Dana 1

Aggression and Violent Behavior 19 (2014) 592607
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Aggression and Violent Behavior
A psychological and developmental prole of sexual murderers:

A systematic review
Jonathan James a,, Jean Proulx a,b,c
a
b
c
School of Criminology, University of Montreal, Canada

Institut Philippe-Pinel, Montreal, Canada
International Center for Comparative Criminology, Montreal, Canada
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 16 January 2014
Received in revised form 23 July 2014
Accepted 6 August 2014
Available online 14 August 2014
Keywords:
Sexual murderers
Serial
Nonserial
Sadism
Antisociality
Anger
a b s t r a c t
The goal of this current systematic review is to identify the main characteristics of sexual murderers and the areas
in which further research is warranted. It analyzes detailed data on 1836 sexual murderers (serial sexual murderers = 176; nonserial sexual murderers = 1660) taken from 45 empirical descriptive studies carried out between 1985 and 2013. In order to better characterise serial sexual murderers (SSMs) and nonserial sexual
murderers (NSMs), three categories of variables were established: developmental variables; adult life and criminal career variables; and psychopathological variables. Characteristics of different types of sexual murderers
were identied. Sexuality and sadism are the key features of SSMs. They are socially isolated, rejected, and
humiliated, and take refuge in compulsive masturbation in paraphilias, which compensate for the poverty of
their emotional, relational, and sexual lives. NSMs are polymorphic criminals who are easily angered when
their immediate needs are not met. They adopt a victim stance, and sexual murder is a way of exacting vengeance
and an outlet for their anger.
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1.
2.
3.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.
The depiction of sexual murderers in the media . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.
Denitions of sexual homicide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.
Epidemiology of sexual homicide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.
Evolution of research on sexual murderers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.
Data sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.
Study selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1.
Inclusion criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2.
Exclusion criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.
Data extraction and assessment of study quality . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.
Data summary and dissemination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.
Developmental characteristics of sexual murderers . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.1.
Violent behaviors during childhood . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.2.
Nonviolent behaviors and internal problems during childhood . .
3.1.3.
Evolution of behavioral and internal problems during adolescence
3.1.4.
Juvenile victimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.5.
Family environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.
Characteristics of adult life and criminal career . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.1.
Violent behaviors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.2.
Nonviolent behaviors and internal problems . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.3.
Sexuality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Corresponding author at: School of Criminology, University of Montreal, P.O. Box 6128, Downtown Station, Montreal, Quebec H3C 3J7, Canada.
E-mail address: jonathan.james@umontreal.ca (J. James).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2014.08.003
1359-1789/ 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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J. James, J. Proulx / Aggression and Violent Behavior 19 (2014) 592607
3.2.4.
Social interaction and occupation
3.2.5.
Criminal career . . . . . . . .
3.3.
Psychopathology of sexual murderers . .
3.3.1.
IQ . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.2.
Axis I disorders . . . . . . . .
3.3.3.
Axis II disorders . . . . . . .
3.3.4.
Paraphilias . . . . . . . . . .
4.
Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.
Prole of serial sexual murderers . . . .
4.2.
Prole of nonserial sexual murderers . .
5.
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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A drama unfolded yesterday morning in Montreal. Jessica Bailey, a 32year-old woman, was found savagely killed and mutilated in the woods
of Parc Jean-Drapeau. The inspector in charge of the investigation reported that the police found restraints used to immobilize the victim,
as well as a complex network of ropes hanging from the trees. The face
of the victim bore several shallow and non-lethal knife wounds. The
cause of death was suffocation. Preliminary ndings indicate that the
victim suffered various forms of sexual violence. Parc Jean-Drapeau is
popular with tourists and athletes. This horrible crime has sowed fear
in Montrealers, and raises memories of a similar series of murders in
the early 2000s. Elisabeth Lindley and Carolanne Lapointe, 35 and
29 years old, were found raped and tortured in similar circumstances.
No evidence has ever surfaced that allowed identication of those
responsible.
A hypothetical newspaper article that is representative of those published about sexual murder.
1. Introduction
Despite their rarity, sexual murderers attract the attention of both
the scientic community and the general public. Research on sexual
murderers initially focused on crime scenes, especially those suggesting
sadistic behaviors, and on serial sexual murderers (Brittain, 1970;
Krafft-Ebing, 1886/1965; MacCulloch, Snowden, Wood, & Mills, 1983;
Ressler, Burgess, & Douglas, 1988). The description of the sadistic elements of sexual homicide in the media has elicited fear and fascination
in the public.
1.1. The depiction of sexual murderers in the media
The media's disproportionate coverage of serial sexual murderers
has led to them being perceived as the prototypical sexual murderers.
According to Hickey (2012), between 1990 and 1999, there were 23
lms involving a serial sexual murderer, but since the early 2000s that
number has ballooned to 270. The increase in the number of television
series depicting sexual murderers (e.g., Crime Scene Investigation,
Criminal Minds) is another indicator of the public's fascination with
sexual and violent crimes.
A recent example of the public's interest in morbid content is the
international fascination with the video depicting the sexual homicide
committed by Luka Rocco Magnotta, a mixture of cannibalism, necrophilia, and exhibitionism. While the public previously had to rely on
the traditional media, the new communication technologies have
allowed even readier access to violent content. In 2013, interviews
with serial murderers (Aileen Wuornos, Jeffrey Dahmer, Richard
Kuklinski, John Hughes, Richard Ramirez) were viewed on the Internet
more than 2 million times on average. Conversely, almost half of sexual
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murderers follow their crimes in the media (Ressler, Burgess, Douglas,

Hartman, & D'Agostino, 1986), and 83.0% keep newspaper clippings
(Ressler et al., 1988).
The signicant media coverage of sexual murderers feeds the perception that they lurk on every street corner. In the scientic literature,
this perception can be seen in the choice of article titles, such as
Pistorius (1997) The Boy Next Door Syndrome in Serial Killers (Le
Syndrme du Garon d' cot chez les tueurs en srie). Despite scientic
research on sexual murderers, several myths persist about them. Thus,
the media typically describe sexual murderers as intelligent, manipulative, methodical, and sadistic individuals who attack their victims
during their daily activities (e.g., jogging).
Despite the complexity and length of investigations of sexual homicides, the mean clearance rate is 75.0% (Roberts & Grossman, 1993).
Many countries have established specialised units to investigate violent
crimes: Behavioral Analysis Units (BAUs) in the United States, the
Dpartement des Sciences du Comportement (DSC) in France, the Serious Organised Crime Agency (SOCA) in Great Britain, the Behavioural
Sciences Branch (BSB) in Canada, and the Operative Fallanalyse (OFA)
in Germany.
1.2. Denitions of sexual homicide
In the countries in which sexual homicide has been most extensively
studied (United States, Canada, Germany, England) the crime has no
distinct judicial statusthe sexual element is considered an aggravating
circumstance of the homicide. Detecting the sexual nature of homicides
is not a priority in police investigations. According to the United States
Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), a sexual homicide is dened by
the presence of at least one of the following characteristics:
victim attire or lack of attire; exposure of the sexual parts of the
victim's body; sexual positioning of the victim's body; insertion of
foreign objects into the victim's body cavities; evidence of sexual
intercourse (oral, anal, vaginal); and evidence of substitute sexual
activity, interest, or sadistic fantasy (Ressler et al., 1988, p. xiii).
Serial sexual murderers are characterised by three or more separate
events with an emotional cooling-off period between homicides. This
type of killer usually premeditates his crimes, often fantasizing and
planning the murder in every aspect (Ressler et al., 1988, p. 139).
Although 60.0% of serial murderers are sexual murderers (Geberth,
1995), only 2.0% of sexual murderers are serial murderers (Proulx,
Beauregard, Cusson, & Nicole, 2007).
1.3. Epidemiology of sexual homicide
Sexual homicide is a rare phenomenon. Furthermore, in North
America, the proportion of homicides that are sexual has been
594
decreasing. In Canada, the proportion of homicides that were sexual

