Construction Innovation 2004; 4: 1931

Project scheduling and monitoring: current

research status
V. Ahuja and V. Thiruvengadam Department of Building Engineering Management,
School of Planning and Architecture, New Delhi, India

Abstract: Project scheduling =rescheduling occurs in all stages of projects, from feasibility
stage to monitoring stage to completion. Since the late 1950s, network-based techniques
CPM (critical path method) and PERT (programme evaluation review technique) are the
techniques commonly used for project management. However, there are limitations in
working with these tools that need to be overcome. Also, the computing ef ciency of classic
CPM=PERT analysis needs to be enhanced. Substantial research has been carried out
globally in this eld covering all areas of project scheduling: time scheduling, resource
scheduling, cost scheduling, modern project management techniques, advanced mathematical models used for construction scheduling, and so on. To understand and document
this research status, the authors have carried out an extensive study of various journals,
published and unpublished research papers, and present this literature review.
Key words: project monitoring; project scheduling; research status; resource scheduling;
simulation techniques; time-cost optimization

Introduction
In the construction industry, unlike the manufacturing industries, each and every project is
unique in nature and thus the characteristics of every project vary. This causes a major
hindrance in the process of standardization of construction projects, also affecting project
scheduling and monitoring of projects. Project scheduling is an integral part of projects in all
stages from the feasibility stage of the project to completion. The critical path method (CPM)
and programme evaluation technique (PERT) are the techniques commonly used for project
scheduling and monitoring. Research to enhance the computing ef ciency of these techniques
as required in the changing requirements of the construction industry is ongoing.
The authors have compiled this paper as a literature review to understand and document the
global research in this area in the recent past. The topic has been covered under two major
areas: project scheduling and project monitoring and control. The structure of the paper is
explained in Figure 1. Reference has been given to those papers (published 19952002) that
either deal with the subject Project scheduling and monitoring comprehensively or identify
milestones in the research process.
Project scheduling
The effort required for the initial drafting of a plan is often a real barrier in developing a
useful and high-quality schedule for a construction project. However, on the basis of past
Address for correspondence:Vanita Ahuja, Department of Building Engineering Management, School of Planning
and Architecture, New Delhi, India. E-mail: vanita_ahuja@yahoo.com

# Arnold 2004

10.1191=1471417504ci064oa

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V. Ahuja and V. Thiruvengadam

Figure 1. Structure of the paper

experience and data, considering the risk trends and typical activities, the time schedule
estimation for any construction process is possible. This schedule may not be exact, but can
give a more or less satisfactory view of the total project duration.
Chevallier and Russell (2001) have demonstrated that an expert system with an editable
rule base can be combined with standard templates of modi able, prede ned knowledge
within a project management system in order to generate draft schedules based on limited
user input.
Uncertainities in activity durations
Ben-Haim and Laufer (1998) presented a new concept for improving the reliability of a
project schedule suffering from uncertainty in the duration of its activities. The paper shows
that the technique for applying the new concept requires minimal information, incorporates
subjective information, is simple to use, and assists in the preparation of project schedules at a
desirable level of reliability. Speci c examples demonstrate the use of the technique for:
1) calculating the reliability of the project schedule; 2) enhancing the reliability of the project
schedule; 3) reducing project duration without diminishing its reliability; and 4) examining
how overlapping of project activities affects its reliability.
Fuzzy set theory provides an approach to consider the subjective terms for the analysis of
activity durations and helps in providing a method of transformation of verbal statement to
numerical system. Mishra (1989) has developed a fuzzy set model that can be used for
determining the statistical distribution parameters and their level of adversity on duration.

