Noise pollution

Noise pollution (or environmental noise) is

displeasing human-, animal- or machine-created
sound that disrupts the activity or balance of human
or animal life. The word noise comes from the Latin
word nausea meaning seasickness.
The source of most outdoor noise worldwide is
transportation systems, including motor vehicle
noise, aircraft noise and rail noise. Poor urban
planning may give rise to noise pollution, since
side-by-side industrial and residential buildings can
result in noise pollution in the residential area

A Boeing 747-400 passes close to houses shortly

before landing at London Heathrow Airport

When unwanted sound created by human beings hits our ears and disturbs the
environment, noise pollution is created. Chiefly, noise pollution comes from barking
dogs, loud music, vehicles, aircraft and rail transport, air-conditioners, factories,
amplified music and construction work.
Other sources of indoor and outdoor noise pollution are car alarms, emergency service
sirens, office equipment, factory machinery, construction work, groundskeeping
equipment, barking dogs, appliances, power tools, lighting hum, audio entertainment
systems, loudspeakers, and noisy people.

What is Noise Pollution?

Noise pollution is a type of energy pollution in which
distracting, irritating, or damaging sounds are freely audible. As
with other forms of energy pollution (such as heat and light
pollution), noise pollution contaminants are not physical
particles, but rather waves that interfere with naturally-occurring
waves of a similar type in the same environment. Thus, the
definition of noise pollution is open to debate, and there is no
clear border as to which sounds may constitute noise pollution.
In the most narrow sense, sounds are considered noise pollution
if they adversely affect wildlife, human activity, or are capable of
damaging physical structures on a regular, repeating basis. In the
broadest sense of the term, a sound may be considered noise
pollution if it disturbs any natural process or causes human harm, even if the sound does
not occur on a regular basis.
The prevailing source of artificial noise pollution is from transportation. In rural areas,
train and airplane noise can disturb wildlife habits, thereby affecting the manner in which

animals in areas around train tracks and airports hunt and mate. In urban areas,
automobile, motorcycle, and even entertainment noise can cause sleep disruption in
humans and animals, hearing loss, heart disease (as a result of stress), and in severe cases
even mental instability. A notable exception to the rule is the electric, or hybrid-electric,
automobile. Hybrid vehicles are so quite, in fact, that legislation is pending to actually
make them louder. This is in response to numerous injuries in which pedestrians, unaware
of a hybrid vehicle's presence, have been struck by such vehicles in parking lots and
pedestrian crosswalks.

Although most developed nations have government agencies responsible for the
protection of the environment, no nation has a single body that regulates noise
pollution. In the United States, regulation of noise pollution was stripped from the
federal Environmental Protection Agency and passed on the the individual states in
the early 1980's. Although two noise-control bills passed by the EPA are still in
effect, the agency can no longer form relevant legislation. In the United States,
Canada, Europe, and most other developed parts of the world, different types of
noise are managed by agencies responsible for the source of the noise.
Transportation noise is usually regulated by the relevant transportation ministry,
health-related work noise is often regulated by health ministries and worker's
unions, and entertainment noise such as loud music is a criminal offense in many
areas. As the bodies responsible for noise pollution reduction usually view noise as
an annoyance rather than a problem, and reducing that noise often hurts the
industry financially, little is currently being done to reduce noise pollution in
developed countries.

Human health effects

Noise health effects are both health and behavioral in nature.
The unwanted sound is called noise. This unwanted sound can
damage physiological and psychological health. Noise
pollution can cause annoyance and aggression, hypertension,
high stress levels, tinnitus, hearing loss, sleep disturbances, and
other harmful effects.[3][4][5][6] Furthermore, stress and
hypertension are the leading causes to health problems,
whereas tinnitus can lead to forgetfulness, severe depression
and at times panic attacks.
Chronic exposure to noise may cause noise-induced hearing loss. Older males exposed to
significant occupational noise demonstrate significantly reduced hearing sensitivity than
their non-exposed peers, though differences in hearing sensitivity decrease with time and
the two groups are indistinguishable by age 79. A comparison of Maaban tribesmen, who
were insignificantly exposed to transportation or industrial noise, to a typical U.S.
population showed that chronic exposure to moderately high levels of environmental
noise contributes to hearing loss.

High noise levels can contribute to cardiovascular effects and exposure to moderately
high levels during a single eight hour period causes a statistical rise in blood pressure of
five to ten points and an increase in stress and vasoconstriction leading to the increased
blood pressure noted above as well as to increased incidence of coronary artery disease.
Noise pollution is also a cause of annoyance. A 2005 study by Spanish researchers found
that in urban areas households are willing to pay approximately four Euros per decibel
per year for noise reduction.

