Introduction

Gene

A data structure that is

used by every cell in an
organism to determine
individual cells purpose,

Chromosome

structure and function.

A package containing
DNA inside cells.
Different species will
have different number
and sizes of

Genetic Engineering

chromosomes.
The process of
developing an organism
through the deliberate
use of genetic

Genetic Technology

manipulation.
The equipment and
procedures used to
perform any form of

Selective Breeding

genetic engineering.
The process of limiting
the procreation of
organisms to those with
desired traits.

Genetic engineering first began several thousand years ago in the form of
selective breeding. Many things we take for granted today had to develop
through this vehicle of genetic technology. Genetic engineering is quickly
becoming one of the most lucrative business markets in the world. Between
1996 and 2006 the use of genetically modified soybeans maintained a 13%
growth rate (isaaa.org).

Figure 1 Growth rate of GMO Soybean Usage

Advances in agriculture have raised interest and controversy because crops

are becoming easier to grow while patent and labeling laws are sometimes
slow to develop (Organic Seed Growers and Trade Association, et al., v.
Monsanto Company, et al., [2014]). Progresses in this field are so varied that
the general public is not completely aware of what genetic engineering
advances actually exist (Hallman et al., 2003). Confusion over genetic law
and the nature of interaction between modified organisms and naturally
occurring organisms have led to lawsuits focused on patent infringement
(Loc.gov, 2015). The increased use of genetically engineered seeds is

causing conflict with farmers whose non genetically modified crops are
affected. Seeds and pollen carried by wind may grow or pollenate nearby
fields of similar plants.

Geneticists have begun combining animal and plant DNA to provide growth
advantages to crops and immunity to pests. This has been seen as a step too
far by some groups who fear permanent corruption of species of organisms.
The limiting of the gene pool to only specific breeds of crops could lead to
genetic erosion (van de Wouw et al., 2009) (Hammer and Laghetti, 2005).
One of the most common threads in science fiction is genetic manipulation
and even the term genetic engineering was coined by author Jack Williams.
The earliest reference to genetic engineering in science fiction comes from
the 1932 novel Brave New World where children and algae are designed and
grown.
This paper will focus on science fiction novels that are at least 20 years old
and their accuracy in the modern world. Science fiction will be used as a
medium to gauge popular opinion regarding genetics in the time each was
written. The implications of genetic engineering now and how it was
imagined will be explored as an aid to predicting how far it will advance in
the next 50 years.
End Introduction?
History
Maize began as a large type of grass bred by the Mayans so that the stalks
with the largest ears would continue in the next generation (Gibson and
Benson, 2002). Over successive generations Maize developed into the
common form of corn (Beadle, 1980). This modern form of maize (corn) is
now used in 75% of food each year (wzzm13.com, 2015).

Farmers and ranchers have chosen the biggest or healthiest animals and
breed them to produce the next generation with those specific traits.
Everything from milk and meat production to size, color, and fat content was
bred into a variety of livestock (Citation). The Wagyu breed of cattle was
cultivated for a couple hundred years from different breeds to produce the
modern version which is heavily muscled and genetically predisposition to
contain heavy marbling. The Wagyu breed is one of the more popular meat
breeds on the market today (Www3.jmi.or.jp, 2015).

Bovine, Equine, Porcine, Feline, and Canine are the more commonly modified
species and all have modern forms provided by selective breeding. Dogs
bred for herding or hunting functions were pulled from breeds with some of
the qualities that were desired. There are breeds now recognized by the
American Kennel Club that were specifically designed and whose history can
be traced back to their basic breeds.
One breed of dog, the Queensland blue heeler is the result of long term
selective breeding (Citation) (Date). The original breed of dog, the Blue
Smooth Highland Collie was bred with the dingo to provide them with agility
to herd. The dogs would nip at the heels of the animals being herded and
dodge any kicking. Eventually they were bred to bull terriers for tenacity that
the breed provided. Heelers were bred with Dalmatians and black kelpies to
provide them with their signature markings and loyalty (Citation). The
resulting dog breed was intelligent, hardworking, and loyal to their owners.
They are excellent herders and have earned the reputation of being very
versatile and determined dogs (Citation) (Date).
People have used selective breeding for centuries but no one knew what
caused traits to be passed along to successive generations. In 1865 a friar
named Gregor Mendel tracked genetic traits in pea plants and created the
laws of Mendellian Inheritence (Citation). These laws showed how dominate

