Speech and Hearing Science in Ancient India-A Review of Sanskrit Literature

J. COMMUN. DISORD.
21(1988), 271-317
SPEECH AND HEARING SCIENCE IN ANCIENT

INDIA-A REVIEW OF SANSKRIT LITERATUREa
S.R. SAVITHRI
AIISH,
Manasagangothri,
Mysore, India
INTRODUCTION
Speech and hearing is a young profession that began half a century ago,
concerned with the most human characteristic-speech.
The field makes
unique contributions to the understanding and care of the most important
of all the human functions -speech
and hearing. In brief, the field covers
the areas of speech production, transmission, reception, speech and language disorders, their causes and treatment, as well as disorders of hearing
and their causes, symptoms, and treatment.
The field of speech and hearing had its birth and developed in a number
of countries, especially in America. It is only about twenty years old in
India. Hence most of the contributions can be attributed to Westerners,
primarily to Americans. However, Sanskrit literature is rich and goes back
3500 years, and it deals with the areas concerned with speech and hearing.
Using knowledge obtained from Sanskrit literature, great and surprising
achievements have been made in many other fields such as cardiology.
However, the young field of speech and hearing has not yet paid much
attention to the information contained in the Sanskrit literature.
From early times the Indian system of medicine has been known as a
vast storehouse of literature and hereditary knowledge. Centuries ago,
when Indian culture was the center of international attention, Ayurvedab
shone in its full glory and attracted scholars from many parts of the world.
Address correspondence to S. R. Savithri, Ph.D., Department of Speech Science, All

India Institute of Speech and Hearing, Manasagangothri, Mysore-570006, India
This is a revised version of the authors dissertation, entitled Speech and Hearing
Science in ancient India: A Survey of Sanskrit literature, originally submitted to the University of Mysore in 1979 as a partial fulfillment for the postgraduate degree in Speech and
Hearing.
b See, for example, Denyse Rockey and Penelope Johnstone. (1979). Medieval Arabic views
on speech disorders: al-Razi (c. 865-925). J. Commun. Disord. 12:232, 240, which shows
Indian influences on the Persian medical writer al-Razi.
Q 1988 by Elsevier Science Publishing Co., Inc.
52 Vanderbilt Ave., New York, NY 10017
271
OOZI-9924l88lS3.50
272
S. R. SAVITHRI
It was then a great source of medical knowledge. But unfortunately this

source of knowledge was not made good use of and hence was forgotten.
Indians often tend to show the utmost habitual indifference if not hostility to it, though we have with us a great source of medical knowledge.
As contrasted to this spirit, we have on the other hand insistent demands
for medical relief and medical education on Western lines. As a result of
this, the Indian literature in medicine has not been paid much attention.
India is a vast country. Medical help given is costly. People cannot
afford the medical treatment available in many hospitals. Most of them
depend on inexpensive medical knowledge, often derogatively called native medicines, possessed by a few among them.
So there is a greater need for specialists and drugs that are efficient,
safe, readily available, cheap, and easy to administer.
The development of Ayurveda in India is beset with many serious difficulties. Though we have a few recognized practitioners whose cures
seem almost miraculous, we cannot claim that they have made any study
concerned with those medicines.
Until recently, all instruction in Ayurveda was left to private agencies.
The universities and authorities directing research showed little faith in
the possibilities of any improvement in human knowledge from this
source. A feeling also prevailed that there was nothing very scientific in
these systems and that they were all based on quackery. The Ayurvedic
doctors were often called barefoot doctors, a term which in recent
times is shedding its derogatory connotation. In general, the trend begins
to look more promising, with more and more attention now being paid to
the Indian system of medicine.
Under the influence of ideas borrowed from the system of Ayurveda,
marvelous achievements have been made in the field of modern medical
science, and the system has now begun to throb with new life. It has
earned the admiration of many distinguished practitioners
of other
systems.
Thanks to the interest in Ayurveda shown by Westerners, we have now
begun to pay more attention to it in India. Dr. Charles (1936) confessed
that what you Hindus had in a perfect state two thousand years ago, I
am going to teach you in an imperfect state. Professor Weber says, In
surgery too, the Indians seem to have attained a special proficiency, and
in this department, European surgeons might, perhaps, even at the present
day still learn something from them, as indeed they have already borrowed
from them the operation of rhinoplasty. Hypnotism or suggestive therapeutics has also been employed in India from early times, as is corroborated by many Western savants. Dr. Emile Cove and Dr. J. Lewis say
The Ayurvedic compendium, Cur&z-Samhita, was one of the sources of Arabic medicine (particularly in the area of pharmacopoeia), which was in turn the basis of medieval
Western medicine. Cf. Johnstone and Rockey (1979).
SPEECH AND HEARING
SCIENCE IN ANCIENT
INDIA
273
Ages ago Hindus employed hypnotism. From India it spread to Chaldea,

Mesapotamia, Syria and Egypt.d
Thanks to the strong emphasis placed upon it by Shri Rajnarain, the
Honorable Union Minister for Health and Family Welfare, Dr. Karan
Singh, the former Union Minister for Health and Family Planning, and
Shri H. N. Channasbasappa, former Minister for Health and Family Planning of Kamataka, the system of Ayurveda has gained momentum and
importance in the present society of India.
Ayurvedic colleges and schools have been started under direct or indirect government protection as in Mysore, Patna, Hardwar, and Madras.
A large number of charitable dispensaries and a few indoor hospitals have
also been started, not only in the great cities of India but also in many
of the small towns. The Banaras Hindu University has a fully equipped
Ayurvedic College with an excellent Ayurvedic garden and a hospital
giving efficient surgical and medical aid. In Bengal, there are three
Ayurvedic institutions. A Central Council of Indian Medicine has been
started in Delhi and an Ayurvedic research institute has been started in
the National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences.
Suffice it to
say, the status given to Indian medicine at the national level is high.
In recent times, we can see allopathic doctors using drugs borrowed
from Indian medicine. Recently, the Government of Karnataka has decided to open many dispensaries providing both allopathic and Indian
systems of medicine.
It is in this context of a renewed interest in Ayurvedic and Sanskrit
literature, along with a lack of coordinated information, that the present
study has been planned. It is necessary to carry out research in order to
explore the possibilities of the Sanskrit literature with a view of making
them self-sufficient and efficient. The knowledge contained in the ancient
books should therefore be reexamined in the light of modem science and
research.
Any research work could be done in the following stages: (1) survey
and review of the material, (2) experimental verification, and (3) clinical
application.
The first and the foremost step in this as in any study is to survey and
compile available information. This permits understanding of rationale
and necessary modifications of present thinking.
Purpose ofthe Present Study. The purpose of this article is to compile
the available information in the Sanskrit literature with respect to the field
of speech and hearing.
d A report of the All-India Ayurvedic Conference and Exhibition held at Mysore during
December, 1936.
Deccan Herald (a daily newspaper), 13th April, 1978 p. 1.
S. R. SAVITHRI
274
Areas under Study. The study is mainly concerned with three broad
areas, namely, diseases in general, speech pathology, and audiology.
Under speech pathology the following are studied: Definitions of normal
and abnormal speech, production of voice, perception of speech, phonetics, intonation and rhythm, speech disorders and their causes, and
treatment of speech disorders.
Under audiology the following are dealt with: Diseases of the ear, their
causes and symptoms, and treatment of ear diseases.
The first section is an introductory part, the second section deals with
the method, and the third section deals with diseases in general and the
place of speech and language disorders. The fourth and fifth sections deal
with speech and hearing disorders and their treatment, and the final section is a summary with recommendations.
The present study has many advantages. First of all, it is hoped that it
will give us a picture of the information available in the Sanskrit literature.
It may make people aware of the information available in the field of
speech and hearing, which may be beneficial to them.
Because the field of Speech and Hearing is very young and because
not much has yet been achieved, any extra information that could possibly
be revealed by this survey should lead to its development. Under the
inspiration of ideas borrowed from the Sanskrit literature, good achievements have been made in the areas of modem medical science. Hence
we can assume that the ideas borrowed by the field of Speech and Hearing
may also help in the development of the field.
Such a study may be helpful in comparing two literatures of different
languages, whether in the same country or in two different countries.
Further, one may also hope that it can stimulate clinical trials and applications to research that may be appropriate to our country.
The present study was limited to books from a few libraries.
Since the time available for the study was very short (6 months), many
books were not referred to. The books available in the following Libraries
were the only ones used: the Oriental Research Institutes Library, the
Maharajas Sanskrit College Library, and the Government College of Indian Medicines Library, all in Mysore, Kamataka, India.
MATERIALS
ANTI METHOD
The materials used in this study are taken purely from Sanskrit books
written between 1500 BC and 1904 AD. On only one occasion was the
original Sanskrit book not available, and hence in that case an English
translation was used. The materials were selected as follows: (1) The
diseases and the treatment are dealt with in the same way as in the medical
books that were used as sources for the materials. (2) The subject of voice
is exclusively dealt with in books concerned with music. Hence these
SPEECH AND HEARING SCIENCE IN ANCIENT INDIA
275
books were also referred to. (3) Books concerned with logic also formed
part of the source since they cover the definitions of speech and language
and the propagation of sound. (4) Books on grammar deal with phonetics
and the rules of pronounciation, so these were aso used. (5) In addition,
since the vedas, upanisats, samhitas, and puranas are supposed to be the
oldest available Indian literature, these were also consulted.
Some of the books may not be mentioned in the body of the paper,
since the materials taken from several books were the same. The selection
of speech and hearing subjects in the books mentioned above was carried
out as follows:
In some books, an index was available. Most of the books concerned
with medicine include a separate chapter concerned with the diseases of
the ear, their etiology, symptomatology, and treatment. So, selecting the
subject concerned with hearing was done mainly from these chapters. But
the same was not true for speech pathology. It is nowhere dealt with as
an independent chapter. Voice disorders are mentioned separately in
some books. For the other areas under speech pathology, the chapters
dealing with neurological disorders and their treatment were mainly referred to, because speech disorders and their treatments were mentioned
in them.
When no index was available, the books were scanned from beginning
to end and anything concerned with speech and hearing was collected.
Translation from Sanskrit to English was done as follows: (1) Whenever
a Sanskrit-English
translation was available, it was used. Sometimes it
was modified when the present investigator felt that the original translations were not clear. (2) When translations were not available, they have
been done by the investigator. (3) Whenever extra difficulties were encountered, professional help was sought. (4) When suitable translations
were not obtained by the abovementioned
methods, the following were
used as guides: (i) Sanskrit-English
Dictionary by Monier Williams; (ii)
Indian Materia Medica by A. K. Nadkami. (5) When equivalent terms
were not found in English, the Sanskrit terms were retained. For the
transliteration, the system used by Julius Jolly was used, since it is the
one most commonly used (Appendix A).
Those Sanskrit verses that could not be understood by any of the above
five methods were left untouched. For some words that have two or three
meanings, the appropriate meaning was obtained by consulting a professional person. For some words like v%ta, pitta, etc., where direct translations like wind, bile, etc., were found useless, interpretations of these
were obtained from modem books.
In some verses, when the meaning of a particular word could not be
properly understood, that word was left untranslated. But when the same
situation was met with in the verses that deal with the treatment and hence
mention names of medicinal herbs, the whole verse was not translated,
as it would have severely hindered the meaning.
S. R. SAVITHRI
276
Areas such as piercing the ear and surgery concerned with the mistakes
done in piercing were not included in the present review.
DISEASES IN GENERAL
Health is defined by Caraka as a state in which the function-structure
relationship is in a state of equilibrium.
SuSruta defines health as follows: He is known as healthy in whom
the threefold functions of the body are in a state of equilibrium and the
basic and supporting tissues are in a proper state of integrity, whose soul,
sense organs and the mind are clear and bright.2 These definitions of
health lay emphasis on the physical, mental, and spiritual constituents of
an individual. In contrast disease is defined as follows: Disease is the
imbalance of the function-structure
relationship.
Caraka says that
health is characterized by a sense of ease and pleasure and disease is
characterized by a sense of pain.3
All diseases are classified under the following seven categories, according to Susruta:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Adibalapravata (hereditary);
Janmabalapravcta
(congenital);
Dosabalapravltta (chemical);
Sanghatabalapravltta
(traumatic);
K%labalapra@ta (seasonal);
Daivabalapraltta (parasitic);
Svabhivabalapravltta
(natural).4
~dibalupruv@z.
The origin of diseases included under this heading is
attributed to defects inherent in either the male or the female reproductive
elements that form the primary factor of the embryo, for example: leprosy,
hemorrhoids, etc.5
Junmabulupruv~tu.
comprise congenital
of the mother during
such as congenital
dwarfism, etc. This
The kind of diseases included under this category

diseases. They are attributed to errors in the conduct
the period of pregnancy. It includes various diseases
blindness, deafness, nasal voice, speechlessness,
may be of two types:
1. Due to chemical imbalance in the mother; and

2. Due to ungratified cravings of the mother during the period
pregnancy.6
of
Do~ubulupruvgtu.
These include the disease that are due to the disturbed action of the three dosfis-vata,
pitta, and kapha. These are disturbed owing to errors in diet. They are of two types:
1. Amacaya (part of tthe stomach where food is not yet digested). This
is of two types: (a) physical, and (b) psychological
SPEECH AND HEARING
2.
SCIENCE IN ANCIENT
INDIA
277
Pakkacaya (part of the stomach where food is converted into constituent elements of the body like blood, flesh, etc). This is also of
two types: (a) physical (b) psychological.
Under this category

tioned. Under this are
ever, it is found that
elsewhere, e.g., under
a subcategory called neurological disorder is menincluded both speech and hearing disorders. Howspeech and hearing disorders are also mentioned
congenital diseases.
Sa~ghtitabalupr~vflta.
Diseases belonging to this category include
those caused by trauma such as external and internal injuries, due to blows
or inflicted by sharp instruments, or due to overstrain by wrestling with
opponent of superior strength. These are of two types:
1. Diseases caused by external injuries;
2. Diseases caused by the bite of a wild animal or poisonous
reptile.6
Kdabalapravflta.
These include diseases that are caused by meteorological changes such as variations in the atmospheric temperature, humidity, dryness, rain, wind, and changes in seasons. These again are of
two types:
1. Disorders arising out of the usual adaptive reactions of the .body;

