The Cell Cycle

Biological Science, Chapter 11

April 18/23, 2012

Learning Outcomes
After the study of this chapter and
lecture notes, you should be able to
discuss the need for asexual reproduction,
describe the stages of the cell cycle,
describe the manifestation of cancer, and
discuss the importance of control over the
cell cycle.

i>clicker Survey: Agree (A) or Disagree (B)

When a cell divides, two cells are formed.
The lifetime of all cells is about the same.
A single double helix of DNA composes a
chromosome.
Cells can undergo cellular suicide.
DNA must be condensed for mitosis to occur.
All cancers are due to a single mutated gene.

11.1 Mitosis and the Cell Cycle

Asexual reproduction
results in offspring that
are genetically identical
to the parent.
Cell division in
unicellular organisms
(like prokaryotes)
occurs through asexual
reproduction.

Asexual Reproduction in Prokaryotes

The prokaryotic chromosome is organized
differently than eukaryotic chromosomes.
The bacterial chromosome is a circular loop.

Asexual Reproduction in Prokaryotes

Binary fission produces
two (binary) identical
daughter cells from a
parent cell.
The cell enlarges, the
chromosome replicates,
and a new plasma
membrane and cell wall
appear.

Asexual Reproduction in Prokaryotes

Binary fission produces
two (binary) identical
daughter cells from a
parent cell.
The cell enlarges, the
chromosome replicates,
and a new plasma
membrane and cell wall
appear.

In-Class i>clicker Question

Which is the process that describes how
prokaryotic cells divide?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

meiosis
mitosis
binary fission
nuclear fission
cytokinesis

11.1 Mitosis and the Cell Cycle

The cell cycle takes place
in eukaryotic cells.
The cell cycle is a
repeating sequence of
growth, replication of
DNA, and cell division.
Two identical daughter
cells are produced.

11.1 Mitosis and the Cell Cycle

The cell cycle takes place
in eukaryotic cells.
The cell cycle is a
repeating sequence of
growth, replication of
DNA, and cell division.
Two identical daughter
cells are produced.

i>clicker Survey: Agree (A) or Disagree (B)

When a cell divides, two cells are formed.
The lifetime of all cells is about the same.
A single double helix of DNA composes a
chromosome.
Cells can undergo cellular suicide.
DNA must be condensed for mitosis to occur.
All cancers are due to a single mutated gene.

11.1 Mitosis and the Cell Cycle

Cells divide to produce identical daughter cells
for three reasons:
growth
wound repair
asexual reproduction

11.1 Mitosis and the Cell Cycle

The duration of cell
cycle varies between
types of eukaryotic
cells.

Cell Type

Cell-Cycle Times

frog embryo cells

30 minutes

yeast cells

1.5-3 hours

intestinal epithelial
cells

~12 hours

mammalian
fibroblasts in
culture

~20 hours

human liver cells

~1 year

i>clicker Survey: Agree (A) or Disagree (B)

When a cell divides, two cells are formed.
The lifetime of all cells is about the same.
A single double helix of DNA composes a
chromosome.
Cells can undergo cellular suicide.
DNA must be condensed for mitosis to occur.
All cancers are due to a single mutated gene.

11.1 Mitosis and the Cell Cycle

There are four stages of
the cell cycle.
G1 Stage
S Stage
G2 Stage

Interphase

M (Mitotic) Stage

11.1 Mitosis and the Cell Cycle

There are four stages of
the cell cycle.
G1 Stage
S Stage
G2 Stage

Interphase

M (Mitotic) Stage

11.1 Mitosis and the Cell Cycle

Most of the cell cycle is
spent in interphase.
G1 Stage (growth)
S Stage (synthesis)
G2 Stage (growth)

Much happens during

interphase to prepare
the cell for cell division.

11.1 Mitosis and the Cell Cycle

G1 Stage:
The cell recovers from the
last division.
The cell increases in size.
The cell doubles its
organelles.
The cell accumulates
materials that are necessary
for DNA synthesis.
The cell performs its
necessary functions.

11.1 Mitosis and the Cell Cycle

G0 Stage?
Cells that are
permanently arrested are
in the G0 stage.
These cells perform their
functions without
preparing for cell
division.
These cells can resume
the cell cycle in G1.