and recessive genes interact with each other to provide the genetic material
for the following generation (Citation). While later exploration into genetic
inheritance showed how basic Mendels assumptions were, He is considered
the father of genetics. Mendel published his findings in the (Journal Name
Here) in (Year) and future geneticists have been using his work ever since.
Twenty years later in 1885 three scientists discovered the genetic structures
they called chromosomes (Citation). These chromosomes were proven to
contain genetic data that was transferred to offspring by the parents. The
scientists findings corroborated Mendels original assumptions about genetic
inheritance (Citation). The three scientists were able to examine Mendels
work with more attention and helped to better advance the study of
genetics.
In 1900 following the rediscovery of Mendels Laws, geneticist Thomas
Morgan set out to prove Mendels Law of Inheritance. After 9 years Morgan
found a heritable mutation in fruit flies (Drosophila) that could be followed
across generations. This mutation manifested itself as one white eye on male
fruit flies. These flies when crossed with second generation descendants
produced white eyes in males. This was the discovery of sex-linked genetic
inheritance (Citation). The sex-linked discoveries paved the way for Morgan
to discover that all genes were passed on through chromosomes (Citation).
Animal
The first recorded instance of cloning in its most basic form came in 1885
when scientist Hans Driesch discovered that merely shaking a two celled sea
urchin caused cell separation. Each cell then grew into a complete adult
urchin. It wasnt until 1902 that cell division procedures began to be defined.
Hans Spemann, a German embryologist was able to do minute cell division
using a babys hair to separate a single Salamander embryo cell. When
divided before a certain stage each cell would grow into an individual adult,

but after the cells had divided further continued separation was impossible.
The result was predictive growth of salamanders more complicated than the
2 cell urchins first cloned.
Further work was carried out by scientists until 1952 when the first modern
cloning technique was carried out using a nuclear transfer. A tadpoles DNA
was extracted and inserted into a developing egg with the nucleus removed.
The second tadpole grew up as an exact genetic replica of the first. These
experiments laid the foundation for all cloning work done for the next 50
years and the cloning of more complex organisms.

Human
As genetic technology advances and human applications are discovered they
are met with a variety of responses.
Reprogenetics refers to the part of genetics concerned with monitoring and
manipulating the cells and genetic makeup of a human embryo. The practice
of reprogenetics began in 1977 with the successful conception of the first
baby through the use of in vitro fertilization (IVF). The process of IVF involves
providing the woman with drugs that encourage her ovaries to produce eggs.

Figure 2 In Vitro Fertilization

These eggs are collected and mixed either naturally or manually with the
sperm of the man. The fertilized eggs are collected and implanted in the
womans uterus with the result being that the baby grows as naturally as if it
was conceived there. The success of IFV cycles depends largely on the age of
the mother as this affects her ability to produce healthy eggs.
For mothers under 35 years old the success rate is 47.6%
(Sartcorsonline.com, 2015). With each in IVF cycle typically costing $12,000$17,000 (Resolve.org, 2015) parents are encouraged to screen the resulting
embryos for future genetic problems.
Current methods include a procedure called preimplantation genetic
diagnosis (PGD) where fertilized eggs are analyzed to determine if they are
predisposed towards any genetic diseases. Another procedure used is
preimplantation genetic screening (PGS) where a single cell is extracted from
the fertilized eggs. With PGS the number of chromosomes can be verified
and chromosome related issues avoided.
The results of these analyses allow the parents to choose which fertilized
egg(s) to implant and mature (Raz, 2009). The procedures can cost an