2. Disorders consequent to the inability of the body to adapt itself to
sudden seasonal variations.
Daivabaluprav~ta.
These include disorders caused by forces beyond
human control. They are considered to be caused by providential dispensation or acts of God. According to the ancient way of thinking, some
of the diseases included under this category are considered to be due to
divine wrath or displeasures or to mystic powers of charms and spells
mentioned in Atharvaveda. These are of two types: (1) diseases due to
events such as when one is struck by lightning; (2) diseases due to the
influence of invisible malignant forces of nature. These again have been
classified under two subheads: (a) diseases that assumes the form of epidemic, and (b) diseases that are accidental or confined to isolated incidence. This may be sporadic or endemic.
Svabh~vabalupruv~ta.
This includes the diseases that arise out of natural or organic and functional changes in the body and mind such as may
be due to senility, death, hunger, thirst, sleep, etc. brought about in persons who have strictly followed the prescribed rules of health. It is of
two types: (1) Kalaja-This
includes diseases that occur in the normal
course of events due to effects of time. (2) AkSlaja-This
includes the
occurrence of changes in the body and mind prematurely. It covers largely
due to the leading of unhealthy modes of life.
278
S.
R. SAVITHRI
According to the system of Indian medicine, there are three DOS&Sin

the body: Vata, pitta, and kapha. In a healthy person these three humors
will be in a state of equilibrium.
According to Caraka, the main function attributed to vata are enthusiasm, inspiration, expiration, voluntary actions like talking and walking,
proper functioning of excretary organs, and proper circulation in the
body.i2 It maintains the cohesive unity of the body as a whole. It brings
about speech. It is the basis of sound and touch.
Since many of the physical and mental phenomena are ascribed by modem physiologists
primarily to activities of the nervous system, the actions of central, vegetative, peripheral,
and autonomous systems can be identified with the concept of v&a. Hence the term vata
includes all the phenomenon that come under the functions of the nervous system.
Pitta is thought to be responsible for the following actions: vision,

digestion, heat, production, hunger, thirst, softness and suppleness of the
body, luster, cheerfulness, and intelligence.13
In modem medical science most of these actions are the acttivities of the thermogenetic
and nutritional systems. So the term pitta may probably refer to the actions of thermogenetic and nutritional systems.
The actions of Kapha are smooth working of the joints, general stability
of the body, build, strength, courage, and greedlessness.14
Hence it not only includes mental phenomena such as courage and understanding, but also
bodily phenomena such as production of bodily strength and maintenance of smooth working
of joints. These are included under the activities of the skeletal and anabolic systems. So
the word kapha includes or refers to the activities of skeletal and anabolic systems.
These three-vata,
pitta, and kapha-are
designated as dosas because
of the capacity to vitiate others or of themselves vitiated by other factors.
They are also known as dhatu, which means an essential element, a constituent, a humor, or a supporter.
These three do@ are found everywhere in the body. There are however, certain areas in the body that are stated to be their special seats.
The seat of vata is the umbelicus, that of pitta is between the umbelicus
and the heart, and that of kapha is above the heart.
Whatever may be the nature of exciting factors of the disease, the actual
intrinsic factors that become excited are the three do@. Hence, a state
of disease arises when the action of any of these three is disturbed.
SPEECH PATHOLOGY
Communication is mainly with the help of speech. Hence the action of
the whole universe is solely based on sounds.
Speech Normal and Abnormal: A Definition

Speech to be properly so called should be subtle, discriminative
orderly. It should lead to a decision and indicate a purpose.16
and
SPEECH AND HEARING
SCIENCE IN ANCIENT
INDIA
Normal speech is defined as that which is not insufficient and redundant, not meaningless, not incoherent, not inconsistent and which contains sufficiently expressive and suitable words and is unobjectionable.
More emphasis is laid on meaning in another definition: A good speech
is that which has sense and which is unequivocal, fair, pleonastic, smooth,
determinative, not bombastic, agreeable, truthful, not harmful, refined,
not too brief, not hard to understand, not unsystematic, not far-fetched,
not superfluous, not inopportune and not devoid of an object.*
In addition to these qualities, if its words are neither inadequate nor
redundant then it is said to be excellent speech.
With further emphasis on communication clear speech is defined as
that in which there is agreement between it on the one hand and the
speaker and the listener on the other. A speech, though clear to the
speaker himself, if uttered without any regard for the listener produces
no impressions in the latter.
The description of a speaker he alone is a speaker who employs words
which, while expressing his own meaning, are also understood by his
1istenerl also conveys the same awareness of the importance of speech
being appropriate to the listener.
It can also be noted that speech, if it is to be free from faults of
judgment, should not be prompted by lust, wrath, fear, greediness, crookedness, shamefulness or conceit.
Speech has been categorized into three grades; Normal, good and excellent. Table 1 indicates
the characteristics that go to form normal, good, and excellent speech. The plus and minus
signs in the table indicate, respectively, the presence or absence of that characteristic.
To summarize, normal speech is not redundant but adequate, and it

has meaning. It is efficient, intelligible, acceptable, and informative. In
addition to these, moral values and appropriateness to the situation are
stressed in good speech. In excellent speech aesthetic value is given more
importance.
It will be noticed that a great deal of stress is placed on the aesthetic
Table 1.
Characteristics of Normal, Good, and Excellent Speech
Characteristics
Meaning
Amount of information
Efftciency
Intelligibility
Acceptability
Nonredundancy
Moral values
Appropriateness for situation
Aesthetic values
Normal
sneech
Good
soeech
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
-
Excellent
soeech
280
S. R. SAVITHRI
and moral values of speech. These definitions also consider the speaker,
the listener, the message, and the situation but not articulation and voice.
But it is not as if the ancient writers were unaware of the speech process.
It can be noted that Rama compliments Hanumanthas speech in terms
of articulation, gestures, and facial expression, in addition to choice of
words, grammar, and scholarship. 23 Description of defective speech also
indicates this awareness. Further, the ancient writers have described articulatory phonetics in detail.
Defective Speech.
Speech is said to be defective where there is insufficiency, redundancy or want of meaning or misjoinder in utterances.24
Redundancy is repetition of matter that is even relevant. It may be of two
kinds: Repetition of meaning and repetition of words.25 Repetition of
meaning is where one insists on different words expressive of the same
meaning and repetition of words is a repeated use of the same word.26
Unmeaningfulness
is where speech affords no sense but consists of a
group of letters.27 NZlg&juna defines defective speech in a similar
way.2m
Incoherence is a combination of words each of which has a meaning,
but the meanings are not connected with each other. For example, curdsfamily-Diamond-sun etc.28
It is said that shyness, fear, extreme loudness, indistinctness, undue
nasalization, repressed tone, undue cerebralization, nonobservance to the
places of articulation, improper accent, harshness, creating undue separation between words, uneven tone, haste, and palatalization are the 14
faults in a reader.2p
The words indistinct, undue nasalization, undue cerebralization,
nonobservance
of places of articulation, and palatalization refer to the articulation component of speech
and hence any defect in articulation is considered a speech disorder. The terms extreme
loudness, repressed tone, and harsh tone refer to voice disorder.
The definition also gives importance to the emotional aspect of a person,

which indicates that any emotional disturbance during speech should qualify it as defective. Intonation and rhythm are also emphasized by the use
of the words improper accent, uneven tone, and undue separation
between words.
This can be compared with the definition of defective speech given by
Van Riper: Speech is defective when it deviates so far from the speech
of other people that it calls attention to itself, interferes with communication, or causes its possessor to be maladjusted (Van Riper, 1971). This
definition refers to conspicuousness of speech, intelligibility, maladjustment, and emotional handicap.
Normal Voice. According to Caraka those voices are designated as
normal or natural which resemble the voice of swans, cranes, sparrows,
crows, pigeons and dundhubhis (a sound-making instrument).30 All the
281
other voices that are seen to be appropriate to the ancestral lines of persons, however much they may differ from normal, should be regarded as
normal voices.31 In summary, the pitches of persons that resemble the
pitches of these birds and instruments are considered to be normal. It is
also clearly said that if a particular group of people have been using a
particular voice, it should be considered normal, thus giving importance
to social values and group norms. As far as this definition goes, society
is apparently the best judge of the normalcy of voice.
In contrast, the following voices when observed in patients are regarded
as abnormal: 1) that which resembles the voice of a parrot, 2) that which
is very low, 3) that which is totally choked in its utterance, 4) that which
is indistinct, 5) that which is half-uttered, 6) that which is weak, 7) that
which is uttered with pain, and 8) that which is the result of repeated
efforts.32
Any deviation in pitch, clarity, or loudness, is a voice disorder. Ease of utterance is also
regarded as one of the factors in normal voicing. Organic conditions are considered as well.
The sudden appearance in the voice of modifications from normal to

abnormal or the combination of many pitches into one [monotonous?] or
the division of one voice into many [diplophonia?] is regarded as an unfavorable symptom.33
Different types of speech have been described as follows:
Speech of Children: Childrens speech will have lisping [aspsfavarnasamyukta] which leaves syllables unfinished.34
Speech in sleep: Speech in sleep proceeds with a heavy voice. Words
sometimes will be distinct and sometimes indistinct. Sometimes the same
meaning will be repeated twice. This speaking depends on the recollection
of the past.35
Speech of old people: They will have a faltering voice with
misarticulations.36
Speech of a person dying: Syllables produced will be relaxed and
heavy. The faltering voice resembles the sound of small bells and it will
be accompanied
by misarticulation,
hiccup, hard breathing,
and
repetition.37
These are from the Nattya SBstra of Bharata, where it is said that actors impersonating a
child, an old person, a person sleeping, and a person dying should speak as described. The
author has either observed the speech of different people and has suggested how the actor
can imply these in a naturalistic way or these may be stylized speech patterns and may have
been recommended as the accepted forms of representation, However, some of the descriptions, such as the speech of a person near death are also given by some medical
authors like Caraka and Vagbhata.
Production of Voice
The production
philosophy:
of voice is described
as follows according
to Indian
S. R. SAVITHRI
282
The soul inspires the mind, which being set into action, activates the
fire in the body. This fire stimulates the wind.38 The stimulated wind in
the brahmagranthi travels upward [There are three granthis (glands), situated in the regions of the stomach (diaphragm?), chest, and head, among
which the brahmagranthi is the one situated in the region of stomach
(diaphragm?)]. This air while traveling upwards generates n&da (an allpervading eternal sound) at the levels of the stomach, heart, throat, head,
and tongue (mouth).39
The nada produced at these different levels are named differently. That
generated at the level of the stomach is designated as atisiik$ma (fine)
and that generated at the level of heart is called stiksma (minute). At the
level of the throat it is known as apqfa (soft). Pqta (loud) is the name
given to it at the level of the head and k$rima (artificial) at the level of
the tongue.&
The words atisOkSma and siik$ma convey that the n&la at the levels of stomach (diaphragm?) and heart is so minute that it is inaudible under normal conditions, whereas that
generated at the level of the tongue is perfect, loud, and rich.
It is said that the whole universe is filled with n&da. Hence ntida may
be thought of as a sound that is not audible, or it may be an all-pervading,
preexisting condition of sound that may not be audible.
Speech Perception. In general, the process of perceiving any sensory

object is as follows:
There are five senses, viz., vision, hearing, scent, touch, and taste, and
five materials that constitute these senses, viz., space, wind, life, water,
and earth. There are five seats of these senses, viz., eyes, ears, nose,
tongue, and skin, respectively. The five objects of these senses are form,
sound, scent, touch and taste.41
The sensory object reaches the sensory nerve through its apparatus.
From the sensory nerve, it reaches the memory or the storage and from
there it goes to the mind and ~0~1.~~
Perception springs from the union of the sensory object, the mind, and
the soul. It is of two types, transitory and durable.43
All the senses are incapable of acting at one and the same time. The
senses become capable of seizing their respective objects only when they
are led by the mind. * This is summarized in Figure 1.
(artha)
(indriya)
(indriya
adhistana)
..
(mana)
Figure 1. Process of perception.
(Htma)
SPEECH
AND HEARING
SCIENCE
IN ANCIENT
INDIA
283
Applying this to speech perception: The Sensory object (sound) reaches the sensory nerve
(auditory nerve) through the sensory apparatus (the ear). From the sensory nerve it reaches
the storage or memory and from there it goes to the mind and soul, after which sound is
perceived.
Sound is said to be perceived when the sound (speech), the mind, and
the soul unite. This is summarized in Figure 2.
Sound is defined as a quality perceived by the ear.45 Nyaya-vaiSeSika
theories distinguish three vaieties of sound in view of the three kinds of
causes that may produce them. These are (1) sound caused by contact
(samyogaja), (2) sound caused by disjunction (vibhagaja), and (3) sound
caused by another sound (Sabdaja).&
The first variety arises when a drum is beaten by a stick. The second
variety arises when a bamboo is split. The third variety is to be found in
the series of sounds successively arising in the space (CikaSa) intervening
between a drum, for instance, and the sense of hearing. In Indian philosophy, a considerable measure of speculative value is attached to the
Nyaya theory of Sabdaja Sabda or series of successive and exactly similar
sounds arising in a continuous chain, beginning with the first sound,
caused in the portion of space determined by the substance that is struck,
such as a drum, and ending with the last sound, caused in the portion of
space representing the sense of hearing, which is actually heard.47
The naiyayikas explain the way in which the sound series is produced
by means of two illustrations: (1) illustration of a little wave and a big
wave (Vicitaranga nyaya), and (2) illustration of the flowering of a kadamba filament (Kadamba mukula nyaya).
These two illustrations suggest two ways of explaining how a sound is
heard on all sides and in all the ten directions, including the intermediate
points and up and down, A little circular wave springs up: around it a
bigger wave arises; around it a still bigger wave, and so on. In this way,
a circular wave of sound is caused around it, a bigger sound wave and
so on, until at least a certain sound wave is produced in such a way that
it reaches the sense of hearing, which may be ready to perceive the sound.
In this explanation there is only one series consisting of several circular
sound waves each moving outward in all the ten directions. The second
explanation is illustrated by the kadamba flower, in which one filament
first shoots up, thus causing several filaments to shoot up simultaneously
in all the parts of the flower. In the same way the first sound produced
(vlk)
(karlfa)
indriyI
dhiafana
(mana)
(Htma)
Figure 2. Process of speech perception.
S. R. SAVITHRI
284
at some point causes ten sound waves to spring up simultaneously, and