fell from 4.0% between 1974 and 1986 (Roberts & Grossman, 1993)
to 3.0% between 1985 and 1995 (Statistics Canada, 2013), and 2.0%
between 1991 and 2001 (Kong, Johnson, Beattie, & Cardillo, 2003). Between 1991 and 2001, charges were led in 89.0% of cases, and 98.0%
of the accused were men. The majority of the victims (82.0%) were female and half of all victims were younger than 25 years. A similar
trend can be seen in the United States: the proportion of homicides
that were sexual fell from 0.8% between 1976 and 2004 (Chan &
Heide, 2008) to 0.7% between 1991 and 1995 (Meloy, 2000), 0.5% in
1999 (Myers, 2002), and 0.2% in 2011 (U.S. Department of Justice,
2012). Although the crude annual incidence rate of sexual homicide
was higher in the United States than in Canada between 1991 and
2001 (M = 109/year vs. 12/year), the adjusted rate (per 100,000 inhabitants) was essentially the same: 0.040 in the United States,
0.041 in Canada.
In Finland, the proportion of homicides between 1995 and 2004 that
were sexual was similar to that that observed in Canada2.8%
(Hkknen-Nyholm, Repo-Tiihonen, Lindberg, Salenius, & WeizmannHenelius, 2009). In England and Wales, sexual homicides represented
3.7% of all homicides between 1985 and 1994 (Francis & Soothill,
2000), and 6.0% of all murderers serving a conviction in 2003 had
killed their victims in sexual circumstances (Beech, Fisher, & Ward,
2005).
analysis of a wide spectrum of individual (developmental, psychopathological, criminal career) and criminal event (crime scene, victimology)
variables. Research has been enriched by contributions from other elds
(e.g., neuropsychology), new approaches (e.g., geospatial and spatiotemporal analysis), and new theoretical frameworks (e.g., implicit
theories).
Despite these many advances, the samples studied have been subject to several biases: 1) they have been of limited size; 2) the descriptive statistics do not distinguish between serial and nonserial sexual
murderers; and 3) no distinction was made between victims who
were adult females and those who were children. This study summarises the current state of knowledge on sexual murderers, through a
systematic review of 45 scientic studies describing a total of 1836
sexual murderers. The media's disproportionate attention to serial
sexual murderers, mentioned above, is paralleled by their overrepresentation in the studies reviewed here: while serial sexual murderers account for only 2.0% of convicted sexual murderers, they
account for 9.6% (n = 176) of those in the current review.
1.4. Evolution of research on sexual murderers
2.1. Data sources
Since Richard von Krafft-Ebing's clinical studies of sexual murderers, described in Psychopathia Sexualis (1886/1965), many researchers have attempted to identify the aetiology of sexual
homicide. Sadistic sexual murders were the rst to have been studied. Sexual sadism was the term coined by Kraftt-Ebing to describe
the need of some murderers to engage in activities such as humiliation and bondage to obtain sexual gratication. Almost a century
later, Brittain (1970) suggested that the sadistic sexual murderer is
typically a day-dreamer with a very rich, active fantasy life (p. 199).
In Hill, Habermann, Berner, and Briken's (2006) study, 90.4% of sexual
murderers diagnosed as sexual sadists reported masturbation with
sadistic fantasies. Causal links between sadistic fantasies and sadistic
behaviors (i.e., rape and murder) were reported by MacCulloch et al.
(1983). Furthermore, Warren, Hazelwood, and Dietz (1996) reported
that 100% of their sample of 20 sexually sadistic serial killers had used
restraints to control the victim and had tortured their victims. However,
because their crimes can never completely mirror their fantasies, sadistic sexual murderers obtain only partial satisfaction of their sexually deviant desires.
In 1986, the FBI conducted the rst large-scale empirical study of
sexual murderers (25 serial sexual murderers and 11 nonserial sexual
murderers). The sexual sadist was considered the prototypical sexual
murderer (Burgess, Hartman, Ressler, Douglas, & McCormack, 1986;
Douglas, Burgess, Burgess, & Ressler, 2013; Ressler, Burgess, &
Douglas, 1983; Ressler, Burgess, Douglas, et al., 1986; Ressler, Burgess,
Hartman, Douglas, & McCormack, 1986; Ressler et al., 1988). The FBI typology distinguished organised sexual murderers from disorganised
ones. The majority (86.0%) of organised sexual murderers planned their
crime, and relied on a murder kit (e.g., rope, handcuffs, adhesive tape) to
control their victim. Furthermore, they left little evidence at the crime
scene. Similar results have been reported in other studies: 86.0% of
sadistic sexual murderers (Proulx et al., 2007) and 93.0% of serial sexual
murderers (Dietz, Hazelwood, & Warren, 1990) have been reported to
carefully plan their crimes; these may be reasonably considered
organised killers.
While almost all (5/6) the empirical studies on sexual murderers
between 1985 and 1990 were based on a sample of serial sexual murderers, today the trend has been reversed, with only a minority (3/39)
investigating serial sexual murderers. Current studies rely on multivariate
This systematic review was based on two methods of data collection: searches of online databases and manual research of bibliographies of published studies. Five online full-text platforms were
searched: ProQuest, EBSCO, Thomson Reuters ISI, Ovid, and NCRJS.
These platforms encompassed the following 18 databases: CBCA Complete, Criminal Justice Abstract, Current Contents Connect, ERIC,
FRANCIS, Google Scholar, International Bibliography of the Social
Sciences (IBSS), MEDLINE, NCRJS, ProQuest Dissertations & Theses
(PQDT), ProQuest Dissertations & Theses: UK & Ireland: Social Sciences,
PsycINFO, Psychology Journals, Social Sciences Abstracts (H.W. Wilson),
Social Services Abstracts, Sociological Abstracts, Social Work Abstracts,
and Web of Science. The search period was January, 1985 to March,
2013. Two keyword blocks were used, one for the homicidal act (homicide, murder, kill, lethal), and one for sexual acts (sexual, molest, rape,
paraphilia, erotophonophilia, necrophilia). The searches were rened
through the use of wildcard searches (e.g., murder*, kill*, homicide*,
sex*) and combinations of terms (e.g., sex crime, child molest, lust killing, lethal sexual assault, sex offense, sexual violence, violent crime,
sexual arousal, sadistic violence). To complement the online searches,
the bibliographies of the articles retained from the online searches
were reviewed manually.
2. Method
This systematic review applied the procedures developed by the
Centre for Reviews and Dissemination (2009), Higgins and Green
(2006), and Petticrew and Roberts (2006).
2.2. Study selection

The search of the online databases resulted in identication of 845
candidate studies. The lead author evaluated the eligibility of all the candidate studies, based on the relevance of the article title and abstract
(Fig. 1). This reduced the number of studies to 127. Subsequently, the
lead author analyzed the 127 articles to determine whether they satised the inclusion and exclusion criteria detailed below. Analysis of the
bibliographies of the articles retained allowed identication of two
further articles (Dietz et al., 1990; Gratzer & Bradford, 1995). In all, 45
articles were retained (Table 1).
2.2.1. Inclusion criteria
Studies were retained if they: 1) were empirical; 2) had been published since 1985; 3) relied on a sample of at least 10 adult male sexual
murderers; and 4) relied on data from psychiatric, psychological, or
police/correctional les.
595
Articles identified in databases

N = 845
Articles excluded on the

basis of title/abstract;
conferences; duplicates
N = 718
Articles retained for more detailed evaluation

N = 127
Articles excluded on the

basis of exclusion criteria
N = 84
Total articles from
database searches
N = 43
Articles added in Step
2
N=2
Total articles retained for analysis

N = 45
Fig. 1. Summary of Study Selection Process.
2.2.2. Exclusion criteria

The following exclusion criteria were applied:
1. Publication date earlier than 1985 (e.g., Brittain, 1970; Krafft-Ebing,

1886/1965; MacCulloch et al., 1983; Revitch, 1965; Swigert, Farrell,
& Yoels, 1976).
2. Fewer than 10 individuals in sample (e.g., Bnzech, 1997; Briken,
Habermann, Berner, & Hill, 2006; Busch et al., 2009; Keppel & Walter, 1999; Lauerma, 2001; Money, 1990; Morton et al., 2010; Ressler
et al., 1983; Schlesinger, 2007; Silva, Ferrari, & Leong, 2002; Smith &
Braun, 1978).
3. Questionable sources of data, such as bibliographies or newspaper
articles (e.g., Geberth, 1995; Geberth & Turco, 1997; Hickey, 2012;
Holmes & Holmes, 2009; Myers et al., 2008; Sewall, Krupp, &
Lalumire, 2013; Stone, 2001).
4. Sample includes suspects, that is, individuals who have not been
convicted (e.g., Henry, 2010; Roberts & Grossman, 1993; Smith,
Basile, & Karch, 2011).
5. Samples of juvenile sexual murderers only (e.g., Dent & Jowitt, 2003;
Lanning, 1994; Myers, 1994; Myers, 2002; Myers & Blasheld, 1997;
Myers, Burgess, & Nelson, 1998; Myers & Chan, 2012; Myers, Chan,
Vo, & Lazarou, 2010; Myers, Eggleston, & Smoak, 2003).
6. Samples of female sexual murderers only (e.g., Chan & Frei, 2013).
7. Samples of sexual murderers of males only (e.g., Beauregard &
Proulx, 2007).
8. Absence of descriptive statistics (e.g., Arrigo & Purcell, 2001; Carter

