MENG413_Flat-plate solar-heaters

FLAT PLATE SOLAR HEATING

INTRODUCTION

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)

Open trough; loss by evap+ convection+ground conduction+long wave(infrared) radiation

Open trough off ground; loses heat by evaporation + convection + long-wave radiation
Black closed tank; heat loss by convection to wind + ground conduction+ L.W. radiation
Black tank insulated underneath; heat losses by upper convection + radiation
Sheltered Black tank, better than before but materials degradable.
Metal tube and plate collector (commercial std) &flooded plate(more efficient)
Double glazed flat plate; better insulation than (f)
Selective surface short >> long ; radiative losses reduced
Evacuated collector; no convection or conduction losses to cover.
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1.

Refinements increase Solar radiation absorbed by heater, or decrease heat loss.

Main part of a solar heating system is the collector, where solar radiation is
absorbed and energy transferred to fluid
Non-concentrating collectors, subject of this chapter, absorb both beam and
diffuse radiation, and are cheaper than concentrators
They are generally preferred for heating fluids up to 80oC.
Water may be heated indirectly, using a heat exchanger. Heating fluid may then
be oil or antifreeze solution; reducing corrosion, eliminating freezing/boiling.
Uncovered Enclosed Black Container, Fig5.1d

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Ex1. Heat balance of an unsheltered black bag: A rectangular black rubber bag
1m1m0.1m with walls 5 m.m. thick is filled with 100 litres of water, supported
on a thin, non-conductive, horizontal grid well above ground, and exposed to a
solar irradiance G= 750 W/m2, Fig 5.3. Ta=20oC, Wind speed 5 m/s, p=0.9 .
Calculate resistance to heat loss from bag; hence estimate maximum watertemperature and time taken to reach max temperature.
Assuming:(mc)skin<<Cf= (mc)water, Tf is uniform(lumped capacity analysis),Tf=Tp :
(mc)

dT f
dt

AG

(T f Ta )

(1)

RL

Resistance to convective heat loss:

Rv,pa 1/(hv AL)

Convective heat transfer coefficient , hv depends on wind speed (Re) , air properties
(Pr,k) and Lplate (MENG466). HT eqns give hv= 24.7 W/m2 K; AL2 m2.
Radiative heat flow to sky:
Pr,ps = pAL(Tp4 Ts4),
Pr,ps=hr,paAL(Tp-Ta),

where Ts=Ta- 6 K
p (Tp2 Ts2 )(Tp2 Ts2 )
1
where
hr , pa
ARr , pa
Tp Ta

RL = 1 / (1/Rv,pa + 1/Rr,pa)
Assuming Tp=40oC, hr,pa=7.2 W/m2K yields : RL= 0.015 K/W.
Maximum temperature when dTf/dt= 0, hence from eqn(1):
(Tf - Ta) / RL =.Ap.G,
Ap= 1m2.
yielding Tf,max = 31oC.
To get rough estimate of time, t, taken to reach Tf,max, employ eqn(1) at midtemperature 25oC to yield: (dTf/dt)25 = 8.110-4 K/s. Hence :
t =T/(dTf/dt) = 1.3104 s = 3.7 h.
Much more accurate predictions may be made by:

System is fixed mass, unsteady, no flow.

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Using Heisler charts(MENG466); or better still solving numerically the

partial differential equations presented in MENG466 for non-uniform Tf .
Taking variation of G with time of day into account, according to previous
chapter.
2.
Sheltered Black Container, Fig5.1e
Ex2. The container of Ex1is placed inside a box with a glass lid 3 cm above it 10
cm insulation below. For same external conditions, calculate : RL, Tf,max and t to
reach it.

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Conduction loss at base, Pb = (Tp- Tb)/Rb (Tp Ta)/Rb (Tp Ta)kA/x

(2)

For Tp=70oC, eqn(2) yields Pb ~ 15 W which is negligible. Hence heat balance for
water yields (unsteady, fixed mass system):
mc

dT f
dt

AG

T f Ta

(3)

R pa

Outward heat transfer occurs in 3 stages,Fig5.4b:

i.