these cause ten more waves to spring up in all the ten directions, and so
on, and thus the sound in question comes to be heard on all sides.48
The anatomy of the ear is briefly described by Varier in his Astanga
&riram (1904 AD). However, only a few words, like cochlea, external
ear, and auditory nerve find place in other ancient Sanskrit texts. It is
possible that Variers work indicates the growth of Sanskrit literature as
influenced by Western thoughts.
Phonetics, Intonation and Rhythm. This section covers the articulatory
description of speech sounds, kinds of intonation and their descriptions,
and use of pauses. It also discusses primary and secondary effort involved
in speech.
In the Taittiriya upanisat, in the chapter on phonetics, it is said that
Siksa (phonetics) includes the study of varna (phoneme), svara (voicing),
matra (duration), balaxir (Intensity), sama (Intonation),
and santana
(conjunction).49
Varna are those such as a, a, . . . etc.; Svara refers to pitches (high,
low); matra refers to duration (short, long, prolated . . .); Balam refers
to the intensity of the speech sound; sama refers to the intonation patterns;
and santana refers to the conjunction between several sounds.
Speech sounds are 63 or 64, according to their origin.50 They can be
classified on the basis of pitch, quantity, place of articulation, primary
effort, and secondary effort51
According tciPitch
Some consider that there are seven different pitches. These are Sadja,
Eabha, gandhara, madhyama, paticama, dhaivata, and ni@da.52 These
seven correspond to the notes used in the musical scales. Others accept
only three pitches, udatta (high), anudatta (low), and svarita (high-low).53
However, of the seven pitchs mentioned, n&&da, and gandhara arise
in the high pitch and hence can be included under udatta. Similarly $abha
and dhaivata arise in low pitch and can be included under unudatta. Sadja,
madhyama, and paiicama can be included under svarita(?). Variations in
pitch lead to variations in inflection, thus changing the meaning of a
sentence.
In an utterance there can be nine kinds of inflections, which are as
follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Antodatta: the end of the utterance is high pitched.

Adyudatta: the beginning of the utterance is high pitched.
Udatta: whole utterance is high pitched.
Anudatta: whole utterance is low pitched.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
285
Nica-svarita: the utterance is in low-high-low

pitch.
Madhyodatta: the middle part of the word is high pitched.
Svarita: the utterance is in high-low pitch.
Dyudatta: high pitch occurs twice in an utterance.
Tryudatta: high pitch occurs three times in an utterance.
These are with respect to words.54

Use ofDifferent Types of Pitch. It has already been said that there are
three different kinds of pitch. Out of these three, high pitch should be
used when one is at a distance. When the person being addressed is not
at a great distance middle pitch should be used, and low pitch should be
used when addressing someone nearer.55
It is also said that one should not suddenly proceed from high to low
pitch or from low to high pitch.56
We nowknowthat normally it is the loudness that varies, but not the pitch. However, pitch
variations accompany loudness variations. So the above descriptions have merit.
Amding
to Quantity (Time Taken)
Quantity is the time taken for the utterance of speech sounds. On the
basis of quantity vowels were classified as short (Hpsva), long (dirgha),
and prolated (pluta). 57 Those sounds that are uttered in the time of one
matra (a unit of time) were called hrasva, those that took two matras for
their utterance were called dirgha, and those which took three matras
were termed pluta.58
The stop and nasal consonants were considered to be I/q, 1/2, and
1 matra by various authors.59 Paniniya Siksa opines that voiced consonants
were one-half the duration of voiceless consonants.m
According to the Place of Articulation

The eight places of articulation were: Chest, throat, palate (roof of the
mouth), root of the tongue, teeth, nose, lips, and palate.61 According to
the place of articulation, the Sanskrit speech sounds were classified as
in Table 2.62
This is a more complete description than found in Western books. It also includes the chest
and throat as articulators.
The Ayurvedu szitru attributes the production of different sounds to

different venal plexuses, which are assumed to be situated in different
parts of the mouth.
According to this, the n sound is produced by the venal plexus situated in the neck, which is surrounded by 16 veins.63 For the production
S. R. SAVITHRI
Table 2. Sanskrit Speech Sounds: Classified on the Basis of Place of

Articulation
Manner of articulation
Stop consonants
WrSa)
Wta
(velar
glottal?)
T%hl
(palatai)
Miirdhna
(cerebral/
retoflex)
Dan@
(dentals)
Osta
(lab&)
Dantosta
(labiodental)
KalJtat&l
(palatovelar)
Kantosta
(velarlabial)
Vowels
(Svara)
Unvoiced
(aghosa)
Voiced
(ghosa)
Nasals
(nasika)
k, kh
g, gh
it
c, ch
j,jh
?Sh
P, dh
I?
t, th
d, dh
P, ph
b, bh
Semivowels
(Antastha)
Sibilants
(usma)
h
e,ai
0,au
of /d/ and /dh/ sounds the venal plexus in the neck surrounded by 105
veins is responsible. 64The /r/ sound is produced with the help of the venal
plexus in the lips, which is surrounded by 16 veins.65 The venal plexus
in the dental region is surrounded by 30 veins and is helpful in the production of lksl. S The two venal plexuses in the palatal region are surrounded by one vein each and are responsible for the production of the
/s/ sound.67 The venal plexus in the vacaspati region(?) is surrounded by
the veins and is responsible for the production of /l/.68 Surrounded by
the two veins, the plexuses in the region of the salivary glands activate
the production of the /y/ sound.69
This has not been dealt with in any other text. West, Annsberry, and Cat-r (1956) attribute
the production of different sounds to the action of different muscles, supplied by nerve
endings, whereas here it is considered that venal plexuses in different regions are responsible
for the production of sounds. However, it is not clear whether the word sir& in this context
refers to vein or nerve ending.
According to Primary Effort (Yatna)

Primary effort is of two kinds, viz., internal effort and external effort.
Internal effort (Abhyantara prayatna) is of four types:
1.
2.
3.
4.
287
Sp@a: complete contact;

fsatspr$a: slight contact;
Vivrta: open and;
Sar&ta: contracted.l
Internal effort is the effort made before the production of speech sounds
within the oral cavity. It refers to the degree of contact between the
articulator and place of articulation and the degree of opening between
the articulator and the place of articulation.
In the production of stop and nasal consonants, there will be close
contact between the articulator and the place of articulation. This effort
is termed Sp@a.
In the production of semivowels the articulator approaches the place
of articulation and a slight contact will be made. This effort is known as
isatsp@a. 73 While producing sibilants and vowels the mouth is open and
the effort is termed vivrta.74 In the production of the /a/ sound, the mouth
is contracted and this &fort is known as Sarhvlta.75
External efforts of eleven types were mentioned: (1) samv&ra, (2) vivka, (3) Svasa, (4) n&da, (5) ghosa, (6) aghosa, (7) alpaprana, (8) mahaprana, (9) udatta, (10) anudatta, and (11) svarita.76 External efforts are the
efforts taking place after the production of (mental) speech sounds. Sarhvka and Viv&ra are the efforts related to the movement of the vocal cords.
Samvara denotes the closure (contraction, vibration) and vivka denotes
the open status of the vocal cord. For voiced sounds vocal cords will be
vibrating or perform an effort called sarhv&ra, and for voiceless speech
sounds they are wide open or perform the effort viv?ua.76a Svasa/aghosa
and nada/ghosa are the efforts concerned with the type of source utilized
in speech sound production.
In the production of voiced speech sounds the vocal cords vibrate (perform the effort samvara) and thus modify the airstream. Hence modified
air forms the source for voiced speech sounds. This effort is termed nada/
ghosa. In the production of voiceless speech sounds, the vocal cords are
wide open (perform the effort vivara) and the airstream is not modified
at the level of glottis, or the unmodified airstream passes through the
glottis. This effort is termed Svasa/aghosa.76b Alpaprana and MahiiprQa
are the efforts concerned with the amount of air utilized in speech sound
production. Alpaprana is when the volume of air utilized is less and mahapr&na is when the volume of air utilized is more. /k/, /g/, /c/, /j/, /t/,
Id/ It/, Id/, lpl, lb/ are considered to utilize less air and /khl, lghl, /&I,
/jh/, /th/, /dh/, /th/, /dh/, /ph/, /bh/ and sibilants are considered to utilize
more air.76c
Udatta, anudatta, and svarita are the efforts taking place when high,
low, and high-low pitches are produced. In the production of high-pitched
voice the effort involved is udatta, i.e., when the speech organs are stiff-
288
S. R. SAVITHRI
ened, the aperture of the vocal cords become small, and air travels fast,
and the voice is hard and high pitched, then the effort taking place is
termed udatta.76d When the speech organs are loosened, the aperture
of the vocal cords is expanded, the air travels slowly, and voice becomes
soft and low pitched then the effort taking place is termed anudatta.76
When in a syllable first udatta or high pitch is used and then anudatta
or low pitch is used, then it is termed svarita.76f
These three efforts apply only to the vowels as pitch applies only to
them. Hence any vowel can be intoned in any pitch.
According to Secondary Effort (Anupradiina)

The term anupradana is equivalent to after-effort or secondary
which means stiffening or loosening of vocal cords.
effort,
Intonation. This is of two kinds: (1) entailing expectation (sak%iksa)

and (2) entailing no expectation (nirz3kariksa).77 These relate to the sentence structure. A sentence that has not completely expressed its intended
meaning is said to be sak&iksa. A sentence that has completely expressed
its intended meaning is nir&k&iksa. The former has notes from the throat
and chest and begins with a high pitch and ends in a low pitch. The latter
has notes from the head and begins with a low pitch and ends in a high
pitch.78
In the Natya Sastra, it is suggested that different types of intonation
should be used in different situations. It is said that intonation will always
be made high, excited, and fast in a rejoinder, in confusion, in a harsh
approach, when representing sharpness and roughness, agitation, weeping, challenging one who is not present, threatening, terrifying, and calling
someone at distance.79
Intonation will be grave and slow in conditions of sickness, fever, grief,
hunger, thirst, deliberations, deep wound from a weapon, communicating
confidential words, and in states of anxiety. Intonation will be grave and
fast in womens soothing children, refusal to a lovers overture, panic,
and attack of cold.80
Intonation will be slow and excited and of low pitch following loss of
an object after having seen, hearing anything untoward about a desired
object or person, in communicating something desired, mental deliberations, envy, ensure, saying something that cannot be adequately expressed, telling stories, rejoinder, conclusion, an action involving excess,
wounded and diseased limb, misery, grief, surprise, jealousy, anger, joy,
and lamentation.*l
Grave and slow intonation can be used in words containing a pleasant
sense and bringing happiness. Excited and high intonations can be used
in words that express sharpness and roughness.82
289
It can be noted that both high-excited-fast and low-excited-slow intonations are said to be
of use in rejoinder, which is either a contradiction or an indication of acceptable alternatives.
Pause. A pause is due to the completion of sense and is to depend on

the situation. Care should be taken with regard to pauses, since they
clarify the meaning-in
fact, meaning depends on pauses.83
When words and syllables are combined into compound utterance or
the utterance is quick, confusion about different meanings is liable to
arise. Hence pauses should be observed as required by the breath. In the
remaining cases pauses should depend upon meaning.84
There is a direct relationship between the duration of the pause and the
length of the syllable. When the pause is of greater duration, the syllable
produced will always be long. But the duration of the pause should not
be more than six kZiIlBs.85
Ktia is a measure of time that has not been defined. Two types of pauses, namely, pausing
for breath and pausing for meaning, have been identified here.
These descriptions of intonation and pauses have been taken from the
treatise on dramatics, and refer primarily to instructions to actors in the
use of speech in drama. It is not clear whether they are based on the
observation of intonation of different people, or are stylistic devices following accepted patterns.
Speech Disorders and Their Causes

In this section, the types of speech disorders and their causes in general
are dealt with.
Most of the speech disorders dealt with come under the category vata
vyadhi (neurological) disorders. The following are the speech disorders
that have been encountered by the present author:
1. Mukata: speechlessness (aphasia?);
2. Vaksatiga: difftculty in speaking or unintelligibility of speech (dysarthria?) (stuttering);
3. Minmina: nasal voice;
4. Svaraksaya: aphonia;
5. Gadgada: Misarticulation/partial
omission (stuttering);
6. Kantopadvarhsa: hoarse voice.86
Some of the conditions in which speech disorders are found are (1)
ostabheda (cleft lip), ardhita (facial palsy), and (3) hanustatfrbha (temporomandibular dislocation) .86
Causes of Speech Disorders. The causes of any disorder in general are
three. It may be due to the faults of judgements (of the perceiver), lack
290
S. R. SAVITHRI
of harmony between the sense and object (hence one cannot hear, speak,
feel, etc.), or effects of time.
Most of the speech disorders come under the category of neurological
disorders. Hence, in general it can be considered that speech is disturbed
whenever the functions of the central or sympathetic nervous system is
impaired. Specifically, the causes of speech disorders are as follows:
Causes of V&s&ga. SuSruta is of the opinion that bulb poison causes
vaksariga. 88 Carrying heavy weight, making too many jokes, and chewing
hard substances disturbs the neural force and this leads to asymmetry of
the face. The patient looks as though he is laughing. His head starts shaking. Sneezing will be suppressed. He develops hearing loss, loss of sense
of smell, and amnesia, and he will have v&ksa.riga.89
When both the functions of the central and the sympathetic nervous
systems and thermogenesis are attenuated, the doss (kapha) concerned
with the functions of thermogenesis (heat regulation) brings on suppression of voice and v&ksatiga.gO (According to the Indian system of medicine, it will be recalled, there are three dosas in the body maintaining the
state of health. Kapha is one of them.)
This can be compared with some Western statements. Seeman (1934)
constructed a theory of the nature and causes of stuttering based on the
malfunctioning of the subcortical areas of the brain. He believes that the
sympathetic part of the autonomous nervous system becomes hyperactive, in part because of emotional stress or because of lack of inhibition
from the cortex, and that this produces disturbances in all of their fundamental processes on which the speech is based.
Sovak (1935) gave adrenalin to stutterers, which increases sympathetic
arousal, and found that his stutterers got worse, while pilocarpin, which
activates the parasympathetic system, caused a reduction of stuttering.
The ancient Sanskrit scholars, however, opine that the reduced action
of the sympathetic nervous system causes stuttering, whereas the theory
of Seeman states the opposite. Perhaps there is a certain optimum level
of action for the sympathetic nervous system (for each individual), above
and below which stuttering may be caused.
In hemiplegia or paralysis of one side of the body, the neural force
seizes the nerves controlling the function of one side of the body and
produces loss of movement, pain, and v5iksatiga.
Causes of Gadgada (hIiwticulations)