Environmental effects
Noise can have a detrimental effect on animals by causing
stress, increasing risk of death by changing the delicate
balance in predator/prey detection and avoidance, and by
interfering with their use of sounds in communication
especially in relation to reproduction and in navigation.
Acoustic overexposure can lead to temporary or permanent
loss of hearing. High noise levels may interfere with the
natural cycles of animals, including feeding behavior,
breeding rituals and migration paths. The most significant
impact of noise to animal life is the systematic reduction of
usable habitat, which in the case of endangered species may be an important part of the
path to extinction. Perhaps the most sensational damage caused by noise pollution is the
death of certain species of beaked whales, brought on by the extremely loud (up to 200
decibels) sound of military SONAR.
An impact of noise on animal life is the reduction of usable habitat that noisy areas may
cause, which in the case of endangered species may be part of the path to extinction. One
of the best known cases of damage caused by noise pollution is the death of certain
species of beached whales, brought on by the loud sound of military sonar.[11]
Noise also makes species communicate louder, which is called Lombard vocal response.
[12]
Scientists and researchers have conducted experiments that show whales' song length
is longer when submarine-detectors are on. If creatures don't "speak" loud enough, their
voice will be masked by anthropogenic sounds. These unheard voices might be warnings,
finding of prey, or preparations of net-bubbling. When one species begins speaking
louder, it will mask other species' voice, causing the whole ecosystem to eventually speak
louder.
European Robins living in urban environments are more likely to sing at night in places
with high levels of noise pollution during the day, suggesting that they sing at night
because it is quieter, and their message can propagate through the environment more
clearly. Interestingly, the same study showed that daytime noise was a stronger predictor
of nocturnal singing than night-time Light pollution, to which the phenomenon is often
attributed.
Zebra finches become less faithful to their partners when exposed to traffic noise. This
could alter a population's evolutionary trajectory by selecting traits, sapping resources

normally devoted to other activities and thus lead to profound genetic and evolutionary
consequences.

Impact of noise pollution in the UK

Figures compiled by Rockwool, the mineral wool insulation manufacturer, based on
responses from local authorities to a Freedom of Information Act (FOI) request reveal in
the period April 2008 - 2009 UK councils received 315,838 complaints about noise
pollution from private residences. This resulted in environmental health officers across
the UK serving 8,069 noise abatement notices, or citations under the terms of the AntiSocial Behaviour (Scotland) Act. In the last 12 months, 524 confiscations of equipment
have been authorised involving the removal of powerful speakers, stereos and televisions.
Westminster City Council has received more complaints per head of population than any
other district in the UK with 9,814 grievances about noise, which equates to 42.32
complaints per thousand residents. Eight of the top 10 councils ranked by complaints per
1,000 residents are located in London.

Mitigation and control of noise

The sound tube in Melbourne, Australia, designed to reduce roadway
noise without detracting from the area's aesthetics.
Technology to mitigate or remove noise can be applied as follows:
There are a variety of strategies for mitigating roadway noise including: use of noise
barriers, limitation of vehicle speeds, alteration of roadway surface texture, limitation of
heavy vehicles, use of traffic controls that smooth vehicle flow to reduce braking and
acceleration, and tire design. An important factor in applying these strategies is a
computer model for roadway noise, that is capable of addressing local topography,
meteorology, traffic operations and hypothetical mitigation. Costs of building-in
mitigation can be modest, provided these solutions are sought in the planning stage of a
roadway project.
Aircraft noise can be reduced to some extent by design of quieter jet engines, which was
pursued vigorously in the 1970s and 1980s. This strategy has brought limited but
noticeable reduction of urban sound levels. Reconsideration of operations, such as
altering flight paths and time of day runway use, have demonstrated benefits for
residential populations near airports. FAA sponsored residential retrofit (insulation)
programs initiated in the 1970s has also enjoyed success in reducing interior residential
noise in thousands of residences across the United States.
Exposure of workers to Industrial noise has been addressed since the 1930s. Changes
include redesign of industrial equipment, shock mounting assemblies and physical
barriers in the workplace.

Noise Free America, a national anti-noise pollution organization, regularly lobbies for the
enforcement of noise ordinances at all levels of government.

Legal status
Governments up until the 1970s viewed noise as a "nuisance" rather than an
environmental problem. In the United States there are federal standards for highway and
aircraft noise; states and local governments typically have very specific statutes on
building codes, urban planning and roadway development. In Canada and the EU there
are few national, provincial, or state laws that protect against noise.
Noise laws and ordinances vary widely among municipalities and indeed do not even
exist in some cities. An ordinance may contain a general prohibition against making noise
that is a nuisance, or it may set out specific guidelines for the level of noise allowable at
certain times of the day and for certain activities.
Dr. Paul Herman wrote the first comprehensive noise codes in 1975 for Portland, Oregon
with funding from the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) and HUD (Housing and
Urban Development). The Portland Noise Code became the basis for most other
ordinances for major U.S. and Canadian metropolitan regions.
Most city ordinances prohibit sound above a threshold intensity from trespassing over
property line at night, typically between 10 p.m. and 6 a.m., and during the day restricts it
to a higher sound level; however, enforcement is uneven. [citation needed] Many municipalities
do not follow up on complaints. Even where a municipality has an enforcement office, it
may only be willing to issue warnings, since taking offenders to court is expensive.
The notable exception to this rule is the City of Portland Oregon which has instituted an
aggressive protection for its citizens with fines reaching as high at $5000 per infraction,
with the ability to cite a responsible noise violator multiple times in a single day.
Many conflicts over noise pollution are handled by negotiation between the emitter and
the receiver. Escalation procedures vary by country, and may include action in
conjunction with local authorities, in particular the police. Noise pollution often persists
because only five to ten percent of people affected by noise will lodge a formal
complaint. Many people are not aware of their legal right to quiet and do not know how
to register a complaint.