Heat transfer from plate to glass by free convection of air in gap + long-wave
radiation(~10m):
to start analysis, assuming Tp = 70oC, Tg=0.5*(Tp+Ta)=45oC.
for Natural convection between parallel horiz. plates a distance Y apart:
Nu h .Y/k = 0.062 Ra0.33 ; hence Nu= 2.06 and Rv,pg=Y / (k.Nu) =0.52 kW/m2
for 2 infinite parallel plates:
qr (T14 T24 )
1 2
1 2

(T14 T24 )
(T12 T22 )(T1 T2 )(T1 T2 )
1 1
A

1
2
1 2
1
2
1 2
1

3
4 1 2
T (T1 T2 ),
1 2 1 2

hence R = (T1-T2)/q

with T

T1 T2
,
2

when (T1-T2)/T1<<T1

1 2 1 2
4 1 2 T

taking p= g = 0.9 for long-wave radiation, eqn(4) yields Rr,pg= 0.16 K/W
ii.

Conduction across glass layer:

kglass 1 W/m.K, x~ .005m.; hence Rg = x /kA is negligibly small; T~0.

iii.

Heat transfer from Glass to surroundings by free/forced convection + longwave radiation:

1

1
1

Rga =
= 0.031 K/W, same as for previous example.

R
R
v
,
ga
r
,
ga

Neglecting Ta-Ts, overall resistance between plate-top and surroundings:

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1

1
1
1
1
R pa

Rg

0.15K / W
R

R
R
v
,
pg
r
,
pg
v
,
ga
r
,
ga

To get Tf,max, substitute in (3) for DTf/dt=0, = =0.9, Rpa = 0.15 and G= 750, to
get Tf,max = 95oC.(which is unrealistically high due to assumptions, particularly G
uniform with t)
To get t to Tf,max , estimate (dTf/dt)60 as previous example to give t=31 hrs.
Better solution accuracy can be obtained by re-iteration but result will still suffer
from assumptions. Still, comparison of results of Ex1,2 shows that the presence of
a glass cover approx quadruples Rpa; yielding water temperatures > 50oC.
3.

Plate and Tube Collectors (Commercial application)

Water is confined in parallel tubes which are attached to a black metal plate.
It is essential to have small thermal resistance between plate and tubes.
tube diameters ~ 2 cm, tube spacing ~20 cm, plate thickness ~ 0.3 cm
plate and tube enclosed within insulated sides and bottom, and top glass cover;
network diagram is similar to sheltered black bag, but steady flow open system
heated fluid may be used immediately , or stored and/or re-circulated.

volume of fluid in tubes is small so separate storage(100-200 litres) is required

pumping rate designed to give Tf ~ 5-10oC during daylight; shutdown at night
forced circulation systems are easily adaptable to existing water heater systems
usually higher than passive systems due to higher circulation rate; better control
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Flat Plate Efficiency

Pnet = cov.p.Ap.G [(Tp Ta)]/RL=Ap[cov.p.G UL(Tp Ta)] = sp.ApG

(4)

where sp is capture efficiency, UL is overall heat loss coefficient. Hence:

sp = cov.p UL(Tp Ta)/G

(5)

Useful output, Pu, is energy transferred to fluid at temperature Tf :

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Pu

=
=

m c (T2- T1)
pf . Pnet ,

where (m) steady flow through collector

where pf is the transfer efficiency(typically~0.85)

Defining a collector efficiency c :

c = Pu/(Ap G)
c = pf sp= pf [ cov.p UL(Tp Ta)/G]

Since Tp is usually not known, it is more convenient to use mean fluid temp Tf:
c = pf [ cov.p UL(Tf Ta)/G]

(6)

c can be improved by:

i. reducing convective transfer between plate and outer glass cover; e.g. by inserting
extra glass cover, or vacuumizing
ii. reducing radiative loss from plate by using selective surface materials which are
strongly absorbing of short-wave radiation( ~0.5 m) from sun(~6000 K) and
weakly emitting of long-wave radiation(~10 m) from plate(~350 K). For
selective surfaces, , in eqns are weighted average values of , over range.