Cysts or polyps in lips, palate, or larynx tend to make speech indistinct.92
Weak and slow poison (animal, vegetable, or chemical) may cause gadgada.
Excess consumption of fat may bring on gadgada.%
SPEECH AND HEARING
SCIENCE IN ANCIENT
INDIA
291
Causes of Miikata(Speechlessness)
This may be either congenital or acquired. The congenital diseases follow
such causes as chemical inbalance in the mother and ungratified cravings
of the mother during pregnancy. This can produce deafness, blindness,
and miikata in the child.95 The woman who is addicted to sweets gives
birth to a child that is mentally retarded or unable to speak% (mtikam).
Faults caused by defects of the womb, timing and defects of food, and
defects in the movement of the mother during the period of gestation cause
defects of the body, complexion, or organs (both of sense and action) in
the embryo. Hence the child will be unable to speak.97
Among the acquired causes, snake bite is found to cause loss of speech
in most cases.98 A strongly provoked neural force localized in the back,
the sides of the neck, and constricting the external vessels, causes a bowlike ridigity of the body, which is called dhanustamba (tetanus). The body
being bent like a bow, the head of the patient gets retracted, almost touching his back, and his chest is thrown forward, the sides of the neck become
rigid, and there is a squeezing pain the neck. The attack c%tises speechlessness (vaggraha), or it may even kill the patient.This may either refer to aphasia or stuttering as a form of tetany. A number of researchers
have investigated the biochemistry of stuttering-primarily
the composition of the blood,
urine, and saliva. The rationale for these studies has usually been that these secretions,
which are controlled primarily by the autonomic nervous system, might reveal an organic
pathology or malfunctioning of that system that could make the person more prone to stutter.
Stuttering is characterized by excessive tension, or clonic and tonic behaviors. So also is
tetany, a calciometabolic imbalance that results in hyperirritability of neuromuscular activity
causing clonic and tonic spasms. Tetany may also be latent, appearing only under stress.
Kopp (1934) in his biochemical study of blood composition in stutterers, interpreted his data
as supporting the concept of stuttering as a term of latent tetany. Shackson (1936) interprets
his results as indicating a possible latent tetany in stutterers.
From eating dry substances, from any external injury, the neural force
in the temporomandibular
space is disturbed, and this causes dislocation
of the temporomandibular joint. In this condition one cannot take food,
nor can one close or open the mouth. One will be unable to speak (abhasanaxh).OO When there is a ranula on the tongue, the patient will not
be able to speak (vakyavighata) . lo1
Specific kinds of food are also thought to cause speech disorders. For
example, meat of domesticated animals, of those that live in marshy regions, and of those that are acquatic should not be consumed in conjunction. With honey, lotus stalks, seseme oil, molasses, milk, garden
radish, and paddy that have put forth sprouts. If these are consumed,
diseases such as deafness, rigidity, loss of speech (miikata), and nasal
voice (minmina) are caused. It may even lead to death.lo2
In the second and third stages of alchoholic drunkenness and in the
292
S. R. SAVITHRI
coma stage, one loses ones speech and loses control over all ones
actions. lo3
Improper administration of oil to the parts of the body causes stoppage
of speech.lM When the tongue is paralyzed it causes inability to take food
and to speak. A hysterical patient will also lose his speech.lM
Causes of Svarabheda (Voice Disorders)

The neural force when disturbed by such causes as extremely loud speaking, taking poison, reading at the top of ones voice, external injury, and
exposure to cold causes voice disorders. These are of six types.
In the vataja type of voice disorder, the patients eyes, face, and feces
will turn black, and in the pittaja type of voice disorder they will be yellow
in color. In the first condition the patients speech is sometimes heard as
stuttering, and the second condition will be accompanied by chestpain. lo8
In the Kaphaja type of voice disorder, because of the phlegm, the patient speaks with a soft voice. His voice will be worse in the mornings.
In the sannipataja type, all the above characteristics can be observed and
his speech will be unclear. This condition is very difficult to treat.@)
A patient who has the ksayaja type of voice disorder will start speaking
but suddenly lose his voice. This condition is not curable. In the medoja
voice disorders, the voice will be very soft and speech is unclear.
In tuberculosis and leprosy patients, the voice will be disturbed (svarabheda). 11 A young child who drinks contaminated milk will have a soft
voice (in terms of loudness) (k@masvarah).*
These descriptions of speech and voice disorders are mainly based on the system of three
dosas. The speech and language disorders are generally considered to be organic in nature.
It is interesting to note that even the listeners judgement is considered one of the causes.
Prenatal, psychological, and organic factors are listed as causes of speech and language
disorders.
Facial Palsy (Arditah). This has been known to result from excessive
hemorrhage or loss of blood. The neural force that is disturbed by continuous talking in an extremely loud voice, chewing of hard substances,
loud laughter, yawning, carrying extremely heavy loads, and lying down
in an uneven position on the ground, lodges in the region of the head,
nose, upper lip, chin, forehead and the joints of the eye and produces
facial palsy (arditam).13 Old and enfeebled persons, infants, and pregnant
women are most prone to fall victims to this disease.l14
SYMPTOMS. The neck and half of the face longitudinally suffer distortion
and the head shakes. One will be having misarticulations. Eyes are distorted. Portions of the neck and the chin as well as the teeth on the affected
side become painful. *
SuSruta refers to it as facial palsy (arditam) where one half of the face is paralyzed. Caraka
uses the term arditam when one or both halves of the face are paralyzed.
293
PREMONITORYSYMPTOMS.The disease usually commences with shivering, dimness of vision, anaesthesia, a pricking pain in the affected locality, and paralysis of the jaw or of the cervical muscles of the neck.16
PROGNOSIS.
When the patient is very old and exhibits such symptoms
as unblinking vision, or misarticulated speech that barely seems to come
out of the throat and when it persists for more than three years, it will
have a very poor prognosis. 1l7
Treatment of Speech and Language Disorders
Preventive and curative treatments have been advocated. Preventive
treatments are those that cause the speech of a child to be clear and that
prevent any speech disorder that may occur in time. These are given to
the child usually at an early age. Curative treatments are those that are
given to overcome existing speech and language disorders. They are administered during the course of the disorder. This may further be of two
types, medical and surgical. Drugs are used in some of the disorders such
as misarticulation, voice disorders, mtikata, and vakstambha. Surgery is
advised in cases of cleft lip. The following preventive measures were
advised:
1. Tongue exercises: Tongue exercises such as the lateral movement,
elevation,
and protrusion
of the tongue
help in speech
development. *
2. Drinking clarified butter daily helps in improving voice, strength,
and complexion and lengthens the life.19
3. One who has taken oil and digested it already should avoid physical
exercises, loud speech, exposure to cold and heat, and all places
that are breezy. izo
4. Bitter things should be consumed very often as they have the capacity to enhance speech.*
5. One should suppress the rising impulses of harshness and speech
that is disagreeable to others.**
6. The companionship of those who are sinful in conduct and speech
should be avoided. *29
Curative
Treatment.
1. Treatment
2. Treatment
This again can be considered under two headings:
of neurological disorders in general;

of specific speech disorders.
Treatment of neurological disorders in general: It is advised that sweet

and salty food and purified butter are beneficial to the patient.i24
The following are found to be of good use in cases of neurological
disorders: Administration of medicated ghee, anointment of the body,
administration of oil purgatives, rubbing of oils on head, oily fumigations,
294
S. R. SAVITHRI
gargling with tepid oil, use of oily errhines, use of meat soup, milk, and
clarified butter, use of oil or other food, use of all kinds of acid fruits,
salt and lukewarm washes, gentle massage and use of saffron, wearing
of wool, silk, cotton, or any other thick kind of garments, living in a warm
room or in one not exposed to air or in an inner chamber, and use of a
soft bed. 12
oil of Chagaladya
This is very useful in cases of miikata, minmina (nasal voice), and gadgada
(misarticulation/stuttering?).126
In diseases brought about by improper administration of oils, the following are the treatments:
1. Vomiting by administration of emetics;
2. Production of perspiration through heat; and
3. Abstention from food till the oils taken are digested.27
In conditions where speech is obstructed, thin gruel prepared with ghee
and meat, application of medicated ghee, oil, fat, which serves to lubricate
the body, and application of heat are useful.28
Treatment of M&ata
Kaficika mixed with salt should be gargled. Aniseed, brahma beeja, and
salt of equal proportions should be mixed with the same proportion of
achorus calamus and should be made into a paste with ghee and honey.
Ten grams of this should be taken after the consumption of milk with
rice. The person who does not have any speech and who takes this becomes such a good speaker as to master thousands of books.129
KaIyiiqaka leha
This is a powder that is thought to be beneficial in cases of gadgada and

mtikata. It is prepared as follows: Cumin seed and salt should be taken
in equal proportion and a paste of this should be made. This powder should
be mixed with whin seed and taken orally daily. In 21 nights the intensity
of ones voice will become as loud as a dundhubhi (a sound-making instrument used in wars) or like the sound of thunder.13
Treatment of Voice Disorders
In case of the vataja types of voice disorders, oil mixed with salts should
be used. Rice should be mixed with ghee and jaggery and taken, after
which warm water should be consumed. 13*In cases of the pittaja type of
SPEECH AND HEARING SCIENCE IN, ANCIENT INDIA
295
voice disorders, honey mixed with ghee should be given. Rice can be
mixed with milk and taken, after which ghee should be consumed.13*
Clarified butter should be constantly used with milk in these cases.133 In
cases of the kaphaja types of voice disorders, gargling of salts and bitter
elements is very useful. By this the phlegm in the neck, tongue, and roof
of the teeth will come out and the voice becomes clear.134 Powders of
pungent drugs can be taken with oil and honey in these cases.13
In cases where one has a high-pitched voice, milk prepared with the
drugs of the madhura group, fried bengalgram, and honey should be mixed
and taken.36
An oil called nar-ayana taila is said to be of use in cases of
misarticulation. 13
Devadaru, honey, and seeds -of brinjal egg plant made into a paste is
very good in cases of lisping/stuttering (vacaskalana).13
Surgery for Cleft Lip. SuSruta and Vagbhata mention cleft lip and describe the surgical procedures in such cases. Vagbhala opines that the
two borders of the separated lip should be brought close and stitched.
SuSruta describes rhinoplasty, which he states can be applied in cases of
cleft lip also.
Most of the treatments are purely medical in nature. It is noteworthy that the theory and
treatment correlate with eachsother. But the treatments of voice disorders appear to be like
those for colds and coughs. However, without experimental testing of these medicines, no
definite conclusions can be drawn regarding their use.
AUDIOLOGY
Diseases of the Eur. According to Caraka, Susruta, and most of the
other authors, there are 28 types of ear diseases. In addition to these
Madhavacarya and Vaghbhata mention parilehi and kucikarqaka.
The 28 diseases are as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Karna@lam (ear ache);