& Hollin, 2010; Chan & Heide, 2009; Chan, Heide, & Beauregard,
2011; Clarke & Carter, 2000; Greenall, 2012; Hazelwood &
Warren, 2003; Heide, Beauregard, & Myers, 2009; Kerr, Beech, &
Murphy, 2013; Knoll & Hazelwood, 2009; Maniglio, 2010;
McClellan, 2008; Meloy, 2000; Morgenbesser & Kocsis, 2008;
Myers, Burgess, Burgess, & Douglas, 1999; Myers, Husted, Safarik,
& O'Toole, 2006; Myers, Reccoppa, Burton, & McElroy, 1993;
Purcell & Arrigo, 2006; Revitch & Schlesinger, 1989; Schlesinger,
2001, 2004; Shackelford, 2002; Stein, 2004).
9. Descriptive statistics almost exclusively on socio-demographic variables (e.g., Chan & Heide, 2008; Chan, Heide, & Myers, 2013; Chan,
Myers, & Heide, 2010; Huprich, Gacono, Schneider, & Bridges, 2004;
McNamara & Morton, 2004; Schlesinger & Revitch, 1999).
10. Only multivariate statistics reported (e.g., Bennell, Bloomeld,
Emeno, & Musolino, 2013; Chan, 2012; Francis & Soothill,
2000; Godwin, 2008; Kocsis, 1999; Kocsis, Cooksey, & Irwin,
2002; Safarik, Jarvis, & Nussbaum, 2000; Salfati & Taylor, 2006).
11. Sexual murderers not distinguished from other types of criminals
(e.g., Salfati & Bateman, 2005; Soothill, Francis, Ackerley, &
Fligelstone, 2002; Yarvis, 1990).
12. Articles written in neither English nor French (e.g., Briken, Nika, &
Berner, 1999; Briken, Nika, & Berner, 2000; Hill, Ujeyl, Habermann,
Berner, & Briken, 2008; Ujeyl, Habermann, Briken, Berner, & Hill,
2008).
13. Unpublished articles (e.g., Beech, Robertson, & Clarke, 2001).
596
Table 1
Empirical studies included in the systematic review (N = 45).
Study
Country
Sample Single vs. serial

size (n) murderer
Age at time of
murder, and sex
of murderer
Number, age and

sex of victimsa
Study period
Data sources
Prison vs. forensic

hospital
FBI studies
United States
36
Single: n = 7
Multiple: n = 4
Serial: n = 25
Adult = 89%
Male = 100%
19791983
Police and psychiatric

interview les
Prison
13
Single: n = 9
Multiple: n = 2
Serial: n = 2
M = 24 y
Range = 1537 y
Male = 100%
19731988(?)
42
Adult = 74%
19791983
United States
22
Single: n = 17
Serial: n = 25
Single: n = 6
Serial: n = 16
Male = 100%
N = 187 (M)
19841989

interview les,
phallometric
evaluation
interview les
interview les
Forensic Service of the

Clarke Institute of
Psychiatry
United States
N = 118. (M)
M = 25 y
Range = 673 y
Adult = 88%
Female = 82%
N = 19+ (M)
M = 20 y
Range = 936 y
Female = 92%
N = 92+ (M)
Langevin et al.
(1988)
Canada
Prentky et al.
(1989)
Dietz et al.
(1990)
Grubin (1994)
England
21
Single: n = 20
Multiple: n = 1
M = 30 y
SD = 8.7
Range = 1850 y
Not specied
Police/prison les,
semi-structured
interview
Meloy, Gacono, and

Kenney (1994)
United States
18
Single: n = 14
Multiple: n = 4
19861992
Clinical interview
Prison, Forensic
Hospital
Gratzer and Bradford

(1995)
Yarvis (1995)
Canada
57
N = 65+ (M)
19821992
10
Male = 100%
N = 10 (NS)
19801993
Warren et al. (1996)
United States
20
Serial: n = 20
Male = 100%
N = 149 (M)
Adult = 93%
Not specied
Police, psychiatric,
forensic les
Police, psychiatric,
school les
Police les, psychiatric
interview
Royal Ottawa Hospital
United States
Single: n = 53
Serial: n = 4
Single: n = 10
M = 35.3 y
Range = 1853 y
Male = 89%
Not specied
N = 22 (AF)
M = 38.3 y
SD = 24.8
Female = 100%
N = 30 (AF)
Firestone, Bradford,
Greenberg, Larose,
and Curry (1998)
Canada
17
Single: n = 17
N = 17 (C)
Juvenile = 100%
Female = 53%
19821992
Greenberg, and
Larose (1998)
Canada
48
Not specied
N = 48+ (M)
19821992
Greenberg, and
Nunes (2000)
Canada
31
Not specied
N = 31+ (C)
Juvenile (boy &
girl) = 100%
19821992
Folino (2000)
Argentina
16
Single: n = 16
United States
38
Not specied
N = 16 (M)
Adult = 77%
Female = 75%
N = 38+ (AF)
Female = 89%
19881996
Gacono, Meloy, and

Bridges (2000)
Harbort and Mokros
(2001)
Beauregard and
Proulx (2002)
Germany
22
Canada
36
Serial: n = 22
(M = 6.2 victims)
Single: n = 34
Serial: n = 2
M = 35.2 y
SD = 10.94
Adult = 100%
Male = 100%
M = 33.5 y
SD = 9.48
Adult = 100%
Male = 100%
M = 37.18 y
SD = 10.45
Adult = 100%
Male = 100%
M = 28 y
Range = 1649 y
Male = 100%
M = 32.5 y
Range = 1353 y
Male = 95%
M = 22.5 y
SD = 5.82
Not specied
Safarik, Jarvis, and

Nussbaum (2002)
United States
Langevin (2003)
110
Single: n = 110
1524 y = 43%
25+ y = 57%
Range = 1558 y
Canada
33
Single: n = 32
Multiple: n = 1
M = 22.36 y
Male = 100%
Milsom, Beech, and

Webster (2003)
England
19
Porter, Woodworth,
Earle, Drugge, and
Boer (2003)
Canada
38
Single: n = 19
(M = 1.37
victims)
SD = 1.17
Single: n = 38
M = 37.06 y
SD = 10.49
Adult = 100%
Male = 100%
M = 25.7 y
SD = 5.98
Range = 1740 y
Beech et al. (2005)
England
28
Single: n = 28
M = 23.82 y
SD = 7.29
Prison
National Center for
the Analysis of Violent
Crime
Prison
Forensic Psychiatry
National Center for

the Analysis of Violent
Crime
Police les, psychiatric Royal Ottawa Hospital
Sexual Behaviors
interview,
Clinic
phallometric
evaluation
Sexual Behaviors
interview,
Clinic
phallometric
evaluation
Sexual Behaviors
interview,
Clinic
phallometric
evaluation
Police les, psychiatric Judiciary Department
interview
of La Plata
19861997
Clinical interview,
institutional les
N = 137 (M)
19451995
N = 40+ (AF)
Adult = 100%
Female = 100%
N = 118 (AF)
M = 77 y
Adult = 100%
Female = 100%
N = 34 (M)
Adult = 74%
Female = 82.5%
19981999
Police, psychiatric les General Federal Police

Bureau
Police les, clinical
Prison
interview
19761999
SHR and NCAVC

databases
Federal Bureau of
Investigation
19732003
(?)
Police, psychiatric
les, psychiatric
interview,
phallometric
evaluation
Semi-structured
interview

Clarke Institute of
Psychiatry
N = 26 (NS)
Not specied
Prison
N = 38 (M)
M = 28.24 y
SD = 21.62
Range = 392 y
Adult = 63%
Female = 92%
N = 28 (M)
M = 39.78 y
Not specied
Not specied
Mountain Institution
in British Columbia &
Springhill Institution
in Nova Scotia
Not specied
Semi-structured
interview
Prison
597
Table 1 (continued)
Study
Country
Sample Single vs. serial

size (n) murderer
Age at time of
murder, and sex
of murderer
Beech et al. (2005)
Germany
Langevin (2006)
Canada
38
Single: n = 38
Salfati and Taylor

(2006)
United States
37
Single: n = 37
Gerard, Mormont, and Belgium

Kocsis (2007)
28
Single: n = 28
Oliver et al. (2007)
England
58
Single: n = 58
M = 24.2 y
SD = 7.1
Proulx et al. (2007)
Canada
40
Single: n = 35
Multiple: n = 5
M = 32.3 y
SD = 10.4
Van Patten and

Delhauer (2007)
United States
(M = 1.4 victims)
Beauregard and Field

(2008)
Canada
85
Single: n = 85
Beauregard, Stone,
Proulx, and
Michaud (2008)
Hkknen-Nyholm
et al. (2009)
Canada
77
Single: n = 77
M = 25 y
Median = 25 y
Range = 1455 y
Adult = 92.5%
Male = 98.6%
M = 33.9 y
SD = 10.6
Male = 100%
Not specied
Finland
18
Single: n = 18
M = 32.72 y
SD = 8.95
Male = 78%
Mieczkowski and
Beauregard (2010)
Canada
83
Single: n = 83
Male = 100%
Schlesinger, Kassen,
Mesa, and
Pinizzotto (2010)
United States
38
Serial: n = 38
(M = 4.3 victims)
Stein et al. (2010)
United States
16
Single: n = 14
Serial: n = 2
M = 34.7 y
SD = 9.4
Range = 2058 y
Adult = 100%
Male = 100%
M = 26.1 y
Range = 1438 y
Beauregard and
Martineau (2012)
Canada
250
Single: n = 250
M = 28.4 y
Healey, Lussier, and

Beauregard (2012)
Canada
86
Single: n = 73
Multiple: n = 7
Serial: n = 6
Adult = 100%
Male = 100%
166
141
Single: n = 121
Multiple: n = 36
Serial: n = 9
M = 26.5 y
SD = 8.2
Range = 1659 y
Adult = 89%
Male = 100%
M = 31.86 y
Range = 1653 y
Hamburg studies
AF: Adult female; C: Child; M: Mixed; NS: Not specied.
M = 29.4 y
Range = 1658 y
Male = 100%
M = 29.7 y
Range = 1747 y
Number, age and

sex of victimsa
Study period
Data sources
Prison vs. forensic

hospital
19451991
Psychiatric court
reports
Hospital of Forensic
Psychiatry of Haina
N = 38 (M)
Adult = 61%
19732006
(?)