average of $3,550 (Resolve.org, 2015) and typically takes about 9 weeks to

complete (Pgd.org.uk, 2015).
As reprogenetics progresses in its capabilities the widespread use of it is
likely to grow. One of the more controversial themes followed by SF is how
reprogenetics would affect culture and those without the advantages of it.
Usually the individuals with genetic modifications provided before birth are
outcasts in society or the elite members (Gattaca, 1997). Children with
genetic modifications would typically come from rich families and that makes
reprogentics a class status symbol (Kress, 1993) (Gattaca, 1997).
Food
Due to the difficulties in growing crops, farmers have been trying to breed
heartier stock for centuries. Crops that could resist disease or insects
obviously could be easier to grow and harvest. Crops were bred specifically
to produce more per individual plant and even to produce larger fruit. Before
the advent of genetic engineering the most farmers could do is rely on the
natural adaptive capabilities of the plant.
In his novel A Brave New World, Huxley (1923) described how algae were
grown as a designer food source. These Genetically modified algae provided
all Earths nutritional needs while being simple to grow and disease free. This
highlights the progress modern geneticists are making towards creating food
now that is cheap to grow and resists most natural hindrances. Such
achievements could provide a boost to economies which would be able to
spend less on food production.
Modern genetic companies like Monsanto regularly produce and patent
genetically modified crop plants. These plants are commonly referred to as
genetically modified organisms (GMO) and have raised many ethical
questions about owning patents on gene sequences. There have been cases
where Monsanto plants have pollinized non GMO plants in nearby fields and

caused lawsuits based on patent infringement. Since the resulting product

contained genetic elements identical to Monsanto patents they were legally
able to sue (Organic Seed Growers and Trade Association, et al., v. Monsanto
Company, et al., [2014]).
95% or more Cattle In the United states eats feed that consists of GM
Corn and Soy, formulated by Monsanto.(Entine 2014). Cattle produce
methane via esoteric fermentation inside their gut, and by current popular
feeding methods, the amount of methane produced increases. Corn and soy
based foods cause cattle to become 20% more gassy than a diet consisting
of Flax and alfalfa. Feeding cattle flax and alfalfa derivative feed reduces the
Greenhouse Gasses emitted by 20%, as well as limiting the use of vitamin
and hormone additives because this change in diet has natural alternatives
in the feed.( http://www.dw.de/farmers-fight-cow-farts-to-protect-theclimate/a-16702813)
8 GM crops in total have been approved globally, 3 of them are soy,
corn, and alfalfa.( http://gmoinside.org). Many of these crops were created by
Monsanto. Livestock is accountable from 10%-51% of all GHG emissions, the
51% value is accepted as a high estimate (Herrero 2011). In the article
Livestock and greenhouse gas emissions: The importance of getting the
numbers right, the author proposes that the scientific community needs to
do a better job at figuring out exactly how much greenhouse gasses are
produced by the livestock industry. Particularly because there is too much
variation when it comes to reporting the actual percentage, some sources
say 10%, while others state 51%.
They go on and question the credibility of the 51% figure because it is
from the article Goodland and Anhang (2009) and their opinion is that it
doesnt show sound scientific methodology and inquiry. These emissions
come from 2 main sources, the fermenting of the feed in stomachs and then
being expelled as methane, as well as manure management. (Herrero 2011,
by 2013, Nardone 2010, Goodland 2009). The scientific community in

relation to climate change research focus so much on carbon emissions from

coal burning, oil, and natural gasses as main contributors to greenhouse
gasses in the atmosphere. But what we dont focus on is Agricultural
practices in the same regard, because it sustains us. The authors believe
that livestock produces half of human caused GHGs. They also introduce
alternatives to meat products and the production of meat products. And
state several times how this problem is greatly overlooked and
underestimated. (Goodland 2009) According to the IPCC report, the cattle
industry alone is accountable for 14% of all GHG emissions, agriculture as a
whole is accountable for 30% of GHG emissions, due to land use change,
livestock, and current popular feeding practices (N Tubiello 2013).
Future Projections
With the modern trends in genetics it seems feasible that genetic patents
may become its own economic influence. The companies or individuals that
possess patents on genetic technology will likely lease the rights or rely on
royalties for their livelihood. The choice of which nation to sell this cheap
and efficient means of food production could cause economic shockwaves.

* = Needs started
+ = In Progress
Introduction +
1. History
a. Heeler +
b. Pea Plants +
c. Fruit Fly +
2. Animal *
a. Urchin+
b. Salamander+
c. Frog *
d. Sheep *
e. Cow *
3. Human
a. Cloning /partial cloning*
b. Gene Therapy *
c. Reprogenetics +*
4. Food
a. Corn/Golden Rice/ Frog Potato & Tomato/ Bacterial Modification/
Medicinal? *
b. Negative effects/ Immune system/ Pollination effects on ecosystem? *
c. Future/ Dinner in 50 years *
5. Future Projections
a. Culture/ Acceptance / scope of application *
b. Space/ GM Humans vs Special Vehicles *
c. Branched Human Development*
6. Conclusion *