Badhiryam (deafness);
Pranada (tinnitus);
Ksveda (labyninthetis);
Karnasrava (ear discharge);
Karqakandu (itching of the ear);
Karnagutha (wax in the ear);
Kemikaqra (vermin-infested ears);
Vidradi (furunculosis) two types;
Prattinaha (obstruction of the eustachian
Karnap%ka (suppurative otitis media);
Ptitikarna (fetid discharge in the ear);
Arsas (cysts or polyps)-four
types;
tube);
S. R. SAVITHRI
2%
14. Arbudam (tumors)-seven
types;
15. Sotha (swelling or inflammatory
types.39
condition
of the ears)-four
1. Ear Ache. This is caused by the disturbed movement of the air in

the middle ear and is aggravated by the disturbed actions of the humors
in that locality. There will be violent aching pain in the region of the ear. 40
2. Tinnitus. When the movement of the air in the middle ear is disturbed
and when it gets into the wrong path and remains there stuffed in the
sound-carrying channels of the organ, then ringing and various other
sounds are heard. This produces a low-frequency sound like the sound
of a drum.i4 The air that is associated with pitta (phlegm) produces highfrequency sounds in the ear that resemble the sound of a flute.14
3. Deafness. When the air associated with pitta stays in the nerves for
a long time and when it is not treated properly, it results in deafness.43
No mention has been made as to whether the deafness is conductive
or perceptive.
4. Labyrinthitis. The causes of this are use of any cold things, exposure
to cold after being treated with a head-purging remedy, air staying in the
nerves for a long time, a washing process in the system, or eating foods
that have an astringent taste.la
5. Discharge in the Eur. This is usually caused by a blow on the head
or long immersion in water or a spontaneous separation or bursting of an
abscess in the ear. The ear is filled with water and there will be watery
discharge from the ear.145
6. Itching in the Eur. This is caused by the aggravation of the local
kapha. An excessive itching sensation will be reported by the patient.&
7. Wax in the Eur. This is caused by mucus accumulation
dried and hardened by the heat of the pitta.14
in the ear,
8. Obstruction of the Eustachian Tube. The dried accumulation of

mucus becomes liquefied and comes out through the cavity of the nose.
This produces obstruction of the eustachian tube and head diseases.&
9. Vermin-Znfested Ears. This refers to the germination of vermin or
other local parasites in the ear cavity. This completely impairs the faculty
of hearing. 149
SPEECH AND HEARING
SCIENCE IN ANCIENT
INDIA
297
IO. Local Abscess. It is caused by a blow or an idiopathic abscess in

the cavity of the ear. This is marked by a choking and burning sensation
and the patient will have piercing and sucking pain. There will be a red,
yellow, or reddish bloody discharge. 150
11. Suppurative Otitis Media. This is caused by the disturbed action
of pitta. There will be a sensation of blocking in the ear canal.151
12. Fetid Discharge in the Ear. When the pitta is not functioning properly, the mucus accumulation in the passage of the ear will be liquefied
owing to an excess of heat produced. This is accomplished by a fetid
discharge from the ear. There may be pain in the ear.*
13. Swelling or Injlammatory Condition of the Ear. This might have
different causes such as disturbed action of vata, pitta, or kapha, disturbed
function of blood, concerted action of all three dosas, or trauma.53
A swelling caused by the disturbed action of vata will be reddish or
blackish in color and is shifting in its characteristic. It feels rough and
soft to touch and is accompanied by an aching pain, which disappears at
intervals. 154A swelling due to disturbed function of pitta will be yellowish
in color. It is soft to touch and under pressure it fluctuates. Blood will
accumulate in the swelling, and this swiftly shifts from one part of the
body to another. It is accompanied by a burning or a sucking pain.15 A
swelling that is due to the disturbed function of kapha will be grey or
whitish in color. The skin becomes glossy and cold. The swelling very
slowly changes its original site, if it shifts at all, accompanied by pain and
itching. lJ6
A swelling caused by the concerted action of all the three humors successively manifests the symptoms and assumes the colors peculiar to each
of them. 15
The symptoms that mark a swelling caused by a disturbed function of
the blood are identical to those exhibited in the swelling caused by the
disturbed function of pitta, except that in this variety, the swelling will
be black in color.
That of traumatic origin manifests symptoms peculiar to that of pitta
and blood origin types.
A swelling that does not respond either to internal or external remedies
on account of the insticient
or contrary effects of the antibiotics goes
to the stage of suppuration.lm
The unsuppurated stage continues as long as the skin of the swelling
retains its natural color, marked by little pain and heat in its inside and
coldness, hardness, and a slight elevation of its surface.61
The suppurative stage gives rise to a stage of pricking pain in the affected locality. The swelling seems as if it is being pricked with needles
S. R. SAVITHRI
or as though a host of ants were wandering over it, or as though it were

being cut with a knife or pierced with a spear or thrashed with a club or
pressed with a hand or scraped with fingers or burnt with an alkali. The
patient complains of a sort of pain in the swelling of a fixed or shifting
character. The patient, as though stung by a scorpion, will not be able to
find comfort in any place or position.
The color of the skin changes and the swelling goes on increasing like
an inflated leather bag. Fever, thirst, a burning sensation, aversion to
food, etc. gradually occur.162
This stage is marked by pain, and the color of the skin will be yellowish.
It exhibits fluctuation under pressure and comes back to its original size
when the pressure is removed. The pus changes its place or shifts from
one part to another. The distressing symptoms gradually subside. The
patient again evidences a desire for food and feels a constant desire to
scratch the affected part, which is still characterized by pain. Sometimes,
as in the case of traumatic swelling, the suppurating process is restricted
to the deeper tissues, and hence, fails to exhibit its characteristic symptoms. This is a fact that often misleads the physician. But knowledge that
a process of suppuration is occurring that becomes as compact as a stone
would ward off all apprehension of error of judgement.163
14. Atresia of fhe Eur. During pregnancy, owing to anoxia the pinna
will be compressed, as a result of which it will be very small in size.ia
15. Parilehi. Owing to the mixing of kapha and blood small insects are
produced in the edges of the ear, which reproduce and adheres to the
pinna. This is known as parilehi.65
16. As a consequence of hearing sounds that are very loud and harsh,
or of hearing no sounds at all, or of hearing sounds that are very low in
intensity, one gets hearing 10~s.~
The first of these probably refers to noise-induced hearing loss. Though
in listing the diseases polyps and tumors are mentioned, no descriptions
are available for this.
TREATMENT
OF EAR DISEASES
The treatment of the ear diseases can be dealt with in two broad categories, namely, general treatment and treatment of particular diseases.
This section deals with both the general treatment and the treatment of
specific diseases, which include medical and surgical lines of treatment.
SPEECH
AND HEARING
SCIENCE
1.NANCIENT INDIA
299
General Treatment. In most of the ear diseases the following are usually
advised: use of ghee, renunciation of all sorts of physical exercises, baths
without immersing the head, abstinence from talkativeness. 167
Treatment of Earache, Tinnitus, Deafness and Labyrinth&is. In cases
of earache, application of fomentation with the fumes of barley, and bamboo boiled in kanala (fermented rice gruel) is very helpful.168
A bowl-shaped cup should be made with the leaves of Asvattha soaked
in curds and it should be heated by flames of charcoal fire. The oil thus
obtained should be used as an ear drop. This gives instantaneous relief
in cases of earache. The affected ear should be fumigated with the fumes
of burning pieces of linen cloth and with clarified butter and bdelium mixed
together. 169
A rice diet should be forgone in the night and clarified butter with milk
should be taken. The Sata pakavala oil should be prescribed as Sirovasti.
It may also be given internally in cases of earache.17
In case of tinnitus and labyrinthitis the following is the treatment: Oil
should be first administered and the patient should be purged with purgatives. He should be given antibiotics in the manner of nadi sweda (fomentation through a pipe). 17
Treatment of Deafness. Oil cooked with water, milk, and bilva and
made into a paste with cows urine should be used as an ear drop. Oil
should first be cooked with goats yastimadhu and vimbi fruit. When
cooked down, it should be churned by hand and the oil should be separated. The oily part, after being stirred in the decoction of bilva, should
again be cooked with milk weighing ten times and sugar, yasfimadhu(?),
and sandal wood. It should be thickened and used as an ear drop in these
cases.172
Treatment of Discharge, Vermin-Znfested Ears, Fetid Discharge. Erhines, fumigations, and cleaning of the cavity of the ear are employed.
The affected ear should be washed with the decoction of the drugs of the
rajavcksadi or the surasadi group and filled with powders of these drugs. 173
In case of discharge, the cavity of the ear should be filled with the
powders of the pafica kasaya drugs mixed with honey and juice of
kapitta. 174
RasMjana rubbed and dissolved in breast milk and mixed with honey
is very efficient even in chronic and long-standing cases of fetid
discharge. 17
Fumigation with the fumes of vartaku or mustard oil, administration of
emetics, smoke, inhalation, and gargles are beneticial.N
300
S. R. SAVITHRI
Treatment of Itching and Local Abscess. Mustard oil is very useful in

the treatment of itching. Local abscess should be treated as an ordinary
abscess. The affected ear should be filled with oil to soften the filthy
deposit and the filthy matter should be extracted with a probe.177
Treatment of Wax and Obstruction of Eustachian Tube. Fumigation of
the part with the help of a tube, smoke inhalations, and head purging are
used in the treatment of wax.178
Administration of medicated oil, induction of perspiration, and the application of heat purgatives should be made when there is an obstruction
of the eustachian tube.79
Treatment of Suppurative Otitis media. Any filth should be removed
with the help of a probe or by cutting it with a hom.lsO
Treatment of Swelling. Surgical acts in connection with the swelling
may be divided into seven kinds: (1) mutilation of the swelling by massage,
(2) bleeding through application of leeches, (3) poulticing, (4) opening or
incision, (5) purification of the internal morbid matter of an incised boil
with corrective medicines, (6) heating, and (7) restoration of the natural
color of the skin through cicartrization.181
Treatment of Atresia. Sweet potato mixed with buffalos butter should
be kept in a dish and closed. The dish should be kept inside the heap of
corn for seven nights and then the mixture should be applied to the pinna
by which the pinna grows.ls2
Operation of the Injured Ear. When there is no lobule from loss of
both the outer and inner portions, the form of operation is called %harya.
In this, two pieces of skin, one taken from the cheek and the other from
the back of the ear are brought together and a lobule is stitched.
It is interesting to note that medical treatment of atresia forms a part of
treatment of ear diseases. However, it cannot be said to be valid until experimented on.
SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Some of our findings agree with lines of modem thinking and some do
not. It has been seen that the Sanskrit literature uses efficiency, intelligibility, redundancy, intensity, frequency, and cultural and aesthetic values for the evaluation of speech. The ancient writers have classified
speech sounds according to the place of articulation, pitch, quality, and
primary and secondary efforts. The production of consonants is attributed
to venal plexus in different parts of the mouth.
301
Intonation is related to the sentence structure and different types of

intonation have been described for different situations.
Pauses are said to contribute to the clarity of meaning, and they are
seen to relate to both breathing and meaning. A direct relationship between the duration of a pause and the length of the syllable is assumed.
It is interesting to note that the propogation of sound waves is explained
very well in the examples of the big wave and the small wave and the
budding of the kadamba filaments.
Speech disorders like aphonia, hoarse voice, nasal voice, stuttering
(dysarthria), and loss of speech are mentioned. In the general classification of diseases speech and hearing disorders come under the category
of neurological disorders. Some of the speech disorders are recognized
to be congenital, while only a few are considered functional. The causes
of speech disorders are rather conditions with which a speech defect is
associated as a symptom. Most of the diseases are said to be acquired
except for a few like atresia deafness, which is thought of as congenital.
It can also be noted that attention was paid to noise-induced hearing
loss, which is evident from statements like exposure to loud noise causes
hearing loss. But no further preventive or curative treatment is advised
for this.
In general, the whole system of Ayurvedic medicine is based on the
theory of three do@. All the diseases are said to arise because of the
disturbed action of these three humors.
Similarly, treatment is also based on the same theory in that all treatment aims at bringing back the actions of the dosas to their original state.
The treatment of speech and hearing disorders is mainly dealt with
under two headings, namely, medical and surgical. In the medical lines
of treatment curatives are also suggested and surgery is advised only in
cases of cleft lip and injured ears. No reference is available regarding the
surgery of cleft palate or of the ear. Tongue exercises are suggested as
preventive measures.
This survey of literature has brought out many interesting details and
points to the following further paths for research:
1. Using references on other materials more comprehensive
studies
need to be done.
2. Attempts at closer study can be made so that exact translations are
established. Explanations of several terms that do not have equivalents in English are essential. This is beyond the limits of time
available for this study.
3. Clinical trials of suggested therapy and treatment procedures can be
done for experimental verification.
4. Experimental analysis of some of the subjects like preeffort and
posteffort
with reference to voicing could be done. These terms
302
S. R. SAVITHRI
may refer to the same concepts as in the voicing studies made by

Ladefoged (1975).
5. Greater awareness of this information must be encouraged in students of speech and hearing.
APPENDIX
A: SYSTEM OF TRANSLITERATION
an
ai
au
t
kh
ah
sh
v
B
ch
Ep
jh
R
th
i5
dh
a
th
dh
(9
ph
v;
bh
I thank Dr. N. Rathna, Director, Ali Yavar Jung National Institute for the Hearing Handicapped, Bombay, Dr. S. Nikam, Head, Department of Audiology, AIISH, Mysore, Dr. B.
G. Gopinath, Lecturer, P. G. Section, Government College of Indian Medicine, Mysore. I
also thank Vidwan Seshachala Sharma, Assistant Professor, Maharajas Sanskrit College,
Mysore, Dr. Surendracarya, Lecturer, Department of Anatomy, Government College of
Indian Medicine, Mysore, and Mr. Samba Murthy, Head, Department of Sanskrit, Yuvarajas College, Mysore.
SELECTED
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A Report of the All India Ayurvedic Conference

during December,
and exhibition
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Ratna Pradipikl
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INDIA
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stitute Press.
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Sree Bhar-
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Bodhisatva
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Nag&iuna
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(300 A.D). Updya Kausalya h$aya
CakrapQi (1043-1050 A.D; 1961). Cakradatta.