Cause and Effects of Noise Pollution

by
Daniel G. Nunez
Abstract
No one on earth can escape the sounds of noisean unwanted, disturbing sound that causes a nuisance in
the eye of the beholder. Noise is a disturbance to the
human environment that is escalating at such a high rate
that it will become a major threat to the quality of human
lives. In the past thirty years, noise in all areas, especially
in urban areas, has been increasing rapidly. There are
numerous effects on the human environment due to the
increase in noise pollution. In the following paper, the
cause and effects of noise pollution will be presented in some detail. Slowly, insensibly,
we seem to accept noise and the physiological and psychological deterioration that
accompanies it as an inevitable part of our lives. Although we attempt to set standards for
some of the most major sources of noise, we often are unable to monitor them. Major
sources of noise can be airplanes at takeoff and landing, and a truck just off the assembly
line, yet we seem accept and enjoy countless other sounds, from hard rock music to loud
Harley Davidson motor cycles. The following areas will be investigated in some detail;
adolescent education, neural-effects, sleep, hearing damage, occupational environment,
transportation, and physiological effects.

Introduction
Almost everyone has had one experience of being temporarily "deafened" by a
loud noise. This "deafness" in not permanent, although it is often accompanied by a
ringing in the ears, and one can hear another person if he raises his voice. Likewise,
normal hearing comes back within a few hours at most. This sort of partial hearing loss is
called Temporary Threshold Shift (TTS) (Bugliarello, et al., 1976). A TTS may be
experienced after firing a gun or after a long drive in the car with the windows open. It
may not be considered that if exposure to this type of loud noise at a rate of eight hours a
day, five days a week can is a threat to develop permanent hearing loss. This type of
exposure to noise does not have to be as loud as a gun being fired; it can be as simple as a
person shouting across the room. The type of hearing loss is any degree from partial to
complete hearing loss. This loss, usually, is permanent and is not satisfactorily corrected
by any devices such as, hearing aids. The loss is caused by the destruction of the delicate
hair cells and their auditory nerve connections in the Organ of Corti, which is contained
in the cochlea (Bugliarello, et al., 1976). Every exposure to loud noise destroys some
cells, but prolonged exposure damages a larger amount of cells, and ultimately collapses
the Organ of Corti, which causes deafness.
Most of society is now aware that noise can damage hearing. However, short of a threat
that disaster would overtake the human race if nothing is done about noise, it is unlikely

that many people today would become strongly motivated to do something about the
problem. Yet, the evidence about the ill effects of noise does not allow for complacency
or neglect. For instance, researchers working with children with hearing disorders are
constantly reminded of the crucial importance of hearing to children. In the early years
the child cannot learn to speak without special training if he has enough hearing loss to
interfere effectively with the hearing of words in context (Bugliarello, et al., 1976). In
this respect, there is a clear need for parents to protect their childrens hearing as they
try to protect their eyesight. If no steps are taken to lessen the effects of noise, we may
expect a significant percentage of future generations to have hearing damage. It would be
difficult to predict the total outcome if total population would suffer hearing loss.
Conceivably, the loss could even be detrimental to our survival if it were ever necessary
for us to be able to hear high frequencies. Colavita has consistently been unable to find
among university students in his classes any who could hear 20 kHz, although the
classical results of Fletcher and Munson show 20 kHz as an audible frequency (Fletcher,
1953).
There are two types of hearing loss: conductive and sensorineural (see fig.1 for anatomy
of the ear). In conductive deafness sound-pressure waves never reach the cochlea, most
often as a consequence of a ruptured eardrum or a defect in the ossicles of the middle ear
(Bugliarello, et al., 1976).
The three bones form a system of levers linked together, hammer pushing anvil, anvilpushing stirrup. Working together, the bones amplify the force of sound vibrations. Taken
together, the bones double, often treble the force of the vibrations reaching the eardrum
(Bugliarello, et al., 1976).
Mitigation of potentially harmful amplification occurs via muscles of the middle ear.
These muscles act as safety device protection the ear against excessive vibrations from
very loud noises, very much like an automatic damper or volume control.
When jarring sounds with their rapid vibrations strike the eardrum; the muscles twist the
bones slightly, allowing the stirrup to rotate in a different direction. With this directional
shift, less force is transmitted to the inner ear: less, not all (Bugliarello, et al., 1976).
The human ear is a delicate and fragile anatomical structure on the other hand its a
fairly powerful physical force. These muscles act quickly but not always as in examples
of when the ear catches the sound of gun being shot unexpectedly. The muscle of the ear
were relaxed and were unprepared for such a blast, because of this damage was done.
Conductive hearing loss can be minimized, even overcome by use of the familiar hearing
aids. The most common is worn over the mastoid bond behind the pinna. It picks up
sound waves and transmits them through the skull to the cochlea.
Sensorineural hearing loss, the most common form in the United States, occurs as a result
of advancing age as well as exposure to loud noises. In both instances there is a
disruption of the organ of Corti. The organ serves two functions: converting mechanical
energy to electrical and dispatching to the brain a coded version of the original sound
with information bout frequency, intensity, and timbre. The hair cells of the organ of

Corti send their electrochemical signals into the central nervous system, where the signals
are picked up by thousands of auditory nerve fibers and transmitted to the brain. It is the
decoding of all the information that enables a person to distinguish the unique ant
separate sounds of a violin, trumpet, and clarinet, even all three are playing the same
note.
The organ of corti, a gelatinous mass, is on of the best protected parts of the body,
encased as it is within the cochlea which in turn is deeply embedded in the temporal
bone, perhaps the hardest of the 206 bones (Bugliarello, et al., 1976). None the less, loud
noise can damage the hair cells and the auditory nerve, producing at times, depending on
the type of noise, sudden and often total deafness.
Sustained noise over a period of time can also engender sensorineural deafness in the
form of gradual losses in hearing. This is the most common loss in teenagers today
listening to loud rock music (Bugliarello, et al., 1976).

