word
equivalent verb will be added; then, divided by the standard number to find out the
percentage of chosen phrasal verbs or one-word verbs. To find out the percentage of chosen
figurative or literal phrasal verbs, number of students taking the test will be multiplied by the
number of items representing literal or figurative phrasal verbs. The resultant number is the
standard number. Each students' choice of literal or figurative phrasal verb will be added;
then, divided by the standard number to find out the percentage of chosen literal or figurative
phrasal verbs.
One more research tool is classroom observation. Two samples of different levels have
been chosen. The first sample are of 40 students who are beginning learners at their first level
in the college. Their speaking class was observed on Monday 1.12.2008 at 12:00 p.m. The
speaking lesson was taped and later transcribed by the researcher. It was of 38 minutes. They
are taking Writing 1 (4 hours), Reading 1 (4 hours), Listening 1 (3 hours), Vocabulary 1 (3
hours), Grammar 1 (2 hours), besides Speaking 1 (4 hours). The second sample are of 14
participants who are considered to be advanced language learners at their fourth level in the
college. Their speaking class was observed on Monday 1.12.2008 at 11:00 p.m. The speaking
lesson was taped and later transcribed by the researcher. It was of 47 minutes. They are
taking Writing 4 (2 hours), Reading 4 (2 hours), Listening 4 (2 hours), Language and Culture
1 (2 hours), Introduction to Translation (2 hours), Salam 1 (2 hours), 217 and 215 Arab (6
13
One-Word Equivalents
rise
leave
remove
enter
(1)
(19)
(17)
(26)
appear
review
disappoint
explode
wait
extinguish
invent
surrender
refuse
boast
meet
(15)
(32)
(15)
(25)
(16)
(5)
(2)
(8)
(22)
(0)
(27)
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As shown above, Arab college students do not avoid phrasal verbs. Further, they do
not avoid idiomatic (figurative) phrasal verbs. The findings of this study contradict the results
of the aforementioned studies by Dagut and Laufer (1985), Hulstijn and Marchena (1989),
Laufer and Eliasson (1993), Liao and Fukuya (2004), and Gaston (2004). One explanation
for this is that the sample of students chosen are advanced foreign language learners whose
avoidance behavior has already diminished with the increase in language proficiency as
suggested by Liao and Fukuya (2004).
The other research tool, classroom observation, showed no difference between
beginners and advanced language learners. The first group that have been observed were a
group of level-one students who are considered to be beginners. Their speaking class was of
a teacher-fronted mode. Students produced little language. The phrasal verb was used only
once by the students. The phrasal verb produced was ''go on''. On the other hand, the other
group that have been observed were level-four students who are considered to be advanced
language learners. Those advanced language learners produced only one phrasal verb ''sit
down''. The following examples are illustrative:
Example (1)
Student (Level 1):
Student (Level 4):
As shown above, a classroom observation showed no difference between the two groups
though the difference in their proficiency levels. The scarcity of phrasal verbs' production can
be attributed to the fact that little language is produced in both cases and because of using
certain activities that are not suitable as elicitation techniques.
7. Conclusion
Arabic is a non-Germanic language and one may expect that Arab learners of English
face problems with structures found only in Germanic languages. This paper, hence,
15
investigates the avoidance of phrasal verbs, a structure found in Germanic languages only,
by EFL Arab college students in relation to proficiency levels (beginners, advanced) and
phrasal verb types (literal, figurative). The researcher used two research tools: a multiplechoice test and classroom observation. 39 female Arab students took the test, whereas two
groups of different proficiency levels have been observed with regards to speaking only.
Results showed that female Arab students do not avoid phrasal verbs including figurative
ones. One explanation for this is the fact that the group who took the test are advanced
language learners whose avoidance behavior regarding the phrasal verb structure is
diminished. Further, classroom observation showed no difference between beginners and
advanced language learners regarding their production of phrasal verbs. Each group produced
the same number of phrasal verbs suggesting that speaking, as a productive skill, should be
further examined using a different research tool and various elicitation activities.
16
8. References
Brown, D. H. (1994). Principles of language learning and teaching (4th ed., pp. 128-129).
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall-Regents.
Blum, S., & Levenston, E. (1977). Strategies of communication through lexical avoidance in
the speech and writing of second language learners and teachers in translation. (ERIC
Document Reproduction Service No. ED139280)
Celce-Murcia, M., & Larsen-Freeman, D. (1999). The grammar book: An ESL/EFL
teachers course (2nd ed.). Boston: Heinle & Heinle.
Darwin, C., & Gray, L. (1999). Going after the phrasal verb: An alternative approach to
classification. TESOL Quarterly, 33, 65-83.
Gaston, M. (2004). Avoidance of Phrasal Verbs by Spanish-Speaking learners of English
(Master's thesis, California State University Dominguez Hills, 2004).
Kano, S. (2006). Investigation of L1 influence on avoidance of relative clauses by Japanese
learners of English: Do the learners transfer the use of Japanese relative clauses into
English? (Master's thesis, Hamline University, 2006).
Kleinmann, H. H. (1977). Avoidance behavior in adult second language acquisition.
Language Learning, 27, 93-107.
Kleinmann, H. H. (1978). The strategy of avoidance in adult second language acquisition.
In W. Ritchie (Ed.), Second language acquisition research: Issues and
implications (pp. 157-174). New York: Academic Press.
Liao, Y., & Fukuya, Y. (2004). Avoidance of phrasal verbs: The case of Chinese learners of
English. Language learning, 54(2), 193-226.
Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G., & Svartvik, J. (1985). A comprehensive grammar of
the English language (pp.1150-1168). New York: Longman.
Schachter, J. (1974). An error in error analysis. Language Learning, 24, 205-214.
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Waibel, B. (2007). Phrasal verbs in learner English: A corpus-based study of German and
Italian students (Doctoral dissertation, der Albert-Ludwigs-Universitt, 2007).
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9. Appendices
9.1 Appendix A
Test Items
Please read the following sentences and choose the best answer that completes the
sentence. Write the letter of your answer in the blank. If you do not know the meaning
of all the words, make your best guess. Be sure to answer all the questions.
1. When the weather is nice I love to ___ early.
Me, too. Its good to enjoy the morning air.
A. rise B. release C. get up D. look after
2. I didnt expect to see Emily at the party. I thought she had gone on vacation.
Me neither. I was also surprised when she ___.
A. claimed B. appeared C. showed up D. looked up
3. I heard that the company is sending you to Germany again.
Yes. Its been a long time since I was there, so I guess its time to ___ my
German.
A. abolish B. improve C. brush up on D. calm down
4. How do you like John?
He is one of those few people who never ___ their friends.
A. solve B. disappoint C. let down D. carry on
5. Did you hear about the bombing of the embassy in Nairobi?
That was a disaster. Fortunately, there werent that many people in the building
when the bomb ___.
A. went off B. tuned in C. exploded D. replied
6. Hello, Jan!
Hi, Susan! How nice of you to call me!
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