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&istra.
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Chaukamba
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Sanskrit
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Manuscripts.
Dwarakanath, C. (1952). The Fundamental
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(1896). Rasendrasrirasatigrahafi.
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Grammarians. Delhi: Musiram Manoharlal; also cited in Allen (1953). Phonetics
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(1894). Rusurutnusumuccuya.
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Vrajanatha
&ma
SCIENCE
IN ANCIENT
305
INDIA
(1964). Vaidyaka Stiroddhriru. Calcutta:
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West, R., Annsberry, H., and Can-, Rehabilitation of Speech. New York: Holt,
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Yajiiavalkya (800-508 B.C.; 1893). Ytfijfiavalkya Sik@, in Siksa Sarhgrahah. Benares: Benares Printing Press.
Books of
UuknownAuthors
Atharva Veda. Madras: Ganesha
& Co. Pvt. Ltd. (1956).
Ayurveda SLitram, Shama Sastry (ed.). Mysore: Government

Htirird Sarizhitti, Kaviraja
KenopaniSat.
Paniniya
Branch Press (1922).
Binodial Sen. Calcutta: Ayumeda Press.
Madras: Ramakrishna
siksci. P. Manmohan
Mutt (1920).
Ghosh (ed.). Calcutta:
University
of Calcutta
(1938).
Tairririya Upani+ar. Madras: Ramakrishna
Yogarutncikara.
Poona: Anandasrama
Mutt (1921).
Press (1888).
The dates stated above are taken from New Catalogue catagorum, University of Madras, Madras. Regarding the dates of vedic literature Wintemitz (1962) states the following:
We cant however, explain the development of the whole of this great literature if we assume as late a date as round about 1200-1500 B.C as its
starting point. We shall probably have to date the beginning of this development about 2000-2500 B.C and the end of it between 750 and 500 B.C.
The more prudent course, however, is to stear clear of any fixed dates and
to guard against the extremes of a stupendously ancient period for a ludicrously modem epoch (pp. 271).
Varma places the PratiSakhyas in the period 500-1500 B.C and the extinct
Siksa literature between 800 and 500 B.C (Allen, 1953, p. 5).
The dates given in the parentheses for Sanskrit treatises in the bibliography
indicate the time of the author and the year of publication, respectively.
However, wherever only one year is provided, it should be considered as
the year of publication and not as the time of the author.
Refer to this list to explain the abbreviations

Sanskrit references.
A.H.
A.P.
Astatiga kdayarh
Agrii purana
at the end of the following
306
S. R. SAVITHRI
A.S.
A.Su.
Apisali Sik@
Ayurveda &itrati
Bharata n@ya Gstrati
B&lattitrati
Cakradatta
Caraka Satihita
KBsik2 Vivaraga paiijika
MahabhBrata
Mgdhava nid&na
PBniniya Sik$t
Sabda Kaustubha
Satigita ratntiara
SuSruta StihitSt
Tarka Stigrahab
Taittiriya UpaniSat
Vaidya manorama
Varqa ratna pradipika Sik@
Vai y y&araea SiddhFmta kaumudi
Viad yasara Safigraha
Yajfiavalkya $ik@
B.N.S.
B.T.
C.D.
C.S.
K.V.P.
M.B.
M.N.
P.S.
S.K.
S.R.
S.S.
T.S.
T.U.
V.M.
V.R.P.S.
V.S.K.
V.S.S.
Y.S.
Sanskrit References
1. . . .
s&nyti
prak#rucyate.
C.S. l-9.2.
2. samado&
sam@riisca samadhZitumalalcriyah
svastha ityabhidiyate. S.S. 1-15.41.
3. VikLo dhatuvaisamyam
meva ca. C.S. l-9.2.
prasannatmendriyaman~
. . . sukhasari?jtiakam&rogyam
vikaro
dhuhkha-
4. tattu saptavidhe vyadhavupanipatati.

te punah saptavidhfrh vyadayah. tadyatha adibalapravItt%h janmabalapravItt@
dosabalaprav+%h
kalabalapravItt&h sarighatabalapravI%6h daivabalaprav+ih
svabhavabalaprav@f@.
S.S. l-24.4.
5. tatra &libalapravIttah
ye Sukrasonitado@nvaya
dvividhah rnat@h pit@sca. S.S. l-24.5.
6. janmabalaprav@@
v&manaprabhI;tayo
S.S. 1-24.5.
ku@rgaprav~taya&.
tepi
ye mHturapacWt pariga-jatyandhabadhiramiikaminmina
jayante tepi dvividhah. rasak@auhIdapac&rak@ca.
7. dosabalaprav@
ye ataiikasamutpann~
mity&h&a k$%ca tepi dvividhe.
&nn%Sayasamutpanna,h pal&iiSayasamutpannaSca.
punasca dvividha.
sarlra
manasasca. S.S. l-24.5.
8. sanghatabalapravItt&h
ya agantako durbalasya
vidh@ SastrakImh vy&lak$%ca. S.S. l-24.6.
balabuddhigrahat.
tepi dvi-
SPEECH AND HEARING
9. kalabalapraqttah
SCIENCE IN ANCIENT
INDIA
Sitosnavatavarsatapa
prabhainimitta
avyapanna-ka.rt$@sca.
S.S. l-24.7.
vyapannakart~k$%h
307
tepi
dvividhe.
10. daivabalaprav$ta
ye daivadrohat abhisaptaklh
atharvanak@
upasargajasca. tepi dvividhah. vidyudaSanik+b
piSacadik@%ca. punasca dvividhah. samsargaja %kasmikaSca. S.S. 1-24.7.
11. svabhavabalaprav$a
ksutpipasajaram$yunidra
12. utsahocchvasanihSvasaces@
dhatugatih
vayoh karmavik&rajam. C.S. l-18.40.
prabhgayab
samah.
samo mokso
13. darsanam paktirtisma ca ksut$snP deham%rdavam.

ca pittakarmavik&rajath.
C.S. 1-18.41.
gatimatam
prabha pras&do medha
14. sneho baddhah sthiratvam ca gauravarh vbsatSl balarh ksama dh@ralobhasca

kaphakarmavika rajath. C.S. 1-18.42.
15. vac&meva prasadena
lokayatra pravartate.
Dandins kavyadarsa.
16. sauksmyam satikhyakramau cobhau nirnayah saprayojanah.

thajatani vfdcyamityucyate qpa. M.B. 12-320.79.
17. vakyaprasamsa
n&ma yatha anytinamanadhikarh.
aviruddham adhigatapadartharh.
1-3.
pancaitanyar-
arthavadanaparthakath
18. upet&rthamabhinn&rtharh nyayav@tam na cadhikarh. ca&ksnarh na ca sandigdhath vaksyami paramam tatah na gurvaksarasamyuktarh
paratimukhasukath na ca. n@-tath na trivargena viruddam napyasamsk@ir.
na nyiinam
nastasabdam va vyutkramabhihitarh
na ca. sa dosamabhikalpena
niskiuanamahetukarh. M.B. 12-320.87 to 89.
19. upaya kausalya hfiayam.
Chap. 1.
28. vakta Srota ca v&kyarh ca yadatvavikalam npa. sa mameti vivaksayaxh tada

sorthah prakasate. vaktavye tu yada vakta Srotkamavamanyate.
svfu-thamaha parartham tattada v%kyam na rohati. M.B. 12-320.91, 92.
21. yastu vakta dvayorarthamaviruddarh
prabhisate.
vakta netaro tqpa. M.B. 12-320.94.
SrotuScaivMmanaScaiva
22. kamatkrodadbhay&llobh8ddainyacc&naryakWadL
anna vaksyami kathaficana. M.B. 12-320.90.
23. nQ-gveda vinitasya . . . . uccfirayati kalyftnim v&un
miki ramay.yana, kiskind&@da.
2-28.
24. atha vakyadosah.
karh, anarthakam,
hritonukrogato
kdayaharsinim.
Nkyadoso nama yatha svalpasminnarthe

nyimam,
aparthakarh, viruddarir cetl. C.S. 3-8.55.
sa
manv&ladhi-
25. adhikyam n&ma yat pratisarhbaddfuthamapi

dvirabhidhiyate tatpunaruktatvadadhikarh. tacca punaruktam dvividharh. arthapunaruktarh
Babdapunaruktarh ca. C.S. 3-8.57.
26. tatra arthapunaruktarh
n&ma yatha bhaisajamausadhasadhanamiti.
punaruktam ca bhesajam bhesajamiti. C.S. 3-8.57.
Sabda-
308
S. R. SAVITHRI
27(a). anarthakarh n&ma yadvacanamaksaragrFtmamatrarir

vanna c&that0 gghyeta. C.S. 3-8.58.
vi% syatpaiicavarga-
27(b). Bodhisatva
Chapter I.
Nag&xjuna upaya kausalya h$ayarh,
28. aparthakarh
nama yadarthavacca parasparena

ranakravamsavajra
niGkara iti. C.S. 3-8.59.
cayujyam&Xrtham
yatha tak-
29. Satikitarh bhitamudghIstam avyaktam anunasikath. k&kasvaram Sirasigatarh

tathr7sthftnavivatjitam.
uparhSudasmrh tvaritam nirastath vilambitam. gadgaditam pragitam . . . . P.S. 34, 35.
30. svarfidhikarastu
tajharjharanukar@
hathsakrautica
prak@svar@.
31. yafisca parfmupeksama.nupi

tistajtiaih.
C.S. 51.16.
nemidundhubhikalavinka
C.S. S-1.16.
vidyadanuktilatonyatha
kakakapo-
vapi nirdisyam%n-
32. edakagrastavyaktagadgadaksamadTnsnukirnastvaturi?th
svaravaikarik~.
yamScapar%nupeksam~opi
vidy&dpragvik$%rabhiitvotpannamiti
prak$ivik$isvar%h vyakhyatah C.S. 5-1.17.
svat%namaSvabhinivI-ttarh.
svaranekatvarh
33. tatra prak@vaikfuikanti
sya canekatvam aprastamiti svaradhik%rah. C.S. 5-1.18.
34. aspastavarnasathyuktatir
bf&Wuh tu kalasvanarh
B.N.S. 25-101.
35. mandasvarasaric%ravyaktavyaktathdviruktavacanarthath.
nak$ath k&t-yam svapnlntitapaparh.
B.N.S. 25-98.
36. VI-ddhanam yojayetpadmarh
gadgadam salilaksararh.
37. prasithila gurukarat,rak+raghanthaniSvaniv~ya

petath k&ku kuryat maranakfde. hikkasvasopeto
avatkathayet.
atimategvapi
kfuyarh padyam
B.N.S. 25.99, 100.
38. atma vivaksamanoyatir manah prerayate
sa prerayati mftrutath. S.R. 3.3.
pfuvanusmaraB.N.S. 25-101.
gadgadaiko hi. kasasvasomtirchopagame tu maraqpunarukti

samprayaktam.
manarh. dehastharh vahnimahanti
sotha kramadiirdhvapathe
39. brahmagranthisthitah
mtirdhnasyesvavirbhavayate
dhvanim. S. R. 3.4.
40. nadotisiiksmah siiksmasca pustopusfasca
paiicasthana sthitah kramat. S.R. 3.5.
eka-
k$imah
caran.
n%bhikItkaptha-
iti paitcabhidhfuh
41. iha khalu paticendriyagi paticendriyadravyani

paiicendriyadhisth&tani
cendriy%rth& paiicendriyabudda
yo bhavantityuktamindriyadhikare.
l-8.
datte
paiiC.S.
paii42. tatra caksuh Srotram ghranarh rasanath sparsanamiti paiicendriyani.

cendriyadhisthanani
aksinam kaqau nasike jihvatvakceti. paiicendriy&rthah
SabdasparSaniparasaagandh~.
. . . C.S. l-8.6.
43. punarindriyendriyartha
tyetat paficapaficakarh.
svatmatmasannikarsajz%l_t. ksanika nilcayatmika

C.S. l-8.7.
ce-
SPEECH
AND HEARING
SCIENCE
IN ANCIENT
309
INDIA
44. na ctiekatvath
nfmekath hyekakftlamanekesu
pravartate manah purahsaraqanindriyanyathagrahani
samarthani bhavanti. C.S. l-8.4.
45. Srotragrahyoguno
46. Sabdastrividhah
Sabdah. T.S. Chap. I.

sathyogajah vibhagajah
Sabdajasceti.
T.S. dipika Chap. I.
adyo
bherldandasamyogajanyah.
dvitiyo
varhse
47. tatra
daladvayavibhfigajanyascamcatasabda
bheryadidesadfuabhya
paryantam dvitiyadi Sabdajah. T.S. dipika, Chap. I.
pacyamane
SrotradeSa-
kadaihbamukulanyayena
va Sabdantarotpattikramena
48. vicitaratiganyayena
Srotre jatasya Srotre sarhbandhat pratyaksasambhavah
T.S. dipika. Chap.
I.
49. orb Siksftrh adhyasyamah. var@ svarah matra balarh sama santfmah ityuktab Siksadhyayah. T.U. 2-2.1 to 32.
50. trisastircatussastirvfi
var@th Sambhumate
mat&h. P.S. 3.
51. vaqMjanayate
tesam vibhagah paiicadha sm@h. svaratah k&latah sthanatprayathanuprada

natah. iti vaqavidah pr&hurnipunarh tannibodhata. P.S.
9.10.
52. tatra saptasvarah. sadjarsabha

hah. B.N.S. 17-100.
53. udattascanudattasca
svaritasca
gandli&unadhya
svarastrayah.
mapaiicamadaivatanisad-
P.S. 11.
54. antodattam adyudattam udattam anudattam nicasvaritam

madhyodattath
svaritarh dyudattath tryudattam iti navapadasamyya.
P.S. 45.
55. Urasah Sirasah kanthatsvarah k%kuh pravartate. abhasanath ca dtirastham
Sirasa samprayojayet. natidure ca kanthe ca urasa ca samipatah B.N.S. 1712.
56. urasod%hItam vakyam Sirasoddipayetbudhah
vacyayogesu sarvada. B.N.S. 17.14.
kanthena
Samanath
kuryat
57. hrasvo dhghah pluta iti kfdato niyama aci. P.S. -11.
58. ekamatro hrasvah. dvimatro dirghah trimatro ~1~1%ucyate.
V.S.K.; 23-V.R.P.S.
59. vyafijanamardhamatra.
1-59 A.P., 1-61.
Y.S.
60. samvIt?ath m&ikam jneyam vivaam tu dvimatrikam. P.S. 20.