Clarke Institute of
Psychiatry
N = 37 (NS)
Not specied
Police, psychiatric
les, psychiatric
interview,
phallometric
evaluation
Police les
N = 28 (M)
M = 37 y
Range = 784 y
Female = 93%
N = 58 (M)
M = 34.2 y
SD = 23.1
Range = 786 y
Adult = 88%
Female = 95%
N = 57 (AF)
Adult = 100%
Female = 100%
N = 199 (M)
M = 34.1 y
Range = 191 y
Adult = 83%
Female = 81%
N = 85 (M)
Adult = 64.5%
Female = 88.3%
N = 77 (AF)
Adult
female = 86%
N = 18 (M)
M = 36.39 y
SD = 16.25
Range = 875 y
Female = 67%
Since 1980
Police, psychiatric les Not specied
19982002
Various les,
interview, test,
questionnaire
Prison
19981999
Police, psychiatric
les, interview
Prison
19802004
Police les
Los Angeles Sheriff's

Homicide Bureau
19982005
Police les, semistructured interview
Prison (Province of
Quebec)
19982005
Police, psychiatric
les, interview
Prison (Province of
Quebec)
19952004
Police, forensic les,

psychiatric evaluation
19942005
Police, psychiatric
les, semi-structured
interview
Finnish National
Authority/Finnish
Police for Medicolegal
Affairs/Finnish Police
Computerised
Criminal Index File
Prison
1990s
FBI les
Behavioral Science
Unit
Not specied
FBI les
Behavioral Science
Unit
19482010
Police les
Royal Canadian
Mounted Police
19942000
Police les, interview
Federal Penitentiary
SD = 22.02
Range =
1786 y
Adult = 90%
Female = 96%
N = 227 (M)
Female = 75%
Adult = 79%
N = 83 (M)
M = 27.9 y
Adult = 36%
Female = 81%
N = 162 (M)
M = 26.1 y
SD = 0.70
Adult = 92%
Female = 77%
N = 21 (M)
M = 24 y
Adult = 76%
N = 250(M)
M = 27.2 y
SD = 15.51
Range = 295 y
Female = 90%
N = 163+ (FA)
Adult = 100%
Female = 100%
British Police
598
2.3. Data extraction and assessment of study quality

The articles satisfying the inclusion and exclusion criteria were evaluated in terms of the four criteria developed specically for the critical
review of empirical studies (Centre for Reviews and Dissemination,
2009): 1) Was the sample adequately described? 2) Did studies
reporting evaluations or interventions clearly describe the nature of
the protocols? 3) Were the measurement instruments appropriate
and relevant?, and 4) Was the information on participants reliable?
To evaluate inter-rater reliability, a sample of 10 articles was evaluated by the main author and a research assistant. Cohen's kappa for the
entire set of variables was 0.95. Disagreement between evaluators was
mainly in papers in which the data was reported in-text rather than in
tables, and for variables which, although identied by both evaluators,
was assigned to different categories (e.g., Evaluator A assigned rape
fantasies to deviant sexual fantasies, whereas Evaluator B assigned
it to violent fantasies).
2.4. Data summary and dissemination
The following strategy for data extraction was developed:
1. Studies relying on strictly identical samples were grouped together
under a single heading, in order to avoiding redundancy (FBI Studies:
Burgess et al., 1986; Ressler, Burgess, Douglas, et al., 1986; Ressler,
Burgess, Hartman, et al., 1986; Ressler et al., 1988; Hamburg Studies:
Briken, Habermann, Berner, & Hill, 2005; Briken, Habermann, Kafka,
Berner, & Hill, 2006; Briken, Hill, Habermann, Kafka, & Berner,
2010; Hill, Habermann, Berner, & Briken, 2007; Hill, Habermann,
Klusmann, Berner, & Briken, 2008; Hill et al., 2012; Hill et al., 2006;
Koch, Berner, Hill, & Briken, 2011; Spehr, Hill, Habermann, Briken,
& Berner, 2010).
2. The studies were divided into two categories: nonserial sexual murderers (NSMs; one or two victims) and serial sexual murderers
(SSMs; three or more victims). Mixed samples were assigned to the
category to which at least 75.0% of the participants belonged.
3. Descriptive statistics were extracted from all the studies (930 variables in all) and grouped into ve major categories: developmental
(n = 104), adult life and criminal career (n = 156), psychopathology (n = 151), modus operandi (n = 456), and victimology (n = 63).
4. Variables with different names but referring to the same phenomenon were merged (e.g. sexual dysfunction/sexual problems, employment status/unemployment status).
5. Imprecisely dened variables (e.g., nervous habits, physical complaints) were excluded.
6. Variables reported for fewer than 10 participantse.g., considered
dangerous (n = 9), phallometric evidence of sadism (n = 9)
were excluded.
7. Variables whose values were automatically dened by the study's inclusion and exclusion criteria were excluded. For example, the prevalence of necrophilia was not coded for Stein, Schlesinger, and
Pinizzotto's (2010) study, which analyzed only necrophiles, and the
prevalence of psychopathy was not coded for Oliver, Beech, Fisher,
and Beckett's (2007) study, which only analyzed individuals with
scores of less than 25 on the PCL-R (i.e. were not psychopathic).
8. Variables reported in multiple studies were summarised as the mean
of the percentages reported in each study, i.e., each study was
weighted equally, regardless of sample size. This was done to preserve the representativity of each of the 45 studies and avoid the
distorting effect of large samples of extreme cases.
will discuss the characteristics of the modus operandi and of victimology. In all, the studies reviewed described 1836 sexual murderers: 1660
nonserial sexual murderers (NSMs) and 176 serial sexual murderers
(SSMs). NSMs and SSMs were of similar age (34.9 years vs.
34.7 years) at the time of the studies and of similar race (87.3% vs.
87.6% white).
3.1. Developmental characteristics of sexual murderers
The developmental variables retained (n = 79) describe the murderers' behavior during childhood and adolescence, and their family
environment, victimization, and education (Table 2).
3.1.1. Violent behaviors during childhood
In general, SSMs were more likely than NSMs to exhibit violent
behaviors, such as destruction and vandalism (42.0% vs. 27.7%), resetting (56.0% vs. 25.3%), and cruelty to animals (36.0% vs. 21.7%). No
major difference was observed for theft (SSMs: 56.0%, NSMs: 66.7%).
Temper tantrums were more common among NSMs than among
SSMs (83.0% vs. 48.0%).
3.1.2. Nonviolent behaviors and internal problems during childhood
Like violent behaviors, nonviolent behaviors and internal problems
were more prevalent in SSMs than in NSMs; this was true of enuresis
(68.0% vs. 44.5%), sleep problems (48.0% vs. 13.3%), nightmares (67.0%
vs. 24.4%), chronic lying (71.0% vs. 26.9%), and daydreaming (82.0% vs.
30.1%). The difference in the prevalence of compulsive masturbation
was extremely high (82.0% vs. 2.2%). Social isolation was very common
in both groups (71.0% vs. 69.6%). Low self-esteem was present in 56.8%
of NSMs, and 52.0% of SSMs reported having a poor body image.
3.1.3. Evolution of behavioral and internal problems during adolescence
In adolescence, the prevalence of temper tantrums declined in NSMs
(83.0% to 40.5%), but not in SSMs (50.0% and 48.0%). Cruelty to animals
increased in SSMs (46.0% vs. 36.0%) and decreased in NSMs (21.7% vs.
10.8%). In SSMs, the patterns of destruction and vandalism (48.5%),
re-setting (52.0%) and cruelty to children (64.0%) were similar to
those observed in childhood.
3.1.4. Juvenile victimization
SSMs were more likely than NSMs to report having been physically
neglected (74.0% vs. 16.3%) or psychologically abused (74.0% vs.
57.8%). However, NSMs were more likely than SSMs to report having
been physically abused (52.8% vs. 32.5%). Psychological neglect was
reported only for NSMs (75.3%). The two groups reported sexual
abuse in similar proportions (SSMs: 31.4%; NSMs: 29.5%).
3.1.5. Family environment
SSMs had been raised in more problematic family environments
than the NSMs. Members of the families of SSMs were more likely
than those of NSMs to consume alcohol (69.0% vs. 45.1%) and drugs
(33.3% vs. 10.8%), to have a psychiatric history (53.3% vs. 21.1%), and
to have a criminal record (50.0% vs. 18.3%). In addition, members of
the families of SSMs were more likely to engage in promiscuous sexual
behavior than were those of NSMs (46.2% vs. 7.2%). A negative father
image was more common among SSMs than NSMs (72.0% vs. 58.0%).
Almost half the SSMs (44.0%) reported a negative mother image.
3.2. Characteristics of adult life and criminal career
3. Results
The descriptive statistics from the 45 studies will be discussed under
three headings: developmental characteristics, characteristics of adult
life and criminal career, and psychopathology. A subsequent article
The variables related to adult life (n = 71) and criminal career

(n = 24) describe the murderers' violent and nonviolent behaviors,
internal problems, sexual activities, social interaction, occupational
activities, and criminal career (Table 3).
599
Table 2
Developmental characteristics of sexual murderers (N = 1836).
Nonserial sexual murderers
(n = 1660)
Behavior in childhood
Violent
Grievance against female
Grievance against male
Temper tantrum
Rebelliousness
Destruction, vandalism
Theft
Self-mutilation
Fist ghts
Fire-setting
Cruelty to animals
Cruelty to children
Nonviolent
Enuresis
Reckless behavior
Convulsions and epilepsy
Social isolation
Phobias
Running away
Chronic lying
Compulsive masturbation
Eating problems
Sleep problems
Internal problems
Daydreaming
Nightmares
Headaches
Low self-esteem
Poor body image
Behavior in adolescence
Violent
Temper tantrum
Rebelliousness
Theft
Self-mutilation
Fire-setting
Cruelty to animals
Cruelty to children
Nonviolent
Enuresis
Reckless behavior
Social isolation
Phobias
Running away
Chronic lying
Eating problems
Sleep problems
Internal problems
Daydreaming
Nightmares
Headaches
Low self-esteem
Victim stance
Loneliness
Aversion to sexual activities
Juvenile victimization
Extrafamilial
Exposure to sexual activities
Sexual abuse as a child
Intrafamilial
Psychological neglect
Physical neglect
Psychological abuse
Physical abuse
Incest
Serial sexual murderers