G0

11.1 Mitosis and the Cell Cycle

S Stage:
Nuclear DNA replication
(synthesis) occurs.
Each chromosome is a
double-helix of DNA.
After DNA replication, each
chromosome duplicates to
form 2 identical doublehelixes of DNA.
Each double helix is called
a chromatid.

11.1 Mitosis and the Cell Cycle

S Stage:
The two, identical
chromatids remain
attached through a
centromere until they
are separated during
mitosis.
They are called sister
chromatids.

11.1 Mitosis and the Cell Cycle

S Stage:
The two, identical
chromatids remain
attached through a
centromere until they
are separated during
mitosis.
They are called sister
chromatids.

11.1 Mitosis and the Cell Cycle

S Stage:
Sister chromatids
compose a duplicated
chromosome.

In-Class i>clicker Question

How many double helices of DNA compose a
chromatid?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

0
1
2
3
4

In-Class i>clicker Question

How many chromatids does a duplicated
chromosome contain?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

0
1
2
3
4

In-Class i>clicker Question

How many double helices does a duplicated
chromosome contain?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

0
1
2
3
4

In-Class i>clicker Question

How many chromatids compose the
chromosomes of cells in G0?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

0
1
2
3
4

In-Class i>clicker Question

How many chromatids compose the
chromosomes of cells in G0?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

0
1
2
3
4

i>clicker Survey: Agree (A) or Disagree (B)

When a cell divides, two cells are formed.
The lifetime of all cells is about the same.
A single double helix of DNA composes a
chromosome.
Cells can undergo cellular suicide.
DNA must be condensed for mitosis to occur.
All cancers are due to a single mutated gene.

11.1 Mitosis and the Cell Cycle

G2 Stage:
The cell prepares for cell
division.
The cell monitors the
internal and external
environments to
determine if they are
suitable for division.

G0

11.1 Mitosis and the Cell Cycle

Most of the cell cycle is
spent in interphase.
G1 Stage (growth)
S Stage (synthesis)
G2 Stage (growth)

Much happens during

interphase to prepare
the cell for cell division.

G0

11.1 Mitosis and the Cell Cycle

M Phase:
mitosis (nuclear
division)
cytokinesis (cytoplasmic
division)

When M Phase is
complete, two daughter
cells are present.

G0

11.3 Control of the Cell Cycle

The cell cycle is a tightlycontrolled process.
Proteins called cyclins assist
with the progression of the
cell cycle.
The concentration of
cyclins increases and
decreases during the cell
cycle.

11.3 Control of the Cell Cycle

The cell cycle is a
tightly-controlled
process.
Cells must pass
checkpoints to proceed
through the cell cycle.

G0

11.3 Control of the Cell Cycle

G1 checkpoint:
Is the cell big enough?
Are nutrients available?
Is environment
favorable?
Is DNA intact?

G0

11.3 Control of the Cell Cycle

G2 checkpoint:
Is environment
favorable?
Is all DNA replicated?
Is DNA intact?

G0

11.3 Control of the Cell Cycle

M checkpoint:
Are chromosomes ready
for mitosis?

G0

11.3 Control of the Cell Cycle

The cell cycle is a
tightly-controlled
process.
Cells must pass
checkpoints to proceed
through the cell cycle.

G0

In-Class i>clicker Question

What happens first if a cell cannot proceed
through a checkpoint?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

The cell is arrested indefinitely.

The cell tries to fix the problem.
The cell becomes cancerous.
The cell undergoes cellular suicide.
The cellular contents are packaged and
distributed to the surrounding tissue.

11.3 Control of the Cell Cycle

What happens if the cell
does not pass the
checkpoints?
The cell tries to fix the
problem.

G0

11.3 Control of the Cell Cycle

If the DNA is not intact, a
protein called p53
attempts to initiate the
repair of the DNA.
This halts the cell cycle.
If the DNA cannot be
repaired, the cell then
undergoes apoptosis.

G0

11.4 Cancer: Out-of-Control Cell Division

Tumor-suppressor genes
inhibit the cell cycle.
Mutations in tumorsuppressor genes cause
unregulated cell division.
This is like brake failure
in a car.