Project scheduling and monitoring: current research status

21

Wang and Demsetz (2000) have explained the developed model NETCOR (NETworks
under CORrelated uncertainty), which can evaluate schedule networks when activity durations are correlated. They have demonstrated the practical application of NETCOR to a
current construction project. Using the same inputs, PERT and several simulation analyses
that do not consider correlation are also evaluated. A comparison of the results shows the
signi cance of considering correlation in scheduling analysis.
Limitations of CPM=PERT scheduling tools and development of new tools
Owing to an increasingly competitive environment, construction companies are becoming
more sophisticated, narrowing their focus, and becoming specialists in certain types of
construction. This specialization requires more focused scheduling tools that prove to be
better for certain types of projects. The most utilized scheduling tools in the construction
industry are CPM=PERT. However the limitations of these tools are also being realized and
research is going on to improve these tools and increase utilization of other tools such as
linear scheduling techniques, simulation techniques, genetic algorithms, and so on, for
construction activities. The following papers and studies document this research.
Fischer and Aalami (1996) state that the current scheduling tools require the manual
translation of design information to activities and typically do not provide dynamic links
between cost estimates and corresponding schedules. To take advantage of the increasingly
electronic and object-based descriptions of designs, schedules, and estimates, integration
mechanisms that translate design descriptions into schedule and cost views of projects are
needed. They have presented computer-interpretable models for the representation of construction methods as one such mechanism. These models support the automated generation of
realistic construction schedules.
Cottrell (1999) has developed and tested a simpli ed version of PERT for project planning.
The simpli cation has been understood to reduce the number of estimates required
for activity durations from three, as in conventional PERT, to two. This is accomplished by
applying the normal distribution, rather than the beta distribution to an activity duration. The
two required duration estimates are the most likely and the pessimistic.
Dawson and Dawson (1998) found the standard planning techniques, such as PERT, and the
popular software tools that support them, are inadequate for projects involving uncertainities in the
project direction and task durations. Probability distributions for task durations and generalized
activity networks with probabilistic branching and looping have long been established as viable
techniques to manage these project uncertainties. Unfortunately, their complexity has meant that
their use in industry is minimal. They have proposed extensions to existing software tools to
specify and manage such uncertainties that would be easy to learn and use.
Gong (1997) studied oats that are often used in project networks for resource allocations
and as an alternative for reducing project costs without causing negative impact on project
duration. However, when the time uncertainties of noncritical activities are great, the use of
oats can lead to an increased risk of project schedule overruns, and accordingly an increase
in project costs. He has presented a procedure to optimize the use of oats in a project
network. The procedure integrates schedule risk analysis and cost risk analysis.
Linear scheduling techniques. Linear scheduling techniques have not been applied widely to
construction projects even though they have been identi ed as very useful.

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There is an abundance of highly developed CPM computer applications available today.

However, there is a limitation of comparable applications for linear scheduling. Harmelink
and Rowings (1998) have explained that the reasons for the shortage of applications is that
linear scheduling typically has been regarded as a visual technique lacking the analytical
qualities of CPM. Fundamental to the lack of an analytical perspective in linear scheduling is
its inability to determine a critical path. They have documented a method by which a
controlling activity path can be determined in a linear schedule. This fundamental ability
further forms the basis for the determination of oat for noncontrolling activities and provides
a means of updating linear schedules as per the actual status of the project.
Harmelink (2001) has also explained that for linear construction activities, the concept of
oat is somewhat different from that of traditional scheduling techniques. Production rate is a
more fundamental attribute of the oat for a linear activity. As such, for oat to be meaningful
for a linear activity, it must be re ective of the activitys major characteristic. Rate oat captures
this characteristic and presents information to construction planners and managers in terms that
are meaningful for linear projects. He describes rate oat as it applies to the linear scheduling
model developed by Harmelink and Rowings in 1998, as explained in the previous section.
Yamin and Harmelink (2001) have found that for certain types of projects, CPMs
usefulness decreases, because it becomes complex and dif cult to use and understand.
They provide a comparison of the CPM and the linear scheduling model, by identifying
critical attributes needed by both scheduling tools at the higher management level and at the
project level.
Simulation techniques. Simulation is widely applied as a practical tool for planning and
analysis in many industries. However, in the case of construction processes, it has not yet
emerged from the research stage into regular practice. The following papers and studies deal
with different aspects of construction projects scheduling with the help of simulation.
Lu and AbouRizk (2000) have recognized formal stochastic simulation study as a remedy
for the shortcomings inherent to classic CPM=PERT analysis. They have discussed derivation
of a PERT simulation model, which incorporates the discrete event modeling approach and a
simpli ed critical activity identi cation method. They have presented the ndings of a case
study conducted to validate the developed model and have compared it to classic CPM=PERT
analysis. The developed model shows marked enhancement in analysing the risk of project
schedule overrun, and determination of activity criticality, and can provide project management with a convenient tool to assess alternative scenarios based on computer simulation and
risk analysis. Fente et al. (2000) found that the lack of con dence in selection of a probability
distribution function (PDF) for an activity duration has limited the use of simulation as a
practical tool for constructors and presented a method to determine a beta PDF for use in
construction simulation modeling.
Shi (1999) has presented a unique simulation method ABC comprising the activity-based
construction (ABC) modeling and simulation method and has shown that ABC modeling
(ABC-Mod) uses one single element (for example, activity) for modeling general construction
processes instead of multiple elements as required by current simulation systems. ABC
simulation (ABC-Sim) is executed in three stages: 1) select activity; 2) advance simulation;
and 3) release simulation entities. He has shown that compared to existing simulation systems,
it has all the major features required for modeling and simulating the dynamic and random
behaviours of a construction process. It requires no more knowledge to use than CPM.