(n = 176)
n subject/n study
Mean percentage
(range)
n subject/n study
Mean percentage
(range)
19/1
19/1
13/1
46/2
46/2
41/1
13/1
212/3
253/4
68.0
16.0
83.0
27.7 (22.033.3)
66.7 (63.470.0)
2.2
42.0
25.3 (6.739.0)
21.7 (4.239.0)
27/1
27/1
51/2
27/1
26/1
25/1
28/1
28/1
48.0
67.0
42.0 (28.056.0)
56.0
19.0
56.0
36.0
54.0
179/2
40/1
227/3
41/1
219/3
206/2
41/1
41/1
44.5 (27.062.0)
24.3
69.6 (54.186.0)
37.8
44.1 (25.380.0)
26.9 (13.240.5)
2.2
13.3
22/1
26/1
28/1
24/1
28/1
28/1
28/1
26/1
23/1
68.0
19.0
71.0
38.0
36.0
71.0
82.0
27.0
48.0
206/2
41/1
41/1
40/1
30.1 (16.943.2)
24.4
8.9
56.8
28/1
24/1
21/1
27/1
82.0
67.0
29.0
52.0
40/1
40/1
40/1
40/1
40.5
59.5
8.1
10.8
26/1
25/1
49/2
27/1
24/1
25/1
26/1
28/1
50.0
84.0
48.5 (35.062.0)
81.0
21.0
52.0
46.0
64.0
40/1
40/1
59/2
40/1
40/1
40/1
41/1
40/1
10.8
32.4
62.4 (56.868.0)
32.4
37.8
59.5
11.1
24.3
20/1
24/1
26/1
23/1
26/1
28/1
28/1
25/1
22/1
60.0
21.0
77.0
43.0
46.0
75.0
82.0
36.0
50.0
40/1
40/1
40/1
40/1
183/2
12/1
48.6
10.8
10.8
78.4
49.7 (46.453.0)
63.0
27/1
22/1
21/1
28/1
30/1
81.0
68.0
33.0
53.0
43.0
598/10
29.5 (12.065.0)
26/1
58/2
42.0
31.4 (20.042.9)
166/1
166/1
117/2
418/7
40/1
75.3
16.3
57.8 (56.459.2)
52.8 (28.071.1)
20.5
31/1
31/1
61/2
74.0
74.0
32.5 (23.042.0)
(continued on next page)
600
Table 2 (continued)
(n = 1660)

(n = 176)
n subject/n study
Mean percentage
(range)
n subject/n study
Mean percentage
(range)
Family environment
Consumption of alcohol
Consumption of drugs
Climate of violence
Psychiatric history
Criminal record
Promiscuity
Parental abandonment
Placement of child
Only child
Father is the dominant gure
Mother is the dominant gure
Negative father image
Negative mother image
Emotionally unattached to parents
Middle class
Father's work was unstable
96/4
65/2
67/3
78/3
78/3
166/1
119/4
244/8
33/1
19/1
19/1
45.1 (33.360.0)
10.8 (9.112.5)
56.0 (41.266.7)
21.1 (11.026.7)
18.3 (11.025.0)
7.2
44.4 (24.062.5)
41.1 (17.061.1)
15.0
58.0
89.0
29/1
27/1
30/1
36/1
31/1
86/3
36/1
36/1
32/1
32/1
36/1
36/1
55/2
27/1
69.0
33.3
53.3
50.0
46.2
47.9 (46.750.0)
40.0
11.0
28.0
66.0
72.0
44.0
75.5 (65.086.0)
25.4
Schooling
Mean years of education
High school completed
Behavior problems
Absenteism
Grade repeating
297/7
223/2
340/7
13/1
179/2
10.7 (8.912.0)
4.0 (3.05.0)
54.7 (30.089.5)
64.0
58.7 (48.269.2)
50/2
30/1
36.7 (30.043.3)
36.0
3.2.1. Violent behaviors

Similar proportions of SSMs and NSMs reported having temper tantrums (44.0% vs. 38.0%). SSMs were more likely than NSMs to be cruel to
animals (36.0% vs. 17.9%) and collect pornography (53.0% vs. 39.4%). In
SSMs, cruelty to children was less prevalent in adulthood (44.0%) than
in childhood (54.0%) and adolescence (64.0%). A majority of SSMs
(86.0%) had assaulted an adult. NSMs tended to use a weapon in ghts
(61.7%).
3.2.2. Nonviolent behaviors and internal problems
SSMs were more likely than NSMs to be socially isolated (73.0% vs.
49.5%) and chronic liars (68.0% vs. 50.8%), and to experience sleep problems (50.0% vs. 20.0%) and nightmares (52.0% vs. 20.0%). SSMs were less
likely to suffer from enuresis (15.0% vs. 35.1%). There was no major
difference in the consumption of drugs in the two groups (SSMs:
50.0%; NSMs: 40.3%). Half the NSMs (50.6%) consumed alcohol regularly. A high proportion of NSMs reported low self-esteem (66.7%) and a
fear of social intimacy (89.0%).
3.2.3. Sexuality
NSMs reported sexual dysfunction twice as frequently (58.6% vs.
27.8%) but erectile dysfunction less than half as frequently (16.0% vs.
44.0%). SSMs were three times as likely to never have had consensual
sex with an adult female (56.0% vs. 18.2%), and much more likely to
have been incest offenders (30.0% vs. 3.5%). Sexual promiscuity was
higher in SSMs (27.5% vs. 14.8%). More than half the NSMs reported
never having had sexual intercourse (54.6%). Finally, almost half the
sexual murderers of both types had had a homosexual experience
(SSMs: 49.0%, NSMs: 42.6%).
3.2.4. Social interaction and occupation
SSMs were twice as likely as NSMs to be married or in an intimate
relationship (38.2% vs. 18.5%). Many sexual murderers of both types
lived alone (NSMs: 43.3%; SSMs: 41.7%). Half the NSMs (52.3%) had
attempted cohabitation.
SSMs were less likely than NSMs to be unemployed (11.0% vs.
49.1%). Almost two thirds of murderers in both groups were unskilled
(SSMs: 66.6%; NSMs: 69.1%). Employment was unstable in approximately half the SSMs (47.0%).
3.2.5. Criminal career
SSMs tended to specialise more in sexual assaults than did NSMs.
They were more likely to have committed a previous sexual offense
(38.0% vs. 28.8%) and had committed their rst sexual homicide at a
younger age (22.5 years vs. 27.7 years). Evidence of NSMs' greater polymorphism can be seen in their greater number of nonviolent and nonsexual crimes (M = 10.4 vs. 6.0) and their greater likelihood of having
committed burglary (52.8% vs. 8.7%) and violent crimes (51.2% vs.
22.8%). One third of NSMs had committed a previous offense against a
woman (37.7%) and had committed their rst sexual assault before
they were 18 years old (35.8%) (Table 4).
3.3. Psychopathology of sexual murderers
The psychopathology variables (n = 70) describe the murderers' IQ,
psychiatric history, paraphilias, sexual fantasies, and phallometric responses (Table 5).
3.3.1. IQ
The mean IQ of NSMs was similar to that of the general population
(100.4). SSMs were twice as likely as NSMs to have a normal or elevated
IQ (47.0% vs. 23.0%).
3.3.2. Axis I disorders
Very few sexual murderers had been diagnosed with DSM-IV Axis I
disorders, and there was no major difference between the groups. Few
murderers of either type had been diagnosed with serious mental disorders (schizophrenia or psychosis: NSM: 8.2%, SSMs: 3.4%) or mood
disorders (5.5% vs. 2.6%). A signicant proportion of NSMs had been
diagnosed with alcohol (39.5%) or drug (30.5%) dependency. SSMs
were much more likely to suffer from psychosexual disorders (77.3%
vs. 2.1%) and gender identity disorder (69.0% vs. 10.2%).
3.3.3. Axis II disorders
Little descriptive data were available for Axis II disorders in SSMs.
However, antisocial personality disorder was less frequent among
601
Table 3
Characteristics of sexual murderers in adulthood (N = 1836).
Behavior in adulthood
Violent
Temper tantrum
Military experience
Fire-setting
Theft
Membership in criminal gang
Assaultive to adults
Used weapon in ghts
Owned guns
Collected sexual items
Collected pornography
Collected weapons
Violent theme collections
Violent hobbies
Cruelty to animals
Cruelty to children
Self-mutilation
Suicide attempt
Nonviolent
Enuresis
Reckless behavior
Social isolation
Phobias
Running away
Chronic lying
Eating problems
Sleep problems
Consumption of alcohol
Consumption of drugs
Reputation as a solid citizen
Police buff
Internal problems
Daydreaming
Nightmares
Headaches
Low self-esteem
Poor body image
Victim stance
Fear of social intimacy
Sexual activities
Homosexual experience
Never had intimate relationship
Never had sexual intercourse
Never had consensual sex with a female adult
Promiscuous
Sexual desire incompatibility
Sexually abused
Incest with biological child
Sexual dysfunction
Erectile dysfunction
Ejaculation problems
Premature ejaculation
Sexual ignorance
Sexual inhibition
Aversion to sexual activities
Sexual injury or disease
Marital status
In relationship at time of offense
Married/ partner
Single/ alone
Divorced/ separated
Never married
Had at least one child
Living arrangement
Lives alone
Lives with partner
Lives with his parents
Had attempted cohabitation
Occupational status
Unemployed