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some semiconductors display , which approach ideal selective surfaces

however they have poor mechanical strength, small k, and high costs
metals are mechanically strong, good conductors and relatively cheap, but poor
Placing thin layer of semiconductor over metal, combines desirable characteristics.
Absorbed heat by semiconductor film is passed by conduction to underlying metal
Semiconductor thickness should be small to reduce conduction resistance, cost.

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4.
Evacuated Collectors
A type of solar collector that can achieve high temperatures, in the range 77C to
177C and can, under the right set of circumstances, work very efficiently.
Evacuated-tube collectors are, however, quite expensive, with unit area costs
typically about twice that of flat-plate collectors. They are well-suited to
commercial and industrial heating applications and also for cooling applications
(by regenerating refrigeration cycles). They can also be an effective alternative to
flat-plate collectors for domestic space heating, especially in regions where it is
often cloudy. For domestic hot water heating, flat-plate collectors tend to offer a
cheaper and more reliable option. An evacuated-tube collector consists of parallel
rows of glass tubes connected to a header pipe. Each tube has the air removed from
it to eliminate heat loss through convection. Evacuated-tube collectors fall into two
main groups:
4.1
Direct-flow evacuated-tube collectors
These consist of a group of glass tubes inside each of which is a flat or curved
aluminum fin attached to a metal (usually copper) or glass absorber pipe. The fin is
covered with a selective coating that absorbs short wave solar radiation well but
inhibits long wave radiative heat loss. The heat transfer fluid is water and
circulates through the pipes, one for inlet fluid and the other for outlet fluid.
Direct-flow evacuated tube collectors come in several varieties distinguished by
the arrangement of these pipes:
4.1.1 Concentric fluid inlet and outlet (glass-metal).
These use a single glass tube. Inside this is a water flow pipe with attached fin.
This type of construction means that each single pipe can be easily rotated to allow
the absorber fin to be at the desired tilt angle even if the collector is mounted
horizontally. The glass-metal design is efficient but can suffer reliability problems.
The different heat expansion rates of the glass and metal tubes can cause the seal
between them to weaken and fail, resulting in a loss of vacuum. Without a vacuum,
the efficiency of an evacuated-tube collector is no better, and may be worse than,
that of a flat-plate collector.
4.1.2 Separated inlet and outlet pipes (glass-metal).
This is the traditional type of evacuated-tube collector. The absorber may be flat or
curved. As in the case of the concentric tube design, the efficiency can be very
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high, especially at relatively low working temperatures. The weakness again is the
potential loss of vacuum after a few years of operation.
4.1.3 Two glass tubes fused together at one end (glass-glass).
The inner tube is coated with an integrated cylindrical metal absorber. Glass-glass
tubes are not generally as efficient as glass-metal tubes but are cheaper and tend to
be more reliable. For very high temperature applications, glass-glass tubes can
actually be more efficient than their glass-metal counterparts