11.4 Cancer: Out-of-Control Cell Division

p53 is an important
tumor-suppressor
protein.
50% of tumors have a
mutated or deleted gene
for p53.

11.4 Cancer: Out-of-Control Cell Division

BRCA1 and BRCA2
tumor-suppressor genes
involved in the repair of
double-stranded DNA
breaks
Mutations in BRCA1 or
BRCA2 lead to highly
penetrant breast and
ovarian cancer
phenotypes.

11.3 Control of the Cell Cycle

If the DNA is not intact, a
protein called p53
attempts to initiate the
repair of the DNA.
This halts the cell cycle.
If the DNA cannot be
repaired, the cell then
undergoes apoptosis.

G0

11.3 Control of the Cell Cycle

Apoptosis is programmed cell death.

necrotic cell

apoptotic cell

11.3 Control of the Cell Cycle

Apoptosis is a controlled
means of cell death.
The cellular material is
easily recycled after
apoptosis.
Apoptosis occurs
frequently during
development.

11.3 Control of the Cell Cycle

Apoptosis is a controlled
means of cell death.
The cellular material is
easily recycled after
apoptosis.
Apoptosis occurs
frequently during
development.

i>clicker Survey: Agree (A) or Disagree (B)

When a cell divides, two cells are formed.
The lifetime of all cells is about the same.
A single double helix of DNA composes a
chromosome.
Cells can undergo cellular suicide.
DNA must be condensed for mitosis to occur.
All cancers are due to a single mutated gene.

11.3 Control of the Cell Cycle

Caspases are the
enzymes that mediate
apoptosis.
Caspases are always
present but inhibitors
exist to prevent
apoptosis until it is
necessary.

11.3 Control of the Cell Cycle

So, if cells fail at any
cell cycle checkpoint,
they undergo apoptosis.

G0

11.3 Control of the Cell Cycle

The cell cycle and
apoptosis serve to
maintain homeostasis in
multi-cellular organisms.

G0

In-Class Discussion Questions

Why would certain cells in your body need to
replicate more often than others?
What happens during interphase?
Why would the cell cycle be a tightly-controlled
process?
When is apoptosis necessary?

11.2 How Does Mitosis Take Place?

Mitosis is nuclear division.
Cytokinesis is cytoplasmic
division.
Both are included in M stage.
http://video.google.com/vide
oplay?
docid=404528585484448016
9#

G0

11.2 How Does Mitosis Take Place?

Mitosis is nuclear
division.
Cytokinesis is
cytoplasmic division.
Both are included in M
phase.
http://video.google.com
/videoplay?docid=404528
5854844480169#

11.2 How Does Mitosis Take Place?

The cell needs to accurately separate and distribute (segregate)
the chromosomes during mitosis.
The daughter cells must each receive an identical copy of the
nuclear DNA from the parent cell.

11.2 How Does Mitosis Take Place?

The cell needs to accurately separate and distribute (segregate)
the chromosomes during mitosis.
The daughter cells must each receive an identical copy of the
nuclear DNA from the parent cell.

11.2 How Does Mitosis Take Place?

The cell assembles
cytoskeletal
components, called the
spindle apparatus, that
split the chromosomes
and cytoplasm.
Once the M stage is
complete, the spindle
apparatus disassembles.

http://vimeo.com/15357
750

http://www.youtube.co
m/watch?v=m73i1Zk8EA0
&feature=related

11.2 How Does Mitosis Take Place?

The spindle apparatus is
made up of centrosomes,
microtubules, and protein
motors.

The mitotic spindle is made

up of centrosomes,
microtubules, and protein
motors.

The centrosome is the

microtubule-organizing center
(MTOC) of the cell.

The centrosome is the

microtubule-organizin

The centrosome is duplicated

during the preparation for
mitosis.

The centrosomes move to

opposite poles of the cell.

11.2 How Does Mitosis Take Place?

During nuclear division, the
two sister chromatids separate
at the centromere.
The kinetochores are the site
of microtubule attachment for
chromosome separation.
The spindle apparatus then
separates the sister
chromatids and the
cytoplasm.