Project scheduling and monitoring: current research status

23

AbouRizk and Wales (1997) have applied combined simulation modelling to achieve
more accurate and exible modeling of random processes affecting construction progress. A
model is presented where a project schedule using CPM is transferred into a process
interaction-discrete event simulation model and then combined with a continuous change
weather process in the same model. They have shown that it is more effective than
deterministically adding the expected delay due to weather to the expected duration of the
project estimated from CPM. It is also more accurate than using straight Monte Carlo
simulation of the CPM schedule or discrete event simulation modeling.
Sawhney (1990) has presented a hierarchical simulation modeling (HSM) method, a
simulation-based method that enhances and combines the concepts of work breakdown
structure (WBS) and process modeling to arrive at an advanced framework for planning. It is
useful because of the random nature of conditions in which a project is undertaken. Also,
Sawhney and AbouRizk (1995) have found that the hierarchical and modular simulation
constructs form the basis of this method. The construction of a bridge (Peace River Bridge) is
used to illustrate HSM concepts and its advantages.
Senior (1995) has introduced an algorithm that uses the cyclic operation network technique
(CYCLONE), a discrete-event simulation method oriented to construction applications, to
compute task late-time and oat information. The critical path method has limitations to
model repetitive task chains. The suggested algorithm backtracks the event list resulting from
the standard simulation scheduling algorithm, and provides allowable delays for a given
resource utilization pattern. The technique has been found to be appropriate for deterministic
and statistically distributed duration estimates.
Senior and Halpin (1998) have also discussed a new scheduling system based on statistical
simulation. The system, called project-integrated cyclic analysis of serial system operations
(PICASSO), blends and enhances two existing techniques, namely, the CPM and the
CYCLONE simulation discussed in the previous section. A PICASSO project diagram consists of a circle for each modeled resource, a box for each repeated activity, and arrows
connecting these elements. The elements can be cycled as many times as required; thus each
repetitive activity chain needs to be depicted only once. The massiveness of CPM and similar
network techniques when applied to model repetitive projects is avoided altogether. The
PICASSO model also enhances the quality of the scheduling information normally found in
simulation. Its scheduling procedures yield resource utilization statistics and activity chain
oat.
Maio et al. (2000) have discussed the need for reliable simulation systems and also
recognize that the quality of a simulation models results are strictly related to the quality of
the input probability distribution functions. They present a research study where data were
acquired from the AtkinsonWashingtonZachry joint venture on the Eastside Reservoir
Project in California. The data were analysed using BestFit software to obtain the parameters
of the theoretical distribution functions that best described the eld data set. The research
validated previous warnings about the in uence of the class interval decision on the selection
of a distribution function when the chi-square tting test is utilized. A second issue of
importance that was encountered was the reliability of goodness-of- t tests when dealing with
large data sets.
Chehayeb and AbouRizk (1998) have discussed an approach to enable effective use of
systems simulation in the scheduling of construction projects. The approach was implemented
in a software program named SimCon, which enhances current simulation methods through