4.2

Heat pipe evacuated-tube collectors

These consist of a metal (copper) heat pipe, to which is attached a black copper
absorber plate, inside a vacuum-sealed solar tube. The heat pipe is hollow and the
space inside, like that of the solar tube, is evacuated. The reason for evacuating the
heat pipe, however, is not insulation but to promote a change of state of the liquid
it contains. Inside the heat pipe is a small quantity of liquid, such as alcohol or
purified water plus special additives. The vacuum enables the liquid to boil (i.e.
turn from liquid to vapor) at a much lower temperature than it would at normal
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atmospheric pressure. When solar radiation falls the surface of the absorber, the
liquid within the heat tube quickly turns to hot vapor rises to the top of the pipe.
Water, or glycol, flows through a manifold and picks up the heat, while the fluid in
the heat pipe condenses and flows back down the tube for the process to be
repeated.
An advantage of heat pipes over direct-flow evacuated-tubes is the "dry"
connection between the absorber plate and the header, which makes installation
easier and also means that individual tubes can be exchanged without emptying the
entire system of its fluid.
Some heat pipe collectors are also supplied with a built in overheat protection
when a programmed temperature has been reached, a "memory metal" spring
expands and pushes a plug against the neck of the heat pipe. This blocks the return
of the condensed fluid and stops the heat transfer.
A drawback of heat pipe collectors is that they must be mounted with a minimum
tilt angle of around 25 in order to allow the internal fluid of the heat pipe to return
to the hot absorber.

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Analysis of Evacuated Tube Collectors:

Convective losses can be reduced by double glazing or evacuating space

between plate and glass cover
Vacuum posses strong forces on structure and glass cover.
Outer tube is made of glass for transparency and strength; inner tube also
usually glass-tube because of its very low out-gassing rate.
Typically d = 4 cm and D=5 cm
Arrays of such tubes are connected.

Heat Balance of an evacuated collector

Ex3. Calculate loss resistance o f evacuated collector of Fig5.11(a) and estimate its
stagnation temperature. Take D=5 cm, d=4cm, length of tube 1.0m; long-wave
emittances: p=0.10, g=1.0; short wave(solar) absorptance of plate p=0.85, shortPage 13 of 16

MENG413_Flat-plate solar-heaters

wave transmittance of glass g=0.90, G= 750 W/m2, Ta =20oC, Tcov=Tg=40oC;

Tp=100oC, u= 5 m/s.
Soln:
Treating tubes as 2 infinite parallel plates:
Taking characteristic internal area, Apg = (.045m) (1.0 m) = 0.14 m2,
External area Ag = ( 0.05 m) (1.0 m) = 0.157 m2
1
Rr , pg

p g Apg
(Tp2 Tg2 )(Tp Tg ) = 0.1288 W/K Rpg = 7.7 K/W
p g p g

From HT relations for v= 5 m/s we get hv,ga = 24.7 W/m2K

1
g Aga (Ta2 Tg2 )(Ta Tg ) 4 g Aga[(Ta Tg ) / 2]3
Rr , ga

=6.2 W/K
Combined radiation + convection resistance: Rga =1/[ (hv,gaAg)+1/Rr,ga]=0.21 K/W
Rpa = Rga + Rpg = 0.21 + 7.7 = 7.9 K/W.
It is seen that Rpg is the dominant resistance term, since convection is absent.
Conducting a heat balance in absence of heat removal by fluid flow(to get Tmax):
g p G d (1.0 m) = (Tp,max Ta) / Rpa

Tp,max = 200oC.

0.5

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5.

Air Heaters

Mainly used for space heating and crop drying.

Similar to solar water heaters; air is warmed by contact with a radiation
absorbing surface
Does not contain heavy fluids so can be built of light, cheap materials
Pu = c Q(T2 T1)
Volume flow rate Q is much larger than for water heaters
Since kair << kwater , rate of heat transfer from plate to fluid is reduced
Roughened or grooved plates are employed in Fig6.1a designs to increase the
surface area and turbulence(to increase
h) in order to improve rate of heat
transfer.
Alternatively contact area is increased
using porous or grid collectors,Fig6.1b
Same molecules carry useful heat and
convection losses, Fig 6.2
Coupling ignored as a first approx. to
simplify analysis.

If component of solar irradiance incident

perpendicular to collector is Gc on area A,
heat absorbed by air is difference
between heat absorbed by plate and heat
losses from plate, multiplied by collection
factor f:
Pu = f [A Gc cov p Uc A (Tp Ta)]
and collector efficiency is
c =Pu /(GcA) = c Q (T2 T1)/(GcA)

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