Sources of noise
The overarching cause of most noise worldwide is generated by transportation
systems, principally motor vehicle noise, but also including aircraft noise and rail noise.
Hybrid vehicles for road use are the first widely sold automobiles in 100 years to achieve
significant noise source reduction. Poor urban planning may also give rise to noise
pollution, since juxtaposition of industrial to residential land uses, for example, often
results in adverse consequences for the residential acoustic environment.
Besides transportation noise, other prominent sources are office equipment, factory
machinery, appliances, power tools, lighting hum and audio entertainment systems. With
the popularity of digital audio player devices, individuals in a noisy area might increase
the volume in order to drown out ambient sounds. Construction equipment also produces
noise pollution.
Noise from recreational off-highway vehicles (OHVs) is becoming a serious problem in
rural areas. ATVs, also known as quads or four wheelers, have increased in popularity
and are joining the traditional two wheeled dirt motorcycles for off-road riding.
The noise from ATV machines is quite different from that of the traditional dirt bike. The
ATVs have large bore, four stroke engines that produce a loud throaty growl that will
carry further due to the lower frequencies involved. The traditional two stroke engines on
dirt bikes have gotten larger and, while they have higher frequencies, they still can
propagate the sound for a mile or more. The noise produced by these vehicle is
particularly disturbing due to the wide variations in frequency and volume.
Recreational off-road vehicles are generally not required to be registered and the control
of the noise they emit is absent in most communities. However, there is a growing
awareness that operation of these machines can seriously degrade the quality of life of
those within earshot of the noise and some communities have enacted regulations, either
by imposing limits on the sound or through land use laws. Rider organizations are also

beginning to recognize the problem and are enlightening members as to future restrictions
on riding if noise is not curtailed.

Human health
Principal noise health effects are both health and behavioral in nature. The
following discussion refers to sound levels that would be present within 30 to 150 meters
from a moderately busy highway.

Hearing
The mechanism for chronic exposure to noise leading to hearing loss is well
established. The elevated sound levels cause trauma to the cochlear structure in the inner
ear, which gives rise to irreversible hearing loss. The pinna (visible portion of the human
ear) combined with the middle ear amplifies sound levels by a factor of 20 when sound
reaches the inner ear. In Rosen's seminal work on serious health effects regarding hearing
loss and coronary artery disease, one of his findings derived from tracking Maaban
tribesmen, who were insignificantly exposed to transportation or industrial noise. This
population was systematically compared by cohort group to a typical U.S. population.
The findings proved that aging is an almost insignificant cause of hearing loss, which
instead is associated with chronic exposure to moderately high levels of environmental
noise.

Cardiovascular health
High noise levels can contribute to Cardiovascular effects and exposure to moderately
high (e.g. above 70 dBA) during a single eight hour period causes a statistical rise in
blood pressure of five to ten mmHg; a clear and measurable increase in stress [1]; and
vasoconstriction leading to the increased blood pressure noted above as well as to
increased incidence of coronary artery disease.

Annoyance
Though it pales in comparison to the health effects noted above, noise pollution
constitutes a significant factor of annoyance and distraction in modern artificial
environments:
1. The meaning listeners attribute to the sound influences annoyance, so that, if
listeners dislike the noise content, they are annoyed.
2. If the sound causes activity interference, noise is more likely to annoy (for
example, sleep disturbance)
3. If listeners feel they can control the noise source, the less likely the noise will be
annoying.
4. If listeners believe that the noise is subject to third party control, including
police, but control has failed, they are more annoyed.
5. The inherent unpleasantness of the sound causes annoyance. What is music to
one is noise to another.

6. Contextual sound. If the sound is appropriate for the activity it is in context. If

one is at a race track the noise is in context and the psychological effects are
absent. If one is at an outdoor picnic the race track noise will produce adverse
psychological and physical effects.
7. Sometimes, even low levels of noise are irritating and can be frustrating, and high
volumes can be annoying. Natural sounds are less irritating than those we find
uncontrollable but intermittent sounds such as a tap dripping water can be more
irritating than the sound of falling rain.
Sources of noise: All transportation systems create noise pollution. With residences
created adjacent to factories, they experience noise pollution and its adverse effects.
Besides transportation noise, noise can come from factory appliances, power tools and
audio entertainment systems.
Measures of noise: Noise pollution is measured in decibels. When noise is at 45
decibels, no human being can sleep, and at 120 decibels the ear is in pain and hearing
begins to be damaged at 85 decibels.