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the use of continuous production links for activities that comprise a project. It is shown that
the continuous production links provide construction managers with a exible representation
of activity sequencing. The procedure builds on existing CYCLONE fundamentals through
new constructs to connect processes in a simulation-based project plan. These constructs are
used to simplify the cyclic interprocess relationships, standardize the techniques for logical
linking of simulation processes, provide a better estimate of progress, and model a continuous
and smooth ow of construction. Various scheduling alternatives are modeled without the
need to change activity sequencing, as is required in current scheduling systems.
Hajjar and AbouRizk (2002) have discussed a new approach to facilitate the use of
simulation in the construction industry. It is discussed that previous attempts in this regard
have been hampered by the gap between the user and the simulation software, the power and
exibility of available tools, and the readiness of industry. A comprehensive new approach
(referred to as the Uni ed Modeling Methodology), which addresses the complete needs of
the construction simulations, is detailed. The methodology is used in the development of a
complete simulation tool development and utilization environment called Simphony.
Scheduling fast-track construction projects
The fast-tracking delivery method has received considerable attention over the last decade,
and its time saving feature has placed it as a possible alternative to the traditional more
sequential method. Along with its bene ts, however, fast-tracking also has greater potential to
impact the project development process than the traditional method. In the literature, this is
usually attributed to the increased level of uncertainty and research on fast-tracking has
mainly focused on uncertainty reduction but without explicit study of the feedback processes
involved in fast-tracking. However, closer observations of the project development process
suggest that to effectively handle uncertainty and minimize the negative impact of fasttracking, the feedback processes involved in fast-tracking need to be identi ed, and the
dynamic behaviour of construction resulting from those feedback processes needs to be dealt
with in a systematic manner.
As an effort to meet the above requirements, Pena-Mora and Park (2001) have presented
the Dynamic Planning Methodology, a planning methodology based on system dynamics. It
aims to improve the planning and management of fast-tracking building construction projects
by providing overlapping strategies, workforce control policies, and schedule adjustments that
will minimize the negative impact of fast-tracking.
Pena-Mora and Li (2001) have also presented a study where a dynamic planning and
control methodology is developed by integrating the applications of axiomatic design
concepts, concurrent engineering concepts, the graphical evaluation and review technique
(GERT), and the system dynamics modeling technique. The goal of the proposed methodology is to help create a dynamic project plan for design=build fast-track civil engineering and
architectural projects where unforeseen changes can be absorbed in the project schedule
without creating major interruptions. The axiomatic design concepts are applied to formulate
and evaluate various work methodologies, and to create a project plan based on the selected
work methodology. The concept of concurrent engineering is adapted to develop a fasttracking framework based on the task production rate, the upstream task reliability, and
downstream task sensitivity to the upstream error. The GERT diagramming scheme is used to
calculate the project duration probabilistically by incorporating the possible branches and
loops in the project. The system dynamics modeling technique is applied to analyse the

Project scheduling and monitoring: current research status

25

causality links of relevant factors in the construction system, and further identi es the
important variables that determine the success of a particular overlapping strategy.
Time-cost optimization
Time and cost are the essence of a contract for construction projects and these two factors are
the very primary objectives of project management. Research shows that time-cost optimization can be effectively achieved with the help of various mathematical models. Some of these
are described below based on the papers and studies documented.
Sahoo (1996) has discussed that a dynamic programming approach has advantages over
other techniques, such as linear programming and integer programming. It has been found
that in linear programming there is a restriction in the form of time-cost functions and in
integer programming there is a constraint in applying it in large networks with realistic timecost functions. A dynamic programming model can have multistage decision problems and
can be applied at the planning stage as well as the monitoring stage.
Lee and Yi (1999) have presented a research study that is a numerical approach to the
integration of the time and cost data sets for construction projects and also addresses the
con icts between them. Several mathematical matrices of time and cost data sets of construction
projects are de ned. The interrelationships among the matrices are investigated and several time
and cost related matrix equations are presented. Based on the equations, this research develops a
project planning and control algorithm that estimates the expected project cost and duration and
evaluates the project economy using the matrix equations derived in the study.
Liu et al. (1995) have shown that planners usually need to adjust the selection of resources
in order to shorten or lengthen the project duration. They have shown that a CPM network
with only eight activities, each with two options, will have 256 (28) alternatives. Exhaustive
enumeration is not economically feasible even with very fast computers. They have presented
a new algorithm using linear and integer programming to ef ciently obtain optimal resource
selections that optimize time and cost of a construction project.
Karim and Adeli (1999) have presented CONSCOM, an object-oriented (OO) information
model used for construction scheduling, cost optimization, and change order management,
based on the creation of a domain-speci c development framework. The framework
architecture is developed using generic software design elements, called patterns, which
provide effective low-level solutions for creating, organizing, and maintaining objects.
CONSCOM has been found to be particularly suitable for highway construction change
order management. It can be used by the owner as an intelligent decision support system in
schedule reviews, progress monitoring, and cost-time trade-off analysis for change order
approval. It has been shown that the object-oriented information model for construction
scheduling cost management can be integrated into a concurrent engineering model for the
architecture, engineering, and construction industry.
OBrien and Fischer (2000) have presented a practice-based critique of the assumptions
behind network planning methods from the perspective of subcontractors and suppliers. In the
context of a case example, the time-cost trade-off and its resource-oriented extensions are
critiqued as being incapable of representing the capacity costs and constraints of subcontractors and suppliers. These methods are also critiqued as being incapable of representing the
effects of site conditions on productivity, which in turn affects the capacity choices of
subcontractors. Restricting the focus to the general building industry, case ndings from
15 subcontractors and suppliers are presented to highlight these points.