_ _ .
_ _.
61. asIau sthanam vaqanam urah kanthah Sirastatha jihvamulam ca dantasca
nasikostau ca tfdu ca. P.S.-13.
62. akuhavisaijaniyanam
kanthah icuyasanam
talu. $trasanam
mtirdhna.
!tulasanam
dantah. upiipadmtiniyanam
osfhau. timnnnanam
nasika ca.
edaitoh kanfhat%lu. odautoh kanthaustham. vakarasya dantogtham. V.S.K.
1-1.9.
yaralava antasthah Sasasaha tism@ah. acah svarah. tatra . . . jihvamuliyopadmaniyau visargah Sagasasceti etesam . . . aghosasca. anyetam tu . . .
ghosasca. V.S.K. 7.2.1.
63. navaqotpadakath
grlvapadmam
sodasasirav$am.
A.Su. 2-30.
310
S. R. SAVITHRI
64. dadhavarqotpadakarh
kanthadesapadmaxh.
65. rephavaqotpadakamosthapadmath
66. kgavaqajfiapakaih
43.
70. prayatno
vacaspatipradesastharh
rasabandhapadmam
dvidha. abhyantaro
71. Myascaturdha
trimlatsirav+h.
tZlludvayapadmamekaikasiravItarh.
69. yavarnajtiapakarh
73. isatspI#unantasthan~.
2-29.
V.S.K.
A.Su. 2-36.
dvisir%vItam. A.Su. 2-34.
b&hyasca. V.S.K.
spa.rS%nti.
A.Su. 2-
A.Su. 2-39.
dvisiraqtam.
1-1.9.
sp~legatsp~taviv~asamv~abhedat.
72. tatra sp@am prayatanath
A.%.
sodasasit%ivImth. A.Su. 2-35.
dantapanktipradesapadmath
67. savarnotpadakarh
68. lavaqajanakam
paiicasat sirfqtam.
V.S.K.
V.S.K.
1-1.9.
1-1.9.
1-1.9.
74. vivItamtismanlm
svarfu$trh ca. V.S.K.
1-1.9.
75. hrasvasyavaqasya
prayoge samv@tir.
V.S.K.
1-1.9.
76. bahyaprayatnastvekftdasadha.
vivlah
sathv&rah Svasanadoghoso
papranomahap.priir;la udattanudatta-svaritasceti.
V.S.K. 7-2.1.
ghosol-
76(a). galabilasya satikocat samv&rah vikasat viv&rah. S.K.

tatra varganti
prathamadvitiyau
viqtakapthau.
M.B.
t$yacaturth@
samqtakag~~.
udyota.
76(b). Svaso ghosapam. 13-4. K.V.P.
itares&@h tu nadah 13-5. R.P.
vivae tu kanthabile Svasonupajayate. A.S.
sarhvI-te galabile vyaktab Sabdah nadah. K.V.P.
1-1.6.
76(c). alpavayau alpapr8nal.r. mahati vayau mahapr@ah. K.V.P. l-1.6., A.S.

vargrTnfuh prathame alpapranah itare sarve mahapranah. S.K.
76(d). yada sa.rvfuiganusFwi prayatnastivrab
bhavati tada gatrasya nigrahab kanthaviv%rasya cfinutvam svarasya ca vayoh tivragatitvat rauksyath bhavati
tamudattamacaksate.
K.V.P. l-l.6
76(e). yada tu mandab prayat@

bhavati tada gatrasya srarhsanam kanlhabilasya mahatvam svarasya vayoh mandagatitvat snigdata bhavati tam anudattamacakgate. K.V.P. 1-1.6.
76(f). udattanudattasvarasannikarsat
svarita ityevarh. K.V.P.
77. dvividha kakuh sf&irhksa niraktikgeti.
1-1.6.
B.N.S. Chap. 15.
78. atha sakamksam mandraditarantarh

aniyuktarthamaniryatitavart@athkaram
kanthorasthanagatam.
nirakamksam
nfima niyuktfutham
niryatitavar@la
k&am Sirasthanagatam mandraditkantamiti.
B.N.S. Chap. 15.
SPEECH
AND HEARING
SCIENCE
IN ANCIENT
INDIA
311
79. ucco nfuna SirasthlnagutastLah

svarah. saca dhtirasthabhasanavismayottarottarasamjalpadrirf&Mnatrasan&thanavadesu.
B.N.S. Chap. 15.
80. mandro
n&ma urahsthanagatah
nirvedagl&nicintau
tsukyarh
dainyavesavyadhigadhaSastraksatamtircamada
disu. lalle ca manmane caiva
bhayarte siitaviplute.
mand&h+
ca kartavya k&kurnatye prayok$bhih.
B.N.S. Chap. 15.
81. dbsfana@nus&rena isfanastas$au tatha. d@rthavyapane
caiva cintagraste
tathaiva ca. unmadesucane caiva upahunbe tathaiva ca. vismayamarsayolcaiva harse ca . . . . vilambita ca dipta ca kftkurmandra ca vai bhavet . B .N . S.
Chap. 15.
82. yfmi sauksmyarthayuktani
sukhabhavr$t&ni
ca. mandravilambita caiva k&kurvidhiyate. y&m syurtiksnarfipftni diptavocca ca tesvapi. B.N.S. Chap. 15.
83. atha v@imah. artha samapto k&yavaSadd+yate
amah. B.N.S. Chap. 15.
84. padavamasamase
pranavaro nava.
Chap. 15.
hi ekadvicaturaksara
vir-
ca drute bahvartha sarhkate. k&ryo vir&nah padante taya

Sesarh arthavasenaiva
vir&marh sarhprayojayet.
B.N.S.
85. vilambite viramopi yada gurvaksarah bhavet. sannti

banarh na vidhiyate. B.N.S. Chap. 15.
k&Muir parato lam-
86. adau vMavik5lrammuvy&khyasyamah

. . . kagthopadvarhsasca
hanustambhasca . . . osthabhedarh . . . miikatvarh . . . ca vaksariga Sea . , . arditarh
ca. C.S. l-20.1.
narankarotyakriyakan
mtikamimninagadgadan.
S.S. 2-1.71.
87. prajfiaparadho
visamastadartha
hetustaiyah
88. grivadaurbalya
Wiksarigau palakenumataviha.
parinamak&lah.
C.S. 4-2.37.
S.S. 5-12.18.
89. Sirasa bhamharanat atihasyaprabhasar$t.

visamadupadhanacca
kathin&nti
ca carvanat. v&yurvi\7;ddastaistaiSca katalairtirdhvamasthitah.
vaktrikaroti
vaktr?irdhamuktarh hasitamiksitarh. tatosya kampate mrirdhna vaksarigah
stabdhanetrata.
dantacalah svarabhrarhsah
sm@hanih ksavagrahah. gandhaj@maxh smr$ermohs trasal~ suptasya jayate. A.S. 3-15-33.35.
98. vatapittaksaye
Slesma strotamsyani
dadhadbhblam.
dh&ima vaksangaiica karoti hi. C.S. 1-17.58.
91. hatvekarh marutah paksarh daksinam vamameva
rujarh vakstambhameva
ca. C.S. 6-28.5.
vs. kuryaccestaniv+h
bhavecca
dtisyodaralirigajustah.
94. atisnehanmedo janayati. tadatisthaulyamapadayati.

prameva avisanti. S.S. 1-15.37.
95. . . . jatharam.
grahanidosah
96. madhuranitya
pramehinarh
mtirhi
dgadavakyam . . . bhav-
92. vaktrajesu kanthosthat&hinIimanyatamasminstairga

ati. S.S. 2-2.24.
93. mtirchavanmanagadgadavagvipanno
5-9.32.
cestapranasarh
staimityarh vagnigrahah.
. . . gadgadatvani
S.S. l-24.5.
mtikarh atisthtilam va. C.S. 4-8.41.
S.S.
ksi-
312
S. R. SAVITHRI
97. bIjatmakarmasaya
k&lado@rmatustad%h&ravih&radosairkurvanti
idhani duslah sathsthanavarr.tendriya vaik@&. C.S. 42.27.
98. tatra sarvesam s%manyata eva dasm laksanam
miihamanusartum.
S.S. 5-4.44.
vaksyamah
do@ vivna . . . v&a-
vitah SosayitvaSirfivallh
. . . kuryaddhanustambham
ba99. pIslamany&itZi
hiray?imasajfiakath. capannayamanasya
pIslat nIyate Sirah ura abhipyate
manya stabdha grlva ca nqdyate. da.nt&nti darhSanath jImbha l%lhravaSca
vaggrahah. C.S. 5-23.43 to 45.
100. jihvanirlekhanatyuca
bhasanadabhighatatah.
kupito hanumulasthah
srathsayitvftnilo ham&. karoti viv@syatva mathava samvIt&syat%rh. hanugrahah
sa tena syatk@ra
ccarvanabhasanam.
M.N. vatavyadhinidana.
49.50.
101. adhijihvah
. . . v&kyZih~avighatak$
Asfariga Satigrahal~ 6-25.35.
102. gr&myanupaudakapiSitani
madhutilagudapayomasamiilakabisairvinidhadhanyaisca naikadha aghat. tanmiikaih ca badhiryandhyavepathujaghavikala

mtikata mainminyamathava
maranamapnoti. C.S. l-26.11 1.
103. avyaktabuddismt$vagvices@
sonmattalil%k@rapraS8ntah.
alasyanidrabhihatomuhusca madyenamattah puntso madena M.N. madatyayanidana
7.
visathjiiah pastime Sete nastakarmakriy&unah
S.S. 6-47.10.
vftgdehamanasfuh
cesfa &ksipyatitalamal%h
sanyasyamtyabalarhjathtum
pranyayatanam&it~.
M.N. mtirchanidatta. 22.
104.
hatva sarhjtiam ca m&rayet. . . jayante
snehavibhramat.
C.S. 1-13.73,
74.
105. .jihvastambhah
satenannapanavz%kyesvanisatL
M.N. vatavyadhinidana.
52.
M.N. vatavy&dhinidana.
30.
A.H. 3-15.31.
106. kapota iva kiijecca nihsamjiiah
sopatantrakal.i.
A.H. 3-15.19.
107. atyuccabhas~avigadhyayanabhighMasamdtisat&
srotassute svaravahegugat@t
sah. S.S. 6-53.7.
108. vatena
prakupita pavanadayah
pratislam hanyussambhavati
capi hi sadvidhah
~snanayan&muwniltravarc~bhinna
aiica. pittena pitavadan&ksipurIsamtitro
tena. S.S. 6-53.8.
Sanairvadati gadgadavat svarbrtiyldgalena

ca vid&hasama&
109. kIcchr&t kaphena
satatath kapharuddakaptho
manda Sanairvadati capi diva
vise&.
sarvatmake bhavati sarvavikftrasampadavyaktata
ca vacasastamasadhyarnahuh. S.S. 6-53.9.
110. dupyeta
v&kgayakIte
kgayamapnuyacca
vagesacapi hatavik parivatjaniYale. antargalath svaryamalakgapadaih
cireqa medasca yadvadati digdhagalausthataluh. S.S. 6-53.10.
111. . . . svarabhedorucih
klamah . . . . yaksma catah pravartate. C.S. 6-8.48.

svarabhedasca jayante sadrftpe r&jayakrjmar$ S.S. 6-41.
svaropaghatasca bhavedasthims\ij&samaSrite.
M.N. kug@nid&na. 30.
313
ksamasvarah
112. v&tadug@Q Sisuh stanyampibanvatagadaturah
syadbaddavinmtihram&rutah.
M.N. BfdarogBdhyBya. 2.
k@igah
khtiatab kathinfmi ca. hasato jbmbhato bh&r113. uccairvytiaratopyarthaxh

advisamacchayanadapi.
Sironasausta cibuka lalateksana sandhigtah. ardayitvanilo vaktramarditam janayantyatah.
S.S. 2-1.63.70.
114. garbhinisiitikabalavfidha
ksinesvas$ksaye.
S.S. 2-1.68.
SiraScalati v%ksatigah ne115. vaktribhavati vaktr&rdharh griva capyapavartate.

tradinti
ca vaiQtam. grivacibukadantanfuh
tasmin pa&e tu vedana. S.S.
2-1.70, 71.
vayunirdham
tvaci svapas116. yasyagrato romahargo vepathurnetramavilatb.
todo madhy&hanugrahah.
tamarditamiti pr&hurvyadhim vyadhivi&radah.
S.S. 2-1.72.
117. kginasy&nimi@ksasya prasakte saktabhisinah.
trivargath vepanasya ca. S. S. 2-1.73.
na sidhyatyarditam
gadham
118. savyapasavyayogena
pratastu vagbhavet.
pravartayedayatnena
sftyath
pibeyuh sarpirartasca
d&has-
jihvam dantagrayorbahih.
vaidyamanorama.
14-23.
119. ayuh prakar@o%mZiSca balavarnasvararthinah.

Pstravisagnibhih. C.S. l-13.40, 41.
krodhasokam
120. vyay&namuccairvacanath
seveta Sayanasanarh. C.S. 1-13.61.
121. katukorasah
26.64.
vaktram
Sodhayati
himatapau.
. . . sphutikaroti
siicakasyaqtasya
122. parugasyatimatrasya
etvegamutthitath.
C.S. l-7.26.
indriyfqi
marmopahasino
%h&mirvatarogipah.
ca
. . . . C.S. l-
ca. vakyasyakalayuktasya
sticakah kalahapriyah.
123. p&pav@tavaca&atvah
paravcddhidvig&h Sath@. C.S. 1-7.34.
snigdhaih
124. svadv&mlalavanaih
C.D. v&avyadhicikitsa.
22.1.
vatjayedapravatarh
dhfiraylubdh@r
sarv&nevopap&Iayet.
125. S.S. 4-4.21 to 24.

. . . mukaminminejaqtagad126. Ch&gal%dyamidarh n&mnfi sarvav&avik&ranut.
gada patigim&h. . . . V .M. 22-74.78. C.D. vatavyadhinidfma.
94, 95.
127. .Nilamamaprado$&a
jayate snehavibramat. tatrayylllekhanarh
Sastam. svedab kfdapratikgauath.
pratipattirvyHdhibalath
buddhyasr&msanameva
ca.
takr&ris$aprayogaSca tTtksap&n&nnasevanath. C.S. 1-13.74, 75.
128. v&grahZmilarogesu gh$amtisopasadhit.
dhiman. C.S. 7-6.51.
dadyat
snehasvedau
ca bud-
129. B.T. 24-45 to 47.