Effects of noise pollution

Human health: Noise pollution disturbs our health and behavior in a number of ways
including deafness causing lack of sleep, irritability, indigestion, heartburn, high blood
pressure, ulcers, and heart disease. Just one noise explosion from a passing truck
drastically alters our endocrinal, neurological, and cardiovascular functions in many
individuals. If this is prolonged or frequent, the physiological disturbances become
chronic and contribute to mental illness.
Speech interference: Noise more than 50dB can be very difficult to hear and interpret
and cause problems such as partial deafness.
Sleep interference: Very high levels of noise can wake people from their sleep with a
jerk and keep them awake or disturb their sleep pattern. This could make them irritable
and tired the next day.
Decreased work performance: Increased noise levels gives rise to a lack of
concentration and accuracy at work, and reduce ones productivity and performance.
Difficult tasks can be impaired, and instructions or warnings difficult to be heard and
interpreted, causing accidents.
Annoyance because some stressful effects depend on qualities of the sound other than its
absolute decibel value, the annoyance associated with sound may need to be considered
in regard to health effects. For example, noise from airports is typically perceived as
more bothersome than noise from traffic of equal volume. [20] Annoyance effects of noise
are minimally affected by demographics, but fear of the noise source and sensitivity to
noise both strongly affect the 'annoyance' of a noise. [21] Even sound levels as low as 40
dB(A) (about as loud as a refrigerator or library[22]) can generate noise complaints[23] and
the lower threshold for noise producing sleep disturbance is 45 dB(A) or lower.[24]

Other factors that affect the 'annoyance level' of sound include beliefs about noise
prevention and the importance of the noise source, and annoyance at the cause (i.e. nonnoise related factors) of the noise.[25] For instance, in an office setting, audible telephone
conversations and discussions between co-workers were considered to be irritating,
depending upon the contents of the conversations. Many of the interpretations of the level
of annoyance and the relationship between noise levels and resulting health symptoms
could be influenced by the quality of interpersonal relationships at the workplace, as well
as the stress level generated by the work itself. [26][27] Evidence regarding the impact of
long-term noise versus recent changes in ongoing noise is equivocal on its impact on
annoyance.[25]
Estimates of sound annoyance typically rely on weighting filters, which consider some
sound frequencies to be more important than others based on their presumed audibility to
the human ear. The older dB(A) weighting filter described above is used widely in the
U.S., but underestimates the impact of frequencies around 6000 Hz and at very low
frequencies. The newer ITU-R 468 noise weighting filter is used more widely in Europe.
The propagation of sound varies between environments; for example, low frequencies
typically carry over longer distances. Therefore different filters, such as dB(B) and
dB(C), may be recommended for specific situations.
When young children are exposed to speech interference levels of noise on a regular basis
(the actual volume of which varies depending on distance and loudness of the speaker),
they may develop speech or reading difficulties, because auditory processing functions
are compromised. Children continue to develop their speech perception abilities until
they reach their teenage years. Evidence has shown that when children learn in noisier
classrooms, they have a more difficult time understanding speech than those who learn in
quieter settings.[28] In a study conducted by Cornell University in 1993, children exposed
to noise in learning environments experienced trouble with word discrimination as well
as various cognitive developmental delays.[29] In particular the writing learning
impairment known as dysgraphia is commonly associated with environmental stressors in
the classroom.[citation needed] The effect of high noise levels on small children has been known
to cause physical health damages as well. Children from noisy residences often possess a
heart rate that is significantly higher (by 2 beats/min on average) than in children from
quieter residences. [30]
Furthermore, studies have shown that neighborhood noise (consisting of noise from
neighboring apartments, as well as noise within one's own apartment or home) can cause
significant irritation and noise stress within people, due to the great deal of time people
spend within their residences. This can result in an increased risk of depression and
psychological disorders[31][32], migraines, and even emotional stress.[33]
In the workplace, noise pollution is generally a problem once the noise level is greater
than 55 dB(A). Selected studies show that approximately 35 to 40% of workers in office
settings find noise levels from 55 to 60 dB(A) to be extremely irritating. [34] In fact, the
noise standard in Germany for mentally stressful tasks is set at 55 dB(A). [35] However, if
the noise is source is continuous, the threshold level for tolerable noise levels amongst
office workers actually becomes lower than 55 dB(A).[36]

One important effect of noise is to make a person's speech less easy to hear. The human
brain automatically compensates the production of speech for background noise in a
process called the Lombard effect in which it becomes louder with more distinct
syllables. But this cannot fully remove the problems of communication intelligibility
made in noise.
Effects of Noise pollution The extent of the noise
problem is large. In the EU countries about 40 % of the
population are exposed to road traffic noise with an LAeq,T
exceeding 55 dB daytime and 20 % are exposed to levels
exceeding 65 dB (Lambert & Vallet, 1994). Taking all exposure
to transportation noise together about half of the EU citizens
are estimated to live in zones which do not ensure acoustic
comfort to residents. More than 30 % are exposed at night to
noise levels exceeding 55 dB LAeq which are disturbing to
sleep. It is no surprise that annoyance to community noise is
widespread among citizens: in some EU-countries 20-25 % are
being annoyed by road traffic, 2-15 % by aircraft, and 2-4 % by
railway noise (Lambert & Vallet, 1994).
Until now the introduction of noise emission standards for vehicles have had limited
impact on the exposure to road traffic noise (Sandberg, 1993). Traffic planning and
correction policies may diminish the number of people exposed to the very high
community noise levels (>70 dB LAeq) but the number exposed to moderately high
levels (55-65 dB LAeq) continues to increase in industrialized countries.
A substantial growth in air transport in Europe is expected in the future; in the U.K. by
50-80 % in passenger movements over ten years. General aviation noise at regional
airports will increase (Large & House, 1989). However, at the same time jet aircrafts may
become 8 to 12 dB quieter due to regulation. An outlook for exposure to noise has been
made by OECD (1991). The number of noise sources is expected to increase and is likely
to be accompanied by a deterioration of the noise environment. At the same time, it is
expected that the public will become more aware of noise pollution and also be protected
from noise problem. The OECD (1991) identifies the following four factors of increasing
importance in the future:
(1) Expanding use of increasingly numerous and powerful sources of noise.
(2) Wider geographical dispersion of noise sources together with greater individual
mobility and spread of leisure activities.
(3) Increasing spread of noise over time particularly in the early morning, evenings and
weekends.
(4) Increasing public expectations which are closely linked to increases in incomes and in
education levels.