In-Class i>clicker Question

The microtubules of the spindle apparatus
attach to the centrosomes of chromosomes.
A. TRUE
B. FALSE

11.2 How Does Mitosis Take Place?

Chromatin is composed
of DNA, protein
(histones), and some
RNA.
Chromatin appears as a
tangled mass of threads
when the cell is NOT
dividing.

11.2 How Does Mitosis Take Place?

Chromatin is composed
of DNA, protein
(histones), and some
RNA.
When the chromatin
condenses, the double
helix of DNA wraps
around histones.

11.2 How Does Mitosis Take Place?

Chromatin is composed
of DNA, protein
(histones), and some
RNA.
When the chromatin
condenses, the double
helix of DNA wraps
around histones.

11.2 How Does Mitosis Take Place?

Condensed chromatin is easily visible.

11.2 How Does Mitosis Take Place?

Condensed chromatin is easily visible.

i>clicker Survey: Agree (A) or Disagree (B)

When a cell divides, two cells are formed.
The lifetime of all cells is about the same.
A single double helix of DNA composes a
chromosome.
Cells can undergo cellular suicide.
DNA must be condensed for mitosis to occur.
All cancers are due to a single mutated gene.

11.2 How Does Mitosis Take Place?

The 5 phases of mitosis are
Prophase
Prometaphase
(Late Prophase)
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase

11.2 How Does Mitosis Take Place?

Prophase
Chromatin condenses.
Chromosomes are easily
visible.
Nucleolus disappears.
Nuclear envelope
fragments.

Prophase
Centrosomes move away
from each other.
The spindle apparatus
begins to assemble.

11.2 How Does Mitosis Take Place?

Prometaphase (Late
Prophase)
Kinetochores appear and
attach to fibers of the
spindle apparatus.
The spindle apparatus
fibers pull on the
kinetochores of
chromosomes to begin
their alignment.

11.2 How Does Mitosis Take Place?

Metaphase
The centromeres of the
chromosomes are aligned
on a single plane in the
center of the cell called the
metaphase plate.
The metaphase plate is the
future axis of cell division.
A checkpoint ensures that
all chromosomes are
attached properly.

11.2 How Does Mitosis Take Place?

Metaphase
The centromeres of the
chromosomes are aligned
on a single plane in the
center of the cell called the
metaphase plate.
The metaphase plate is the
future axis of cell division.
A checkpoint ensures that
all chromosomes are
attached properly.

G0

11.2 How Does Mitosis Take Place?

Anaphase
The sister chromatids of
chromosomes separate at the
centromere.
The fibers of the spindle
apparatus attached to the
kinetochores become shorter.
The poles (centrosomes)
move farther apart.
Cytokinesis in animal cells
begins with the formation of
a cleavage furrow.

11.2 How Does Mitosis Take Place?

Telophase
The spindle apparatus
disappears.
New nuclear envelopes
appear around the daughter
chromosomes.
The chromatin de-condenses.
Nucleoli appear in the
daughter cells.
The cleavage furrow in
animal cells becomes a moredefined contractile ring.

11.2 How Does Mitosis Take Place?

The 5 phases of mitosis are
Prophase
Prometaphase
(Late Prophase)
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase

11.2 How Does Mitosis Take Place?

The 5 phases of mitosis are

11.2 How Does Mitosis Take Place?

Cytokinesis (in animal
cells)
During anaphase, a
cleavage furrow forms.
During telophase, the
cleavage furrow becomes a
contractile ring.
The contractile ring
continues to contract
around the parent cell to
form the two daughter
cells.

11.2 How Does Mitosis Take Place?

Cytokinesis (in plant
cells)
The cell wall
surrounding plant cell
does not allow
furrowing.
Instead, a new cell wall
is built in the middle of
the parent cell.

In-Class i>clicker Questions

In which phase of the cell cycle are sister
chromatids pulled apart?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

interphase
prophase
prometaphase
metaphase
anaphase

In-Class Discussion Questions

Why would interphase chromatin
(euchromatin) NOT be condensed?
What is the difference between a centromere
and a centrosome?

http://apps.nccd.cdc.gov/DCPC_INCA/DCPC_INCA.aspx

11.4 Cancer: Out-of-Control Cell Division

Cancer is a cellular growth
disorder that occurs when
the control over cell division
is lost.
There are many causes of
cancer, but most cancers
result from the accumulation
of mutations that permit cells
to escape the normal controls
of cell division.

