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Microturbines .
Internal combustion engines .
Fuel cells .
Photovoltaic systems .
Wind systems .
1) microturbines :
Introduction : Microturbines are a relatively
new distributed generation technology being
used for stationary energy generation
applications. They are a type of combustion
turbine that produces both heat and
electricity on a relatively small scale.
Microturbines offer several potential
advantages compared to other technologies
for small-scale power generation, including: a
small number of moving parts, compact size,
lightweight, greater efficiency, lower
emissions, lower electricity costs, and
opportunities to utilize waste fuels. Waste
heat recovery can also be used with these
systems to achieve efficiencies greater than
80%.
Technology
Microturbines
Electrical output .
Thermal output for residential or small
commercial apps
Operable as base, peaking, or back-up
Efficiency is 28%
to 33%
limitations
Fuel
Choice
Insufficient Natural
thermal
gas,
output for
propane,
industrial
diesel,
apps
multi-fuel
APPLICATION
Microturbines can be used for stand-by power, power quality and reliability, peak shaving, and
cogeneration applications. In addition, because microturbines are being developed to utilize a
variety of fuels, they are being used for resource recovery and landfill gas applications.
Microturbines are well suited for small commercial building establishments such as:
restaurants, hotels/motels, small offices, retail stores, and many others.
For example:
A McDonald's restaurant in Chicago, Illinois, gets most of its electricity from a natural-gaspowered microturbine, cutting $1,500 off its total monthly power bill.
Size
(kW)
25500
harnessed by a crankshaft to produce circular motion. Valves control the intake of air-fuel
mixture and allow exhaust gasses to exit at the appropriate times.
limitations
Fuel Choice
Internal
Combustion
Engines
Insurance policy
effect: Capital is
only being used
when back-up
generator is
running
Marginal cost of
production
generally favors
utility source in all
but rare occasions
Environmental
issuesemissions
and noise
Possible on-site
fuel storage needs
Diesel,
natural gas,
propane, biogas, other
petroleum
distillates
Efficiency is
28% to 37%
Size
(kW)
<16,000
Applications :
Internal combustion engines are most commonly used for mobile propulsion in vehicles and
portable machinery. In mobile equipment, internal combustion is advantageous since it can
provide high power-to-weight ratios together with excellent fuel energy density. Generally
using fossil fuel (mainly petroleum), these engines have appeared in transport in almost all
vehicles (automobiles, trucks, motorcycles, boats, and in a wide variety of aircraft and
locomotives).
3) Fuel cells :
A fuel cell operates like a battery, but does not run down. Instead of charging, it is an
electrochemical device that uses oxygen and a readily replenished fuel, such as hydrogen, to
produce electricity. Individual fuel cells are stacked in a module to produce the desired energy
output, much like commercial batteries use an array of individual cells. With heat and water as
the primary byproducts, fuel cells are virtually pollution-free and have more than two times the
efficiency of traditional combustion technologies, which typically have an efficiency rate of 33%
to 35%. As long as fuel is supplied to the fuel cell, energy in the form of heat and electricity will
be produced. Fuel cells can provide power for a range of applicationsfrom laptop computers
to utility power plants. A power converter can convert the direct current (DC) power produced
by the fuel cell into alternating current (AC) power that is compatible for use by the facility and
the utility. According to the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Office of Energy Efficiency and
Renewable Energy (EERE) Fuel Cell Technologies Program, when the heat from the fuel cell is
captured and used in combination with electrical power (such as combined heat and power),
fuel cells can have efficiency rates between 70% and 85% .
Technology
Fuel Cells
High temp:
Efficiency is
45% to 55%
Low temp:
Efficiency is
30% to 40%
limitations
Few commercially
available devices
Most research
efforts are for
automotive
applications
Need for fuel
reformer in almost all
applications (reduced
fuel to electrical
efficiencies)
Cold start is
1-2 days forMCFC,
3 hours for PAFC,
1 hour for PEMFC,
and 2 minutes for
SOFC
Applications :
Automotive: Fuel cell LDVs have so far seen limited
use but this is set to change as most major
automakers have targeted 2015 for initial
commercial sales of their fuel cell vehicles. Initial
locations for this rollout will most likely concentrate
around clusters of early hydrogen refuelling
infrastructure in Japan, Germany and the USA, and
will then spread outwards from these centres as the
market is established .
Submarines: The Type 212 submarines of the German
and Italian navies use fuel cells to remain submerged for
weeks without the need to surface.
The U212A is a non-nuclear submarine developed by
German naval shipyard Howaldtswerke Deutsche Werft.
The system consists of nine PEM fuel cells, providing
between 30 kW and 50 kW each. The ship is silent giving
it an advantage in the detection of other submarines.
Fuil choice
Direct by
hydrogen;
natural gas,
propane,
methanol, or
other
hydrogenrich source
through
reformer
Size (kw)
MCFC (molten
carbonate fuel
cells): 2502,850
PAFC
(Phosphoric
acid fuel cells):
200
PEMFC
(proton
exchange
membrane fuel
cells): 3-250
SOFC (solid
oxide fuel
cells): 2252,240
4) photovoltaic systems :
Solar photovoltaic (PV) systems
take energy from the sun and
convert it to zero carbon solar
electricity. Installing a solar PV
system gives your home building its
own roof top power station so you
can make electricity from the sun.
The advantages of solar energy
include reducing your energy
consumption and carbon emissions
and saving money.
Technology
limitations
Limited by available
area
High installed costs
Not suited for base load
Not suited for back-up
except when
accompanied by storage
Variable energy output
Fuil
choice
none
Size
(kw)
Big foot
print
(600
ft/kW)
Applications :
Today, solar-generated electricity serves people living in the most isolated spots on earth as well
as in the centre of our biggest cities. First used in the space program, photovoltaic (PV) systems
are now both generating electricity to pump water, light up the night, activate switches, charge
batteries, supply the electric utility grid, and more. Whether you are a homeowner, farmer,
planner, architect, or just someone who pays electric utility bills, PV may already touch your life
in some way.
limitations
Need to meet siting requirements
Generation is intermittent with
wind, and energy output can vary
with wind speed squared or cubed
over operation range. Not
appropriate as backup or off-grid
applications
Needs utility source for energy
purchases and sales
Can require footprint up to
100ft/kW
Fuil
Size
choice
(kw)
None
<1need
1,000
winds of
>12 mph
or
sometimes
higher
Applications :
If possible, only use 12v DC equipment (lights, CCTV cameras, fans, heaters, fridges or
kettles).
Do use the electric power generated by your wind turbine directly as much as possible.
Charging batteries is only 50% efficient.