The OECD (1991) report forecasts (a) a strengthening of present noise abatement policies
and their applications, (b) a further sharpening of emission standards, (c) a coordination
of noise abatement measures and transport planning, particularly designed to reduce
mobility, and (d) a coordination of noise abatement measures with urban planning.
High-level noise exposures giving rise to noise-induced hearing deficits are by no means
restricted to occupational situations. Such levels can also occur in concerts, discotheques,
motor sports, shooting ranges, and leisure activities. Other sources are also important
such as music played back in headphones and impulse noise from toys and fireworks. It
has also been argued that community noise exposure would be a contributing factor to
hearing deficits with increasing age. The existence of such a sociacusis waits for final
scientific verification since so many other factors and agents are also influencing hearing.
The acoustics of a space designed for speech must primarily ensure clarity and
intelligibility. Therefore it is important to design spaces for optimum reverberation time
and spatial-temporal aspects including the time delay between the direct and first
reflected sound.
Planners need to know the likely effects on the noise pollution in a community of
introducing a new noise source as well as increasing the level of an existing source
(Diamond & Rice, 1987). There are a number of models to predict annoyance due to a
combination of noise sources, such as models of energy summation, of source addition,
of source difference, of response summation and response inhibition, and of the
(subjectively) dominant source (e.g., Vos, 1992a). Policy makers, when considering
applications for new developments, must take into account maximum levels, equivalent
levels, frequency of occurrence, and operating time of the major noise sources.

Noise Threatens Hearing

Noise is one of the leading causes of hearing loss in the 28 million people with impaired
hearing in the United States, and health statistics suggest a trend that the incidence of
hearing loss is occurring at younger and younger ages. Noise-induced hearing loss,
though preventable, is permanent.

How Loud is Too Loud?

To know if a sound is loud enough to cause damage to your ears, it is important to know
both the level of intensity and the length of exposure to the sound. The unit used to
measure environmental sound intensity is the decibel (dBA).
Zero decibels is approximately the softest sound the healthy human ear can hear. The
scale increases logarithmically; that is, the level of perceived loudness doubles every 10
decibels. Experts agree that continued exposure to noise above 85 dBA, over time, will
eventually harm hearing. In general, the louder the sound, the less time required before
hearing will be affected.
Noise-Induced Hearing Loss - How the Damage Occurs: loud noise assaults the
delicate hair cells of the inner ear. Noise-induced hearing loss typically occurs gradually
and without pain. After exposure to loud noise, a person may experience ringing in the
ears or difficulty hearing. This is called a "temporary threshold shift".

After a few hours (or in some cases, a few days), this temporary shift in hearing returns to
normal. With repeated exposure, however, this temporary shift in hearing can become
permanent. Once permanent hearing damage has occurred, it is not possible to restore
hearing.
Pay Attention to the Warning Signs
Noise-induced hearing loss is cumulative across the life span. Often, by the time a person
realizes that there is hearing loss, it is too late. But there are certain early warning signs to
suggest that there may be a problem. If you experience any of the following early
warning signs, have your hearing tested by a licensed audiologist, or have your ears
examined by an ear doctor.

A ringing or buzzing (tinnitus) in the ears immediately after exposure to noise.

A slight muffling of sounds after exposure making it difficult to understand
people when you leave a noisy area.
Difficulty understanding speech; that is, you can hear all the words, but you can't
understand all of them.

Protect Your Hearing

To avoid noise-induced hearing loss, pay attention to the noises around you and turn
down the volume whenever possible. Avoid or limit time spent in noisy sports events,
rock concerts and night clubs. Wear adequate hearing protection, such as foam ear plugs
or ear muffs, when you must be in a noisy environment or when using loud equipment.

How to avoid sources of noise pollution

Traffic: Dont live or work near major intersections or roads, shopping centers and
sporting facilities. Valleys and falls are noisier than flat roads.
Barking dogs: As a dog owner, you should take care to see that your dog doesnt annoy
the neighbors with its barking and yowling.
Aircraft: Before buying a home, see how far it is from the local airport.
Neighbors: Be a good neighbor by not annoying those who live next door with your
music or lawn mowing.
Solving noise problems: Many noise problems can be prevented by considering others
and talking through problems. Be a good and concerned neighbor by discussing a
common problem calmly and in a collaborative spirit to find a common solution.

Noise health effects

Noise health effects are the health consequences of elevated
sound levels. Elevated workplace or other noise can cause
hearing impairment, hypertension, ischemic heart disease,
annoyance, sleep disturbance, and decreased school
performance. Changes in the immune system and birth
defects have been attributed to noise exposure, but evidence
is limited.[1] Although some presbycusis may occur naturally
with age,[2] in many developed nations the cumulative impact
of noise is sufficient to impair the hearing of a large fraction
of the population over the course of a lifetime. Noise exposure has also been known to
induce tinnitus, hypertension, vasoconstriction and other cardiovascular impacts.[5]
Beyond these effects, elevated noise levels can create stress, increase workplace accident
rates, and stimulate aggression and other anti-social behaviors.[6] The most significant
causes are vehicle and aircraft noise, prolonged exposure to loud music, and industrial
noise.