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Que (2002) has presented an approach that makes genetic algorithm (GA) based time-cost
optimization viable for real-world problems. Practicability is incorporated through the
integration of a project management system to the GA system. The approach ensures that
all scheduling parameters, including activity relationships, lags, calendars, constraints,
resources, and progress, are considered in determining the project completion date, thus
allowing comprehensive and realistic evaluations to be made during optimization.
Leu and Yang (1999) have proposed a multicriteria computational optimal scheduling
model, which integrates the time=cost trade-off model, resource-limited model, and resource
leveling model. A searching technique using genetic algorithms (GAs) is adopted in the
model.
Feng et al. (2000) have presented a hybrid approach that combines simulation techniques
and genetic algorithms to solve the time-cost trade-off problem under uncertainty. The results
show that GAs can be integrated with simulation techniques to provide an ef cient and
practical means of obtaining optimal project schedules while assessing the associated risks in
terms of time and cost of a construction project. This new approach provides construction
engineers with a new way of analysing construction time=cost decisions in a more realistic
manner. Historical time=cost data and available options to complete a project can be modeled.
Also, what-if scenarios can be explored to decide the desired=optimal time and=or cost in
planning and executing project activities.
Li and Love (1997) have discussed that basic GAs may involve very large computational
costs and present several improvements to the basic GA and also demonstrate how these
improved GAs reduce computational costs and signi cantly increase the ef ciency in
searching for optimal solutions.
Resource allocation for repetitive construction activities=projects
Construction projects often contain multiple units wherein activities repeat from unit to unit
and also some organizations are dealing with multiple repetitive construction projects. These
projects require schedules that ensure the uninterrupted usage of resources from an activity in
one unit or project to a similar activity in the next unit or project. It has been seen that CPM
cannot assure this requirement because only technical precedence and resource availability
constraints are explicitly shown in CPM networks. Resource allocation for such requirements
is another area of research and is documented below.
As discussed before, Senior (1995) has introduced an algorithm that uses the CYCLONE, a
discrete-event simulation method. It provides allowable delays for a given resource utilization
pattern.
Harris and Ioannou (1998) have described a repetitive scheduling method (RSM) that
recognizes the technical constraints of CPM and also includes an additional resource
continuity constraint to ensure continuous resource usage. The RSM is a scheduling
methodology that simpli es and generalizes various multiunit scheduling procedures
previously proposed by several authors and it is known by a number of different names. It
applies to both vertical and horizontal projects containing either discrete or continuous
activities and controls both critical and noncritical activities.
El-Rayes (2001) has presented the development of an object-oriented model for scheduling
of repetitive construction projects such as high-rise buildings, housing projects, highways,
pipeline networks, bridges, tunnels, railways, airport runways, and water and sewer mains. He
provides an overview of the analysis, design, and implementation stages of the developed