(n = 1660)

(n = 176)
n subject/n study
Mean percentage (range)
n subject/n study
21/1
57/1
33/1
70/3
54/2
250/1
33/1
13/1
34/2
118/2
41/1
347/7
38.0
0.0
21.2
61.7 (38.0100)
31.7 (24.039.4)
21.2
39.4
46.0
33.5 (17.050.0)
17.9 (11.024.7)
8.9
29.7 (10.550.0)
25/1
30/1
23/1
25/1
25/1
28/1
30/1
20/1
25/1
27/1
25/1
30/1
44.0
33.3
35.0
28.0
56.0
86.0
53.0
75.0
36.0
44.0
32.0
13.3
77/1
57/1
212/3
139/3
41/1
118/2
41/1
352/8
184/6
57/1
57/1
35.1
1.8
9.4 (6.015.0)
49.5 (29.072.7)
37.8
50.8 (44.457.1)
20.0
50.6 (6.386.8)
40.3 (17.681.5)
5.3
0.0
20/1
30/1
23/1
26/1
24/1
26/1
28/1
26/1
22/1
30/1
30/1
30/1
15.0
40.0
13.0
73.0
50.0
11.0
68.0
35.0
50.0
50.0
30.0
30.0
118/2
41/1
118/2
41/1
19/1
19/1
43.5 (31.155.8)
20.0
20.0 (22.237.7)
66.7
63.0
89.0
27/1
21/1
22/1
26/1
81.0
52.0
45.0
62.0
225/3
135/1
142/2
33/1
304/4
161/1
57/1
148/2
179/2
179/2
200/3
42.6 (35.150.4)
22.2
54.6 (47.162.0)
18.2
14.8 (0.032.9)
9.3
3.5
58.6 (32.684.6)
16.0 (13.918.0)
7.8 (6.69.0)
13.7 (4.219.0)
50/2
36/1
50/2
28/1
30/1
36/1
32/1
52/2
30/1
28/1
50/2
28/1
25/1
49.0 (43.055.0)
56.0
27.5 (20.035.0)
37.0
30.0
27.8
44.0
33.9 (3.064.7)
3.0
59.0
48.2 (35.361.0)
50.0
28.0
405/8
778/11
558/6
562/7
82/3
184/2
28.3 (8.084.0)
18.5 (7.835.0)
57.3 (38.075.0)
20.3 (7.531.0)
36.9 (26.753.9)
26.6 (25.327.8)
75/3
25/1
25/1
38.2 (21.550.0)
29.7
50.0
287/6
33/2
182/2
155/1
43.3 (12.554.0)
27.2 (25.029.4)
32.4 (25.039.8)
52.3
36/1
41.7
540/9
49.1 (29.570.0)
35/1
11.0
602
Table 3 (continued)
Occupational status
Blue-collar worker
Unstable employment
Unskilled

(n = 1660)

(n = 176)
n subject/n study
n subject/n study
78/4
203/3
31.0 (0.050.0)
69.1 (42.093.0)
55/2
36/1
47.0 (25.069.0)
66.6
SSMs than among NSMs (13.2% vs. 50.0%). A clinically signicant score
on the psychopathic deviate scale of the MMPI was obtained by 60.0%
of NSMs, and 37.8% of NSMs obtained a score of at least 30 on the Psychopathy ChecklistRevised. MCMI results indicate the presence of
avoidant (15.2%), dependent (21.7%), and schizoid (10.0%) personality
disorder characteristics in some NSMs. Furthermore, 17.6% of NSMs exhibited borderline personality disorder and 13.6% narcissistic personality disorder, as dened by the DSM-IV.
3.3.4. Paraphilias
In general, SSMs were more likely than NSMs to exhibit paraphilias:
fetishism (58.3% vs. 15.2%), voyeurism (53.2% vs. 30.4%), bondage
(70.2% vs. 38.4%), compulsive masturbation (75.5% vs. 24.3%), rape fantasies (61.0% vs. 9.5%), and rape or homicidal fantasies (86.0% vs. 29.5%).
On the other hand, SSMs and NSMs did not differ markedly with regard
to sexual sadism (68.2% vs. 54.2%), consumption of pornography (81.0%
vs. 70.1%), and paedophilia (27.3% vs. 24.6%). In NSMs, phallometric results indicate an absence of sexual preference for rape, and an equal sexual preference for adults and children.
4. Discussion
Scientic research on sexual murderers has not established whether
sexual homicide is a phenomenon distinct from other forms of sexual
aggression or whether it is simply the endpoint of a continuum of violent sexual aggression (Kerr et al., 2013). Comparative studies of rapists
and sexual murderers suggest that the proles of these two types of aggressors are similar (Beech et al., 2005; Grubin, 1994; Oliver et al., 2007;
Proulx et al., 2007). Both groups have been reported to be criminally
polymorphic (Nicole, 2002), to exhibit paraphilias and personality disorders (Proulx et al., 2007), and to espouse specic implicit theories
(Beech et al., 2005). However, there are specic aetiological factors
that are thought to contribute to the development of sexual murderers
(Maniglio, 2010), including: a chaotic childhood environment (Grubin,
1994; Proulx, Beauregard, & Nicole, 2002; Proulx et al., 2007), social isolation (Grubin, 1994; Oliver et al., 2007; Proulx et al., 2002; Proulx et al.,
2007), sexual sadism (Koch et al., 2011; Langevin, Ben-Aron, Wright,
Marchese, & Handy, 1988), and deviant sexual fantasies (Proulx et al.,
2002; Proulx et al., 2007).
This systematic review suggests that there are two subgroups of sexual murderers: sexual murderers having killed one or two individuals
(nonserial), and sexual murderers having killed three or more individuals (serial). Virtually all the factors analyzed were more prevalent in
SSMs than in NSMs. More specically, SSMs had higher prevalences of
problems during childhood and adolescence, psychopathology, and a
chaotic developmental environment (Kerr et al., 2013; Ressler et al.,
1988; Silva, Leong, & Ferrari, 2004). Deviant sexual fantasies play a central role in this group, as SSMs attempt to commit crimes that reproduce
their fantasies as perfectly as possible (Ressler et al., 1988). Prentky et al.
(1989) reported that SSMs exhibit more deviant sexual behaviors than
NSMs, and Briken, Habermann, Berner, et al. (2006) hypothesised that
paraphilia-related problems are a causal factor for the seriality of
SSMs. It has also been suggested (MacCulloch et al., 1983) that habituation drives SSMs to increasingly extreme sexual behaviorsincluding
sadistic sexual murder. Overall, the literature suggests that sexual sadism is more prevalent among SSMs and is a motivational factor for homicidal sexual assaults (Arrigo & Purcell, 2001; Berner, Berger, & Hill,
2003; Briken et al., 1999; Brittain, 1970; Hickey, 2012; Hill et al., 2007;
Table 4
Criminal career characteristics of sexual murderers (N = 1836).
(n = 1660)
Previous nonviolent and nonsexual crime

Nonviolent and nonsexual crime (M)
Age at rst nonviolent crime (M)
Burglary
Age at rst crime against property (M)
Arson
Previous violent crime
Number of previous violent crimes (M)
Age at rst violent crime (M)
Previous attempted homicide
Previous homicide
Previous offense against a woman
Previous sexual offenses
Previous sexual offenses (M)
Previous sexual offence against an adult
Previous sexual offence against a child
Younger than 18 at rst sexual offence
Age at rst sexual homicide (M)
Younger than 21 at rst sexual homicide
Convictions (M)
Variety of crimes (M)
Previous incarceration (months)