Hearing loss
The mechanism of hearing loss arises from trauma to stereocilia of the cochlea, the
principal fluid filled structure of the inner ear.[citation needed] The pinna combined with the
middle ear amplifies sound pressure levels by a factor of twenty, so that extremely high
sound pressure levels arrive in the cochlea, even from moderate atmospheric sound
stimuli. Underlying pathology to the cochlea are reactive oxygen species, which play a
significant role in noise-induced necrosis and apoptosis of the stereocilia.[7] Exposure to
high levels of noise have differing effects within a given population, and the involvement
of reactive oxygen species suggests possible avenues to treat or prevent damage to
hearing and related cellular structures.[7]
The elevated sound levels cause trauma to the cochlear structure in the inner ear, which
gives rise to irreversible hearing loss.[8] A very loud sound in a particular frequency range
can damage the cochlea's hair cells that respond to that range thereby reducing the ear's
ability to hear those frequencies in the future.[9] However, loud noise in any frequency
range has deleterious effects across the entire range of human hearing. [10] The outer ear
(visible portion of the human ear) combined with the middle ear amplifies sound levels
by a factor of 20 when sound reaches the inner ear.[11]
Hearing loss is somewhat inevitable with age. Though older males exposed to significant
occupational noise demonstrate significantly reduced hearing sensitivity than their nonexposed peers, differences in hearing sensitivity decrease with time and the two groups
are indistinguishable by age 79.[2] Women exposed to occupational noise do not differ
from their peers in hearing sensitivity, though they do hear better than their non-exposed
male counterparts. Due to loud music and a generally noisy environment, young people
in the United States have a rate of impaired hearing 2.5 times greater than their parents
and grandparents, with an estimated 50 million individuals with impaired hearing
estimated in 2050.[3]

In Rosen's work on health effects and hearing loss, one of his findings derived from
tracking Maaban tribesmen, who were insignificantly exposed to transportation or
industrial noise. This population was systematically compared by cohort group to a
typical U.S. population. The findings proved that aging is an almost insignificant cause of
hearing loss, which instead is associated with chronic exposure to moderately high levels
of environmental noise.[8]

Cardiovascular effects
Noise has been associated with important cardiovascular health problems.[12] In 1999, the
World Health Organization concluded that the available evidence showed suggested a
weak association between long-term noise exposure above 67-70 dB(A) and
hypertension.[13] More recent studies have suggested that noise levels of 50 dB(A) at night
may also increase the risk of myocardial infarction by chronically elevating cortisol
production.
Fairly typical roadway noise levels are sufficient to constrict arterial blood flow and lead
to elevated blood pressure; in this case, it appears that a certain fraction of the population
is more susceptible to vasoconstriction. This may result because annoyance from the
sound causes elevated adrenaline levels trigger a narrowing of the blood vessels
(vasoconstriction), or independently through medical stress reactions. Other effects of
high noise levels are increased frequency of headaches, fatigue, stomach ulcers and
vertigo.[17]
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency authored a pamphlet in 1978 that suggested a
correlation between low-birthweight babies (using the World Health Organization
definition of less than 2,500 g (~5.5 lb) and high sound levels, and also correlations in
abnormally high rates of birth defects, where expectant mothers are exposed to elevated
sound levels, such as typical airport environs. Specific birth abnormalities included
harelip, cleft palate, and defects in the spine. According to Lester W. Sontag of The Fels
Research Institute (as presented in the same EPA study): There is ample evidence that
environment has a role in shaping the physique, behavior and function of animals,
including man, from conception and not merely from birth. The fetus is capable of
perceiving sounds and responding to them by motor activity and cardiac rate change."
Noise exposure is deemed to be particularly pernicious when it occurs between 15 and 60
days after conception, when major internal organs and the central nervous system are
formed. Later developmental effects occur as vasoconstriction in the mother reduces
blood flow and hence oxygen and nutrition to the fetus. Low birth weights and noise were
also associated with lower levels of certain hormones in the mother, these hormones
being thought to affect fetal growth and to be a good indicator of protein production. The
difference between the hormone levels of pregnant mothers in noisy versus quiet areas
increased as birth approached. In a more recent publication, Passchier-Vermeer and
Passchier (2000)[1] while reviewing recent studies on birthweight and noise exposure note
that while some older studies suggest that when women are exposed to >65 dB aircraft
noise a small decrease in birthweight occurs, in a more recent study of 200 Taiwanese
women including noise dosimetry measurements of individual noise exposure the authors
found no significant association between noise exposure and birth weight after adjusting
for relevant confounders, e.g. social class, maternal weight gain during pregnancy, etc.