130. C.D. v5tavy&dhi c&its&. 20, 21.
V.M. 22-43-46.
taihxh . . . adyekognarh jalam peyath jagdhv8ghl;tagudaw
131. v&te salavqti
danarh. C.D. svarabhedacikits& 1. 3.
S.
314
132. ksIrannap&nam
dacikitsa. 3.
133. alniyacca
pittenupibet
sarpiratandritah
sasarpiskarh yasfimadhuka
R. SAVITHRI
S.S. 4-53.10. C.D. svarabhe-
payasarh S.S. 4-53.11.
134. kaphe sakglakatukarh

kgaudraih kavala isyate. gale t&hini jihvayti
dantamiilesu cast-&@. tena nigkcsyate Slesma svaraSc&sya prasidati. C.D. svarabheda cikitsa 1, 2.
135. lihyadva madhutailabhyam
bhuktva kh%detkattini ca. S. S. 6-53.13.
136. Sarkaramadhu misrani Srutfutimadhuraih saha. pibet pay&xi

vardatobhihatah svaraI.r C.D. svarabhedacikitsl.
137. nkayanatailam
. . . laIlajihvay&rh ca. C.D. vatavyadhi
138. devad&ru vigam sarpirgomtitrarh kyfhak&rika.

ty&h k%yapah. S.S. visatantra par&stabhaga.
yasyoccair-
c&its& 120-129.
vacaskalanata
32.
hanti pittami-
139. kaqa&ilarh pranadalca badhiryarh ksveda eva ca. kaqasravah

ptitikarqah
tathaiviirsascatuvidhath
tath&rbudam
saptavidham
SothaScapi caturvidhaih. ete karnagatarogah a@vimSatirIritah.
S.S. 6-20.1-3.
140. samIra&
Srotragatonyathacarah
samantatah Stilamativa kaqayoh. karoti
doSaiSca yatha samav$ah sakaqia4tilah kathito durlicarah. S.S. 6-20.4, M.N.
karnaroga nidana. 1.
141. yada tu na disu vim&-gamagatah sa eva Sabdabhivahasu tistati. SInoti Sabd&nvividhanstadha narah pranadamenath kathayanti c&mayam. M.N. karnaroganid&na. 2, S.S. 6-20.5.
142. vayuh pittabhiryukto
venughosopanaihsvanam
M.N. karnaroganidana.
3.
143. sa eva Sabdiibhivahesu

yada Sirah kapharutyatovyanuqtya
tistati tada
narasyapratIk&rasevino
bhavettu badhiryamasam4ayath
khaht. S.S. 620.6,
A.H. 6-10.
144. Srarnat ksayadruksakasayabhojanat
samiraqaI.r Sabdapathe vyavasthitah
tiriktasirsasah ca Sitasevinah karoti hi ksvedamativakamayoh.
S.S. 6-20.7,
M.N. kaqaroganidhana.
4.
145. Sirobhighatadathava
nimaiato jale prap&kadatha vidradhih. sarvettuptiyarh
SravanoniIQ-tah
sa karnasrava iti prakIrtitaI.r. S.S. 6-20.8.
146. kaphena kandii praitena
tam. S.S. 6-20.9.
147. pittosmasositah
karnayorbh@am
Slesma jayate kaqagiitha
bhavetsrotasi
kaqasamdrava-
kah. S.S. 6-20.9.
148. yadagato
vilayito ghr%muru&haih prapadyate.
tada
satijfiito bhavedvikfuah Siraso bhit&par@. S.S. 6-20.10.
sakaqapratini%ha
149. yadatu miirchanyathavapi

jantavah
qjantyapatyanyathavapi
yadanjantvat Sravaqo nirucyate bhisagbhiradyaih kpnikaqmkastu
makWh.
s&.
S.S.
620.11.
150. ksatabhighataprabhavastu
vidradhirbhavettatha
dosakIn@ punah punah sa
raktapitarqamasra
masravetpratoda
dhQmayatanad&hacosavan.
S.S. 620.12.
SPEECH
AND HEARING
SCIENCE
IN ANCIENT
INDIA
151. bhavetprapakah
khalu pittakopato vikothaviklodakarafica

karnayoh. sthite
kaphe Srotasi pittatejasa vilapyamane bhISasampratapana&
S.S. 6-20.13,
A.H. 6-13.
152. avedano
vapyathava
20.13, A.H. 6-13.
153. sa sadvidho
savedano
vedanavisesa
bhavanti.
saptitikaqtakah.
vatapittakaphasonitasannipatagantunimittah.
154. tatra vata Sophorunah

155. pittalophah
ghanam sravetpiiti
bhavanti.
S.S. 1-17.
$sno va paruso rrq;duranavasthitastodadayascatra

S.S. 1-17.
pitomIdu sarakto va SighranusUi

S.S. 1-17.
156. SlesmaSophah
cosadayascatra
vedanavesesa
panduh Sukto va katinah Sitah snigdho mand8nusat-i

vedanavisesa bhavanti. S. S. 1-17.
vadayascatra
157. sarvavaqavedanah
sannipatajah.
158. pittavatchonitajotikgnasca.
159. pittaraktalaksana
S.S. 6-
kapd-
S.S. 1-17.
S.S. 1-17.
aganturlohitavabhasaSca.
160. sa yaksya bahyabhyantaraih
S.S. 1-17.
kriyavisesaima sambhavitah praSamayiturh kridosanfuh tada pakabhimukho bhavati. S.S. 1-17.
yaviparyayadbahulatvadva
161. tatra
mandosmata tvaksavatqata
pasophata clmalaksanamuddistam.
Sitasophata sthairyarh
S.S. 1-17.
mandavedanatal-
162. sucibhiriva
nistudyate dasyata iva pipilikabhistabhisca

sathsp@yata iva chidyata iva Bastrena bhidyata iva Saktibhib tadyata iva dandena pidyata iva
paninaghattayata
iva czltigulya dahyate pacyata iva cagitik@rabhyIunosacosaparidahasca bhavanti v@cikavidda iva ca sthanasanasayanesu
na Sanadhtimatavastirivatasca
Sopho
bhavati
tvagvaivarnyarh
timupaiti,
SophabhivIddhirjvarad%hapip&sabhakt&rucisca
pacyamSlnalitigam.
S.S. l17.
163. vedanopasantih
p?t@utalyasophata valipradur bhfwastvakpariputanath

nimradarsanamatigulyavapidit
apratyunnamanairvastuvivondakasaficaramuh
puyasta
prapidayatvekamantamantovavapiditermuhurmuhustodah
kandtirunnataya ca vyadhetupadravaS%ntirbhakta
bhikabksaca&kalirigath.
kaphajesu tu rogesu garhbhiragatitvadabhighatajesu
va kesucidasamastath
pakvalaksaqam dIstv% pakvamapakvamiti manyama no bhisagmohamupaiti.
yatra hi tvaksavaqatiI
Sita Sophata sthaukhyamalparujataSmavdghanata
na
tatra mohamupeyaditi.
S.S. 1-17.
164. garbhenilat
sarikucita Saskuli kucikaqakah
A.H. 6-16.
165. kaphPsIk;kkInrisambhtitassavisarppannitastatah.
parilehiti.
sasmaah.
M.N. kusfarogadhyaya.
lihetsasaskum.
166. atyugraSabdaSravag?itsravanat
sarvaso naca. Sabdartam catihinanarn

anti Sravan@jadi@. C.S. 4-1.117.
167. samanyam
karqarogesu
brahmacaryamakatthanarh.
lip&lim
21.
ghItap%narh rasayanam.
S.S. 6-21.1.
bhav-
avyr%yamoSirahsnanath
S. R. SAVITHRI
168. ftmnitlai~s@rebhirnfqlisvedah
SDlarh nirasyati.
prayojitah.
kaphavatasamutth&nti
karna-
S.S. 621.5.
169. aSvatthapatrakhallarh
vanidhsiya bahupatrakarh.
tail&kramastusamptirqa&
nidadhyricchravanopari.
yattailarhcyavate tasmat. khalladairg&rasHdhitat. tatpr%ptam Sravagopetah sadyo g6hnati vedanti.
ksemagugguluvagurubhih
saghl-tairddhapayeccatarh.
bhaktopari hitarh sarpavastikarmaca
ptijitam.
S.S. 6-21.7-9.
170. niranno nisi tatsarpih pitvoparipayah
mastiske parisecane. S.S. 6-21.10.
. . . . nasye ca
pibet. mtirddhnavastisu
171. snigdham vat&haraih svedaimararir snehavirecanam

pindasvedaistathaiva
ca. S.S. 6-21.3.
nadisvedairupacaret
172. gavam mtitrena bilv&ni pistva tailam vipacayet. sajalafica sadugdharica badhiryekaqa ptiranarh. sitamadhukavimbobhih
siddharhvajepayasatatha.
siddharir vl bilvanikvathe Sothlbhiitam taruddhIt?am. punah pacedasaksorarh sitlmadhukacandanaih.
bilvarnbugadharh tattailarir badhirye karqaptiranarh.
S.S. 6-21.11-13.
173. SirovirecanSiticaiva dhupanarhpiiramunatha.
sya vlksyavacarayet.
rajavIk;ksldi toyena
39.
174. karnaprak@lanam
kapitthasayojitarh.
pram&janam
surasadiganena
k&yam c0rqairisaiicaptiragarir
S.S. 6-21.40.
dhavanarh ca vlkWI. S.S. 6-21.38,
ctirnapaticakasayottharh
175. ghIstath rastijanarh

n&y@ ksirena ksaudrasamyutarh.
thopisasrave piitikarnake. S.S. 6-21.47.
prasasyate
Sirot-
176. vartakudhtimasca
hitah saqapasneha
eva ca. gugguluh kaqadaurgandhyo
dhtipanarh Srestamucyate. chardanam dhiimap&natica kavadasya ca dhftranarh. S.S. 6-21.49.
177. karnaksvede hitarh tailarh Grgapancaiva ptiranarh. vidradho v&pi km-vita vidradhyuktam cikitsitarh. prakledya dhimamsthailena svedanapravilapya
ca.
Sodhayetkarnarh vitkantu bhisagsamyak Sal&kayl. S.S. 6-21.52, 53.
178. nadisvedotha
vamanarh dhtimomiirddhociricanarh.
sarvah kaqakandtimapohati.
S.S. 6-21.54.
179. atha karnapratinahe snehasvedo prayojayet.
tam samacaret. S.S. 6-21.55.
180. kaqacchidre
vartamanam
vidhisca
tato tiriktasirasah
kitam kledamadadi
kaphaha-
kriyti
prap-
va. S.S. 6-21.57.
181. adau vimlapanam kuryadvitiyamavasecanam

t~iyamupan%hasca
cathurthim pafanakriyam. paficamam Sodhanarh kuryatsastam ropamimisyate. ete
kraml vranasyoktah saptamam vaik@paham. S.S. 1-14.
182. lodayetcogayedbhande
karnap&livivardhanam.
dhanyarasau
V.S.S. 284.
183. abhyantaradirghairkapiliritaralpapalih
opyaharyyah
S.S. 1-16.19.
nivesayet.
saptfUrudrutarh
kapatasandhikah.
iepyarh
apahrubhayat-
317
The editors would like to acknowledge gratefully the help and assistance that Dr. JefTrey Wollack has given to us in the preparation of this
manuscript. We would also like to acknowledge that he has provided
footnote d.

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Speech and Hearing Science in Ancient India-A Review of Sanskrit Literature

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J. COMMUN. DISORD.

SPEECH AND HEARING SCIENCE IN ANCIENT

Address correspondence to S. R. Savithri, Ph.D., Department of Speech Science, All

It was then a great source of medical knowledge. But unfortunately this

SPEECH AND HEARING

Ages ago Hindus employed hypnotism. From India it spread to Chaldea,

SPEECH AND HEARING SCIENCE IN ANCIENT INDIA

The kind of diseases included under this category

1. Due to chemical imbalance in the mother; and

SPEECH AND HEARING

Under this category

1. Disorders arising out of the usual adaptive reactions of the .body;

According to the system of Indian medicine, there are three DOS&Sin

Pitta is thought to be responsible for the following actions: vision,

Speech Normal and Abnormal: A Definition

SPEECH AND HEARING

To summarize, normal speech is not redundant but adequate, and it

Characteristics of Normal, Good, and Excellent Speech

The definition also gives importance to the emotional aspect of a person,

SPEECH AND HEARING SCIENCE IN ANCIENT INDIA

The sudden appearance in the voice of modifications from normal to

Speech Perception. In general, the process of perceiving any sensory

Figure 1. Process of perception.

Figure 2. Process of speech perception.

at some point causes ten sound waves to spring up simultaneously, and

Antodatta: the end of the utterance is high pitched.

SPEECH AND HEARING SCIENCE IN ANCIENT INDIA

Nica-svarita: the utterance is in low-high-low

These are with respect to words.54

to Quantity (Time Taken)

According to the Place of Articulation

The Ayurvedu szitru attributes the production of different sounds to

Table 2. Sanskrit Speech Sounds: Classified on the Basis of Place of

According to Primary Effort (Yatna)

SPEECH AND HEARING SCIENCE IN ANCIENT INDIA

Sp@a: complete contact;

According to Secondary Effort (Anupradiina)

Intonation. This is of two kinds: (1) entailing expectation (sak%iksa)

SPEECH AND HEARING SCIENCE IN ANCIENT INDIA

Pause. A pause is due to the completion of sense and is to depend on

Speech Disorders and Their Causes

Causes of Gadgada (hIiwticulations)

SPEECH AND HEARING

Causes of Svarabheda (Voice Disorders)

SPEECH AND HEARING SCIENCE IN ANCIENT INDIA

This again can be considered under two headings:

of neurological disorders in general;

Treatment of neurological disorders in general: It is advised that sweet

This is a powder that is thought to be beneficial in cases of gadgada and

SPEECH AND HEARING SCIENCE IN, ANCIENT INDIA

Karna@lam (ear ache);

1. Ear Ache. This is caused by the disturbed movement of the air in

8. Obstruction of the Eustachian Tube. The dried accumulation of

SPEECH AND HEARING

IO. Local Abscess. It is caused by a blow or an idiopathic abscess in

or as though a host of ants were wandering over it, or as though it were

Treatment of Itching and Local Abscess. Mustard oil is very useful in

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

SPEECH AND HEARING SCIENCE IN ANCIENT INDIA

Intonation is related to the sentence structure and different types of

may refer to the same concepts as in the voicing studies made by

A Report of the All India Ayurvedic Conference

Allen (1953). Phonetics