11.4 Cancer: Out-of-Control Cell Division

Most cancers begin as
benign growths,
growths that are not
cancerous.
Then, additional
mutations occur. The
cells are now malignant
(cancerous and can
spread).

11.4 Cancer: Out-of-Control Cell Division

There are hallmark characteristics of cancer.
lack differentiation/immortal
abnormal nuclei
evade apoptosis
form tumors
undergo metastasis and angiogenesis

11.4 Cancer: Out-of-Control Cell Division

Cancer cells lack
differentiation/are
immortal.
They do not contribute to
the functioning of a
tissue.
They look distinctly
abnormal.
They are immortal.

HeLa cells
Henrietta Lacks ovarian epithelial cancer cells

11.4 Cancer: Out-of-Control Cell Division

Cancer cells have
abnormal nuclei.
Nuclei are enlarged.
Nuclei contain an
abnormal number of
chromosomes.
Portions of
chromosomes can be
deleted or repeated.

squamous cell carcinoma, ovarian cancer

11.4 Cancer: Out-of-Control Cell Division

Cancer cells have
abnormal nuclei.
Nuclei are enlarged.
Nuclei contain an
abnormal number of
chromosomes.
Portions of
chromosomes can be
deleted or repeated.

11.4 Cancer: Out-of-Control Cell Division

Cancer cells evade
apoptosis.
If the DNA is damaged,
apoptosis usually occurs.
Cancer cells do not
undergo programmed
cell death.

11.4 Cancer: Out-of-Control Cell Division

Cancer cells form
tumors.
Normal cells exhibit
contact inhibition they
stop dividing when they
contact other cells.
Cancer cells do not
exhibit contact inhibition
and grow in layers,
forming tumors.

11.4 Cancer: Out-of-Control Cell Division

Cancer cells undergo
metastasis and
angiogenesis.
The additional mutations
impart the ability to form
new tumors distant from
the site of the original
tumor, or the ability to
metastasize.
Invasiveness is the
defining feature of a
malignant tumor.

11.4 Cancer: Out-of-Control Cell Division

Cancer cells undergo
metastasis and
angiogenesis.
The additional mutations
impart the ability to form
the blood vessels
necessary to feed the
growing mass of cells.
This is called
angiogenesis.

11.4 Cancer: Out-of-Control Cell Division

There are hallmark characteristics of cancer.
lack differentiation/immortal
abnormal nuclei
evade apoptosis
form tumors
undergo metastasis and angiogenesis

11.4 Cancer: Out-of-Control Cell Division

There are hallmark characteristics of cancer.
Many therapeutics aim to disrupt at least one of
these hallmarks.
The trouble is often specifically targeting cancer
cells and not normal cells.

11.4 Cancer: Out-of-Control Cell Division

The normal growth and maintenance of tissues
depend upon the balance between signals that
promote and inhibit cell division.
When this balance is upset, cancer can occur.
Cancer usually results when there are mutations in
genes that directly or indirectly affect this balance.

11.4 Cancer: Out-of-Control Cell Division

Cancer is seldom due to a single defect.
The combined damage is enough to break
control over the cell cycle and induce
uncontrolled growth and metastasis.
Each cancer is due to a unique combination of
errors.

In-Class i>clicker Question

One day, there will most likely be a magic
bullet cure for all types of cancer.
A. TRUE
B. FALSE

i>clicker Survey: Agree (A) or Disagree (B)

When a cell divides, two cells are formed.
The lifetime of all cells is about the same.
A single double helix of DNA composes a
chromosome.
Cells can undergo cellular suicide.
DNA must be condensed for mitosis to occur.
All cancers are due to a single mutated gene.

Learning Outcomes
After the study of this chapter and
lecture notes, you should be able to
discuss the need for asexual reproduction,
describe the stages of the cell cycle,
describe the manifestation of cancer, and
discuss the importance of control over the
cell cycle.