Project scheduling and monitoring: current research status

27

object-oriented model. The model incorporates newly developed procedures for resourcedriven scheduling of repetitive activities, optimization of repetitive construction scheduling,
and integration of repetitive and nonrepetitive scheduling techniques. The model is named
LSCHEDULER and can be applied to perform regular scheduling as well as optimized
scheduling.
Kang et al. (2001) have attempted to develop a construction scheduling model using a
conceptual approach to improve the ef ciency of construction resources for a multiple,
repetitive construction process (MRCP). This study suggests some equations for estimating
the optimal number of horizontal repetitive work areas for a crew group and pursues a
conceptual model for MRCP, which can reduce the loss in manpower and use of construction
equipment that is caused by work interruption periods.
Management issues
Eldin (1997) has presented the results of a literature review conducted to identify a number of
schedule improvement tools and to determine their bene ts, success factors and implementation barriers. Selection was based on nding tools that lead to the reduction of project
delivery time without increasing project overall cost. Concurrent engineering (CE) was
identi ed as a schedule reduction tool (SRT) that met the selection criteria. The data collected
suggested that implementation of CE has the potential of reducing project delivery time by up
to 25% compared with historical data. Success factors, implementation barriers and lessons
learned were found to be related to management, employee and process issues.
El-Bibany (1997) has described the computational basis of a constraint-management
methodology as applied to planning and scheduling. It is shown that each problem may
be represented by interrelating its parameters using construction duration and precedence
knowledge. The parameter relationships may be viewed as mathematical constraints. The
paper provides a description of the computational methodology including the constraint
modeling process, the graphical representation of constraints and the evaluation of constraint
networks.
Taher and Sharad (1998) have found that global competition, unpredictable world economies,
new nations and their new sociopolitical-cultural scenarios, enlightened customers, information
explosion and rapid technological advances are some of the challenges of the 21st century.
It is further discussed that construction business, whether conducted in ones own country
or overseas, has to continue to march along with new concepts=developments in the eld
of management to remain pro table and the relevance of some of these new concepts
to professional construction management (PCM) is worth discovering. The paper discusses
these new concepts.
Construction planning
During the execution phase, the project managers at site need to effectively plan the
construction work with respect to work schedule, resources available and various other
factors. The following papers study research carried out in this regard.
Faniran et al. (1998) have provided a framework for the development of strategies for
improving construction planning practices. Interrelationships between construction planning
and situational factors in the environments within which construction planning is undertaken
are examined using regression analysis. Factors having a critical in uence on construction
planning are identi ed. Three critical factors identi ed are: 1) investment of substantial time

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V. Ahuja and V. Thiruvengadam

for construction planning prior to the commencement of work on-site; 2) reduced emphasis
on developing schedules for monitoring and controlling project progress; and 3) increased
emphasis on developing operational plans for project implementation. Signi cant relationships between the projects environment, organizational characteristics of construction rms,
planners efforts, and construction planning effectiveness are discussed.
Choo et al. (1999) have developed a database program called WorkPlan that has been
created to systematically develop weekly work plans. It is shown that such work plans can be
used by crew foremen in scheduling work packages and allocating available labour and
equipment resources. WorkPlan adopts the Last Planner methodology, which implements
several lean construction techniques. A week prior to conducting work, WorkPlan guides the
user step by step through the process of spelling out work packages, identifying constraints,
checking constraint satisfaction, releasing work packages, and allocating resources; then at
the end of the week, collecting eld progress data and reasons for plan failure.
Project monitoring and controlling
As a project enters into the construction stage, actual progress is recorded and compared with
the plans. Owing to various unforeseen reasons the project may not proceed exactly according
to plans and schedules. Hence, it is essential that management is kept continually and accurately
informed of the progress of the works and that precise predictions are made of the effect of each
site occurrence on the available resources and future operations. Depending upon the extent of
departure between actual and planned progress, management has to initiate appropriate control
action such as re-planning, rescheduling or increasing the level of resources.
This dynamic cycle of reviewing the current status and forecasting the future requirements
so that work may be successfully completed, is a primary purpose of project monitoring and is
documented in the following papers and studies.
Shi et al. (2001) have presented a method for computing activity delays and assessing their
contributions to project delay. The method consists of a set of equations, which can be easily
coded into a computer program that allows speedy access to project delay information and
activity contributions. The proposed method contrasts the as-planned and as-built schedules.
It is not based on critical path analyses; therefore, it does not require the calculation or
updating of the critical path, and it is even not necessary to update the as-planned schedule, as
required by the traditional delay analysis methods. The results calculated from the proposed
method include various variations of activity schedules and their contributions (in days) to the
overall project delay. They provide an objective baseline for determining responsibilities of
delays. It has been shown that the method can be integrated into any delay analysis system
to further improve and automate the construction delay analysis process.
Because of the many sources and causes of construction delays, it is often dif cult to
analyse the ultimate liability in delay claims. The construction industry is a relatively secretive
place and the knowledge gained in one project, particularly in the emotive elds of planning
and control, is rarely quickly disseminated. The result of this is duplication of errors. Kabre
(1989) has discussed that knowledge-based expert systems, computer programs using
arti cial intelligence techniques, have been recently introduced to solve this problem in
the construction industry. Documentation of the problems and corrective measures adopted
onsite can be important for knowledge acquisition.