(n = 176)
n subject/n study
n subject /n study
575/12
452/6
78/2
166/3
40/1
166/1
361/10
452/6
40/1
177/2
16/1
66/2
593/11
367/5
219/4
204/2
157/2
917/16
139/1
40/1
40/1
166/1
60.6 (8.390.0)
10.4 (3.013.0)
20.5 (16.124.7)
52.8 (49.559.0)
23.5
7.2
51.2 (32.082.2)
2.1 (0.85.2)
25.9
10.6 (8.112.5)
18.8
37.7 (28.946.4)
28.8 (12.057.6)
1.4
31.6 (12.550.0)
16.6 (7.925.3)
35.8 (28.843.0)
27.7
28.1
4.3
5.1
22.9
88/3
38/1
38/1
38/1
102/3
22/1
52.3 (35.078.9)
6.0 (0.020.0)
8.7
22.8
38.0 (0.094.0)
22.5
603
Table 5
Psychopathological characteristics of sexual murderers (N = 1836).
Psychopathology
IQ
IQ total score (M)
IQ normal-superior (111120)
Mental retardation
Mental disorders
Schizophrenia/ psychosis
Mood disorders
Anxiety disorders
Adjustment/ conduct disorders
Alcohol dependence
Drug dependence
Gender identity disorder
Psychosexual disorder
Personality disorders
Avoidant
Avoidant (MCMI)
Dependent
Dependent (MCMI)
Obsessivecompulsive
Obsessivecompulsive (MCMI)
Histrionic
Histrionic (MCMI)
Narcissistic
Narcissisitic (MCMI)
Borderline
Borderline (MCMI)
Schizotypal
Schizotypal (MCMI)
Paranoid
Paranoid (MCMI)
Schizoid
Schizoid (MCMI)
Sadistic (DSM-III-R)
Sadistic (MCMI)
Antisocial
Antisocial (MCMI)
Psychopathic Deviate (MMPI)
PCL total score (M)
PCL 25
PCL 30
PCL factor 1 (M)
PCL factor 2 (M)
ADHD
Brain abnormalities
Psychiatric history
Sexual disorders
Paraphilias
Cross-dressing
Fetishism
Voyeurism
Exhibitionism
Coprophilia/ Urophilia
Masochism
Bondage
Sexual sadism
Pedophilia and sexual sadism
Pedophilia
Frottage and toucherism
Zoophilia
Necrophilia
Others
Obscene phone calls
Interest in pornography
Consumption of sadistic pornography
Dependency on pornography or phone sex
Deviant sexual fantasies
Deviant sexual fantasies (b18 y)
Deviant sexual fantasies (adult)
Rape fantasies
Violent fantasies
Rape or/and homicidal fantasies
Masturbation with homicidal fantasies

(n = 1660)

(n = 176)
n subject/n study
n subject/n study
450/10
50/2
339/6
100.4 (96.3102.2)
22.3 (15.229.4)
2.2 (0.06.3)
61/2
38/1
47.0 (36.058.0)
2.6
530/13
411/8
261/4
81/3
160/6
123/4
212/3
65/2
8.2 (0.027.2)
5.5 (0.010.7)
1.7 (0.04.8)
11.6 (10.412.5)
39.5 (6.366.7)
30.5 (13.348.7)
10.2 (3.015.4)
2.1 (0.04.2)
88/3
38/1
38/1
38/1
28/1
22/1
3.4 (0.05.3)
2.6
5.3
7.9
69.0
77.3
196/2
83/2
196/2
83/2
196/2
25/1
196/2
83/2
212/3
83/2
125/3
83/2
196/2
83/2
196/2
83/2
196/2
83/2
196/2
58/1
461/11
83/2
13/1
320/6
255/4
282/5
249/4
249/4
33/1
256/5
18/1
6.3 (0.012.7)
15.2 (2.328.0)
9.0 (3.614.3)
21.7 (11.432.0)
2.4 (1.23.6)
0.0
3.6 (0.07.1)
0.0 (0.00.0)
13.6 (6.325.0)
6.0 (0.012.0)
17.6 (0.028.6)
4.3 (4.04.5)
0.9 (0.01.8)
3.2 (2.34.0)
1.5 (0.03.0)
2.3 (0.04.5)
8.1 (0.016.3)
10.0 (0.020.0)
8.7 (0.017.5)
0.0
50.0 (23.590.0)
7.4 (6.88.0)
60.0
22.0 (15.230.1)
54.1 (18.684.2)
37.8 (6.270.0)
7.6 (6.313.8)
8.4 (7.914.1)
6.0
38.9 (5.963.6)
50.0
38/1
38/1
63/2
2.6
13.2
66.3 (63.069.5)
316/6
246/4
259/5
206/4
135/1
196/2
90/2
355/8
81/3
301/7
13/1
473/6
17.5 (0.054.0)
15.2 (3.033.0)
30.4 (6.054.0)
8.4 (0.023.0)
5.9
6.1 (5.46.7)
38.4 (7.069.7)
54.2 (16.782.4)
32.9 (6.352.9)
24.6 (0.052.9)
31.0
21.5 (10.638.0)
83/3
76/3
75/3
75/3
50/2
78/3
52/2
22/1
28/1
28/1
110/4
20.7 (17.025.0)
58.3 (31.872.0)
53.2 (13.675.0)
22.7 (18.225.0)
5.8 (4.57.0)
70.2 (39.095.0)
68.2 (36.4100)
27.3
18.0
23.0
5.9 (0.018.2)
186/3
77/1
103/1
161/1
24.3 (8.950.0)
70.1
19.4
6.8
52/2
28/1
31/1
75.5 (70.081.0)
22.0
81.0
40/1
93/2
21/1
58/2
146/1
39.5
28.8 (12.545.0)
9.5
29.5 (23.036.0)
17.1
36/1
20/1
25/1
61.0
80.0
86.0
604
Table 5 (continued)
Psychopathology
Sexual disorders
Deviant sexual fantasies
Masturbation with sadistic fantasies
Phallometry
Pedophile index (M)
Pedophile assault (M)
Assault index (M)
Rape index (M)

(n = 1660)

(n = 176)
n subject/n study
n subject/n study
148/1
34.5
96/3
96/3
65/2
65/2
1.0 (0.71.1)
1.2 (1.11.2)
0.5 (0.40.5)
0.6 (0.30.7)
Meloy, 2000; Myers et al., 2006; Prentky et al., 1989). Developmental