Stress
Research commissioned by Rockwool, the mineral wool insulation manufacturer,
completed by the independent market research agency ICM, reveals across the UK A
third (33%) of victims of domestic disturbances claim loud parties have left them unable
to sleep or made them stressed in the last two years. Almost one in ten (9%) [18] of those
affected by domestic disturbances claims it has left them continually disturbed and
stressed. Over 1.8 million people claim noisy neighbours have made their life a misery
and they cannot enjoy their own homes. The impact of noise on health is potentially a
significant problem across the UK given over 17.5 million Britons (38%) have been
disturbed by the inhabitants of neighbouring properties in the last two years. For almost
one in ten (7%) Britons this is a regular occurrence.
The extent of the problem of noise pollution for public health is reinforced by figures
collated by Rockwool from local authority responses to a Freedom of Information Act
(FOI) request. This research reveals in the period April 2008 - 2009 UK councils received
315,838 complaints about noise pollution from private residences. This resulted in
environmental health officers across the UK serving 8,069 noise abatement notices, or
citations under the terms of the Anti-Social Behaviour (Scotland) Act. In the last 12
months, 524 confiscations of equipment have been authorised involving the removal of
powerful speakers, stereos and televisions. Westminster City Council [19]has received
more complaints per head of population than any other district in the UK with 9,814
grievances about noise, which equates to 42.32 complaints per thousand residents. Eight
of the top 10 councils ranked by complaints per 1,000 residents are located in London.

Regulations
Environmental noise regulations usually specify a maximum outdoor noise level of 60 to
65 dB(A), while occupational safety organizations recommend that the maximum
exposure to noise is 40 hours per week at 85 to 90 dB(A). For every additional 3 dB(A),
the maximum exposure time is reduced by a factor 2, e.g. 20 hours per week at 88 dB(A).
Sometimes, a factor of two per additional 5 dB(A) is used. However, these occupational
regulations are acknowledged by the health literature as inadequate to protect against
hearing loss and other health effects.
With regards to indoor noise pollution in residences, the U.S. EPA has not set any
restrictions on limits to the level of noise. Rather, it has provided a list of recommended
levels in its Model Community Noise Control Ordinance, which was published in 1975.
For instance, the recommended noise level for indoor residences is less than or equal to
45 dB. Noise pollution control in residences is not funded by the federal government in
part because of the disagreements in establishing causal links between sounds and health
risks, since the effect of noise is often psychological and also because it leaves no
singular tangible trace of damage on the human body. For instance, hearing loss could be
attributed to a variety of factors including age, rather than solely due to excessive
exposure to noise. However, a state or local government is able to regulate indoor
residential noise, such as when excessive noise from within a home causes disturbances
to nearby residences.

How to Reduce Noise Pollution and Its Negative

Effects
Reducing Noise Pollution
Traffic noise is one form of noise pollution that many of us
experience.
Noise pollution can negatively impact the body in significant ways,
including elevated blood pressure, impaired cognitive functioning, and
other effects of chronic stress. (This article explains it in more detail.)
The following are effective strategies you can use to limit the negative
impact of noise pollution and safeguard your health and happiness.

Limit the Noise

Your first line of defense against noise pollution is to do what you can to control your
environment, and limit the noise that enters your space. The following are ways that you
can limit environmental noise and blunt the effects of noise pollution:

Double-Paned Windows and Weather Stripping: If you live in a noisy city or

near an airport, you can reduce noise in your home considerably by installing dualpaned windows, weather stripping, and even added insulation. As a bonus, these
changes can also reduce your heating and cooling bills, and help the environment!

Reduce Workplace Noise: If you work in a noisy office, you may want to talk to
your employer about taking steps to reduce office noise, which has been found to
affect the health and productivity of workers.

Turn Off The T.V.: When youre at home, a constant backdrop of television can
have an effect on you as a distraction and potential stressor.

Make Bigger Changes: You may even consider moving or changing jobs if you
experience significant levels of noise that you cant reduce in other ways. It sounds
like a drastic step, but considering the toll that a noisy environment can take on your
health.

If You Can't Eliminate The Noise Pollution...

Music can be a healthy replacement for environmental noise. If you cant eliminate noise
from your environment, you can actually create a healthier environment by replacing
stress-inducing environmental sounds with more pleasing ones. For example, you can
reduce the impact of airport or city noise with a white noise machine or sound spa. They
play sounds ranging from waterfalls to rain to babbling brooks to basic static, and these
sounds mask the more jarring environmental noises that can distract you or negatively
affect your sleep. They can also make it easier to meditate or practice visualization
techniques.
Additionally, you can drown out distracting sounds from a noisy office environment or
neighborhood with music from your iPod or stereo and enjoy the stress management and
health benefits of music while lessening the impact of the other noise. This can also
improve your mood, boost your immunity, calm your physiology, or energize you. While
youre really trading some sounds for others, the sounds of nature or music can be more
soothing and better for your health.

Safeguard Your Health From Noise Pollution:

Meditation can counteract the effects of stress. Because part of
the toll of noise pollution is due to the activation of the bodys
stress response, it stands to reason that you can counteract some
of these ill effects by regularly using techniques that can reverse
your bodys physiological changes that come with chronic stress.

The following are some of the most effective techniques you can use:

Breathing Exercises: Deep breathing and other breathing exercises work well
because they can be done anywhere and are effective in calming the bodys physiology
in minutes. (Take a deep breathdont you feel better already?)

Meditation: Meditation is also an extremely effective stress reliever because it

calms the physiology and even helps alter brain chemistry so that, over time, you are
less reactive to stress as it happens. (For more in meditation, read these articles on the
benefits of meditation and different types of meditation that can be helpful to you.)

Yoga The practice of yoga is a great stress reliever because it combines breathing
and meditation, and adds an element of exercise to be a stress reliever that acts on
several different levels to benefit your health. It also provides a simple way to ease
into meditation, for those who find it to be a bit of a challenge at first. May be an option
to consider.