Project scheduling and monitoring: current research status

29

Barraza et al. (2000) have developed a new concept of project control. This new concept
uses stochastic S-curves (SS-Curves) as an alternative to using the deterministic S-curve
technique commonly employed in professional practice for monitoring of projects. SS-curves
are developed by determining the activity level variability in cost and duration. It is shown
that simulation is the recommended approach for obtaining SS-curves, similar to the way that
stochastic schedules are currently developed. SS-curves provide probability distributions for
expected cost and duration for a given percentage of work completed. Monitoring project
performance is achieved by comparing the most likely budget and duration values, obtained
from respective probability distributions for actual progress, with the projects actual data and
cumulative cost. The study shows that by using this method, an evaluation of actual project
performance can be developed that appropriately considers the natural variability of
construction costs and duration, rather than utilizing only one possible deterministic outcome.
Conclusions
This paper presents the research status in the eld of enhancement of tools=techniques used
for project scheduling and monitoring.
Deterministic project scheduling for construction projects is dif cult because of uncertainties inherent in the construction process. Time-cost optimization, an integral component of
project scheduling, requires analysis of various time-cost combinations. The literature
reviewed showed that the prime emphasis of the research is to augment the analytical
capabilities of traditional scheduling techniques CPM=PERT, reducing the limitations in their
use because of their deterministic scheduling model and also simplifying their use for
construction projects. Further research has been carried out to simplify and increase the use of
various mathematical scheduling models like linear scheduling, simulation techniques, fuzzy
set theories, genetic algorithms and comparison has also been made in the use of CPM=PERT
versus these models.
Research to study scheduling of fast-track construction projects, resource allocation for
repetitive construction activities =projects has also been documented.
Further research is required to simplify the use of mathematical models and also to develop
software that can integrate the use of these models and CPM=PERT. Such developed software
should be able to deal with all aspects=components of project scheduling.
Research regarding management issues has shown that the construction industry needs to
adopt new concepts=developments in the eld of management. The construction industry has
responded by adopting concepts like lean construction and concurrent engineering.
During the project execution stage or construction stage, project schedules initially prepared
need to be transformed into work plans. These are prepared periodically for scheduling work
packages taking into account the planning for allocation of manpower, equipment and other
resources. Research has been carried out to develop software that can create such work plans.
Ideally the software should be integrated with the project scheduling software for direct
interpretation of the schedules.
The work of project scheduling encompassing activity duration estimation, time-cost
optimization, resource allocation, and so on, continues in the project monitoring and
controlling stage, also taking into account actual project progress, delays and other site
occurrences. An important aspect of project monitoring is the assessment of delays and their

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V. Ahuja and V. Thiruvengadam

effect on the overall project schedule and its reporting to the management for timely decision
making. Documented research regarding monitoring and control of projects is focused on
enhancement of delay management techniques and use of stochastic S-curves instead of
deterministic S-curve techniques.
Further research is required to incorporate these techniques in the project scheduling
software and to augment it with the required reporting formats.
Integrated software that could cover project scheduling and monitoring comprehensively
could be knowledge-based expert systems. With further research, use of such integrated
expert systems could be standardized and simpli ed for use in construction projects.

References
AbouRizk, S-M. and Wales, R-J. 1997: Combined
discrete-event=continuous simulation for project
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