studies suggest that these factors are the precursors of SSMs' pathological behaviors, particularly violent and asocial behaviors (Burgess et al.,
1986); there thus appears to be a gradient of problems and psychopathology from nonserial to serial murderers (Campos & Cusson, 2007;
Ressler et al., 1988).
4.1. Prole of serial sexual murderers
The prole of serial sexual murderers is characterised by the predominance of sexual problems, namely compulsive masturbation, sexual dysfunction, paraphilias, and early-onset coercive sexual behaviors:
all these characteristics were more prevalent in SSMs than in NSMs.
To what extent is this constellation of sexuality-related characteristics
related to SSMs' extensive social and personal problems? How does
this constellation of sexuality-related characteristics favor the emergence of serial sexual murderers?
Compulsive masturbation was very common in SSMs in childhood
(82.0%), adolescence (82.0%), and adulthood (75.5%). This behavior is
a paraphilia-related disorder and is observed among men with low
self-esteem and personal distress (Kafka, 1994).
One explanation of the function of compulsive masturbation in SSMs
is that it is a coping strategy for negative affects related to a problematic
family environment or to physical or sexual victimization during childhood (Cortoni & Marshall, 2001; Proulx, McKibben, & Lusignan, 1996).
Alternatively, compulsive masturbation may be a result of observation
of sexual behavior (Arrigo & Purcell, 2001). Indeed, 46.2% of SSMs reported having been exposed to sexual behaviors in their family environment, and 42.0% reported having witnessed sexual activities outside of
their family.
Early-onset coercive sexual behaviors appear in children raised in
problematic family environments (Marshall & Barbaree, 1990). And, in
fact, the family environment of SSMs was characterised by alcohol consumption (69.0%) and drug consumption (33.3%), psychiatric problems
(53.3%), criminality (50.0%), physical neglect (74.0%), and psychological
abuse (74.0%). This set of environmental characteristics is a plausible
explanation of the high prevalence in SSMs of negative self-image
(52.0%) and enuresis (68.0%), indicators of early-onset sexuality in sadistic sexual murderers (Hill et al., 2006). Given this problematic family
environment, it is not surprising that SSMs socially isolated themselves
(71.0%) and daydreamed (82.0%). In addition, even as children they
exhibited a variety of violent behaviors, including re-setting (56.0%),
destruction and vandalism (42.0%), animal cruelty (36.0%), and rebelliousness (67.0%). Presumably because of these problems, SSMs developed few prosocial skills, which prevented them from satisfying their
sexual and nonsexual needs. Social isolation and low self-esteem favor
recourse to sexuality as a coping strategy; these strategies may be alternative means of satisfying their emotional and sexual needs (Ressler
et al., 1988).
Sexuality-related problems were generalised in adult SSMs, and interfered with the entire spectrum of their social interactions. Not only
do they masturbate compulsively (75.5%), but they also suffer from psychosexual problems (77.3%), gender identity disorder (69.0%), erectile
dysfunction (44.0%), and ejaculation-related problems (33.9%), have little sexual knowledge (59.0%) and a distaste for sexual activities (50.0%),
are sexually inhibited (48.2%), and are unlikely to have had consensual
sexual relations with a woman (56.0%). This wide range of problems
may have resulted from their low self-esteem or their social isolation,
and may explain their recourse to paraphilias and compulsive masturbation to satisfy their sexual needs. This pattern of relational and sexual
problems in SSMs is consistent with their personality prole, which
comprises schizoid and avoidant traits (Hill et al., 2007; Proulx et al.,
2007).
This systematic review indicates that fetishism (58.3%), voyeurism
(53.2%) and exhibitionism (22.7%) are the most common hands-off
paraphilias of SSMs. Hickey (2012) suggests that fetishism is the result
of the fear of losing someone close, while Hill et al. (2007) see voyeurism as a way for sexual murderers to feel in control of people they spy
on. Arrigo and Purcell (2001) suggest that paraphilias allow individuals
to compensate for a nonexistent sexual life and obtain complete control
over an imaginary sexual scenario. Furthermore, as the sexual arousal
linked to masturbation becomes inadequate, due to habituation
(Proulx et al., 2007), individuals are driven to diversify, intensify, and increase the frequency of their deviant sexual behaviors as well as their
sexual crimes (Arrigo & Purcell, 2001). In SSMs, this phenomenon is
characterised by the development of violent paraphilias, such as sexual
sadism and bondage; these paraphilias, observed in a great many SSMs,
mark the endpoint of the continuum of sexual deviance.
In order to maintain a high level of sexual gratication, SSMs develop
more extreme sexual fantasies and behaviors that incorporate sadistic
elements (MacCulloch et al., 1983; Maniglio, 2010). Proulx, Blais, and
Beauregard (2006) point out that sexual fantasies are one way sadistic
sexual aggressors cope with internal distress. More recently, Proulx
and Beauregard (2013) have observed that sadistic sexual aggressors
cultivate an elaborate fantasy world in which they torture, humiliate
and kill women (p. 145). This appears to be corroborated by the fact
that 86.0% of SSMs reported having sadistic fantasies (rape or murder)
and 61.0% reported having rape fantasies. This progression to extreme
behaviors is more than the mere quest for intense experiences or alternative sources of sexual gratication: it is also a way of expressing the
rage and suffering resulting from their relational and sexual failures. Indeed, because of their decient social skills and low self-condence,
SSMs are unsuccessful in satisfying their sexual and emotional needs
in a prosocial manner. These cumulative failures engender feelings of
humiliation which, in turn, provoke anger towards the woman (or
women) they see as responsible for their failures. In SSMs, the increasing violence of the fantasy world is paralleled by increasingly violent
sexual crimes, with sexual homicide the endpoint. In this connection,
SSMs exhibit many similarities with sadistic sexual murderers
(Brittain, 1970; Gratzer & Bradford, 1995; MacCulloch et al., 1983;
Proulx et al., 2007).
4.2. Prole of nonserial sexual murderers
If SSMs are located at one end of the spectrum, are NSMs simply a
watered-down version of SSMs or are they a distinct entity? In fact,
NSMs seem to constitute a distinct entity: they exhibit lower prevalences of sexuality-related problems, and, unlike SSMs, are characterised by antisociality, in the form of a diverse and intense criminal
career in adulthood, and impulsive and aggressive personality traits.
What is the relationship between antisociality and nonserial sexual
homicide? Temper tantrums were extremely common in NSMs in childhood (83.0%), and although their prevalence decreased by half in adolescence (40.5%), it remained stable into adulthood (38.0%). These
violent behaviors may be related to NSMs' tendency to be involved in
st ghts in childhood (42.0%). According to Harris, Rice, Hilton,
Lalumiere, and Quinsey (2007), antisociality and violence are the result
of a problematic family environment. And in fact NSMs had suffered
psychological neglect (75.3%) and physical abuse (52.8%), and had
been raised in a violent family environment (56.0%). Furthermore, violent behaviors appear to be suffered, learned, and reproduced by
NSMs (Proulx et al., 2007). The affective life of NSMs is characterised
by hostility (grievances against women, 68.0%), and emotional detachment (emotional detachment from parents, 89.0%), both of which are
typical of psychopaths (Hare, 2003). This constellation of childhood
and adolescence problems appears to lay the foundations for antisocial
behaviors in adulthood.
Violent behaviors in childhood radicalise in adulthood, and extend
to the use of weapons during ghts (61.7%) and the possession of rearms (31.7%). This set of violent behaviors is associated with the consumption of alcohol (50.6%) and drugs (40.3%)which may act as
disinhibitors (Barbaree, Marshall, Yates, & Lightfoot, 1983; Marshall &
Barbaree, 1990)and to violent hobbies (33.5%) and gang afliation
(21.2%). Furthermore, 52.8% of NSMs have a record of burglary and
51.2% have a record of violent crimes. NSMs commited fewer sexual
crimes than SSMs, which appears to indicate that they are polymorphic
criminals. In this subgroup, antisociality, rather than sexual problems, is
the primary precursor of sexual homicide (Proulx et al., 2007).
Antisocial (50.0%) and borderline (17.6%) personality disorder were
the personality disorders most commonly diagnosed in NSMs. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that NSMs are explosive sexual
murderers whose antisocial lifestyle is dominated by the commission of
violent crimes (Proulx & Beauregard, 2013). As one might expect from
these results, 60.0% of NSMs had a psychopathic deviate personality
prole as dened by the MMPI (Butcher, 1993) and 37.8% of them
were psychopaths as dened by a score of at least 30 on the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (Hare, 2003). Thus, as Knight (2009) has noted,
NSMs appear to be angry sexual murderers whose primary personality
features are psychopathy, antisociality, and borderline personality
disorder.
NSMs were characterised by impulsivity and instability in their
interpersonal and occupational relationships. Thus, 57.3% of them had
no intimate partner, 43.3% lived alone, 49.1% were unemployed, and
almost all (96.0%) had not completed high school. NSMs were characterised not only by violence in their social relationships but also fear
of social intimacy (89.0%), and low self-esteem (66.7%), both of which
hindered the satisfaction of their emotional and sexual needs. The feelings of injustice, engendered by their victim stance (63.0%) and associated with grievances against women, appears to support the hypothesis
that the motivation for their sexual murders was anger against women,
whom they perceive as having rejected them (Proulx & Beauregard,
2013; Proulx et al., 2007).
5. Conclusion
This systematic review is not without its limitations. First, the two
groups of sexual murderers analyzed were distinguished on the basis
of the number of murder victims. The data obtained for this variable
were extracted from police les, and, in the case of nonserial murderers,
were subject to two biases. While the group of serial sexual murderers is
composed of individuals found guilty of at least three murders, the
group of nonserial murderers may include serial sexual murderers
605
whose subsequent victims were not identied, as well as potential serial

sexual murderers whose early apprehension prevented them from
accumulating further victims. Second, some of the studies on sexual
murderers did not discriminate between serial and nonserial murderers. Third, although there is no empirical evidence of differences
between sexual murderers of adult women and sexual murderers of
children, it would have been ideal had the data discriminated between
murderers on the basis of the age of their victims. Fourth, the harmonization of variable labels across studies may have resulted in some loss of
information. Finally, this systematic review was essentially limited to
North American studies, and its results may not be representative of
sexual murderers around the world.
Future research could focus on international comparisons, in order
to determine whether sexual murderers from different countries possess different characteristics. A common research protocol would facilitate research of this type.
In summary, NSMs and SSMs exhibit distinct characteristics, and
these shape their sexual crimes. Thus, sexuality and sadism are at the
heart of SSMs' homicides. These murderers are socially isolated, rejected, and humiliated, and take refuge in compulsive masturbation
and paraphilias in order to compensate for the poverty of their emotional, relational, and sexual lives. In contrast, NSMs are polymorphic criminals who are easily angered when their immediate needs are not
satised. They adopt a victim stance, and sexual homicide is for them
a form of vengeance, an outlet for their anger. These two proles are
consistent with the classication of Beauregard and Proulx (2002),
which identied a group of sadistic sexual murderers and a group of
angry sexual murderers, corresponding to SSMs and NSMs respectively.
Finally, this systematic review has shown that the dramatic murders
paraded before the public in the media on a regular basis are in fact representative only of SSMs, who in fact account for a low proportion of all
sexual murderers.
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Aggression and Violent Behavior 19 (2014) 592607

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Aggression and Violent Behavior

A psychological and developmental prole of sexual murderers:

School of Criminology, University of Montreal, Canada

J. James, J. Proulx / Aggression and Violent Behavior 19 (2014) 592607

murderers follow their crimes in the media (Ressler, Burgess, Douglas,

J. James, J. Proulx / Aggression and Violent Behavior 19 (2014) 592607

decreasing. In Canada, the proportion of homicides that were sexual

1.4. Evolution of research on sexual murderers

2.1. Data sources

2.2. Study selection

J. James, J. Proulx / Aggression and Violent Behavior 19 (2014) 592607

Articles identified in databases

Articles excluded on the

Articles retained for more detailed evaluation

Articles excluded on the

Total articles retained for analysis

Fig. 1. Summary of Study Selection Process.

2.2.2. Exclusion criteria

1. Publication date earlier than 1985 (e.g., Brittain, 1970; Krafft-Ebing,

8. Absence of descriptive statistics (e.g., Arrigo & Purcell, 2001; Carter

J. James, J. Proulx / Aggression and Violent Behavior 19 (2014) 592607

Sample Single vs. serial

Number, age and

Prison vs. forensic

Police and psychiatric

Police and psychiatric

Forensic Service of the

Meloy, Gacono, and

Gratzer and Bradford

Warren et al. (1996)

Royal Ottawa Hospital

Gacono, Meloy, and

Safarik, Jarvis, and

Milsom, Beech, and

Beech et al. (2005)

National Center for

Police, psychiatric les General Federal Police

SHR and NCAVC

Forensic Service of the

J. James, J. Proulx / Aggression and Violent Behavior 19 (2014) 592607

Sample Single vs. serial

Beech et al. (2005)

Salfati and Taylor

Gerard, Mormont, and Belgium

Oliver et al. (2007)

Proulx et al. (2007)

Van Patten and

Beauregard and Field

Stein et al. (2010)

Healey, Lussier, and

AF: Adult female; C: Child; M: Mixed; NS: Not specied.

Number, age and

Prison vs. forensic

Forensic Service of the

Police, psychiatric les Not specied

Los Angeles Sheriff's

Police les, semistructured interview

Police, forensic les,

Police les, interview

J. James, J. Proulx / Aggression and Violent Behavior 19 (2014) 592607